Dark matter and dark energy

The dark side of the universe

Anne Ealet
 Lectures
• Lecture I
• Basis of cosmology
• An overview: the density budget and the concordance
model
• Lecture II
• The dark matter
• Lecture III
• The CMB
• Lecture IV
• The dark energy
2
 Some basic references
• The seven papers of Wmap
Bennett et al, Spergel et al. , Verde et al, (2003) etc…
astro-ph/0302207 and 7 following…
• Wayne Hu thesis ’95 astro-ph/9507060
• Wayne Hu, Dodelson, astro-ph/0110414
• Lineweaver astro-ph/9702042
• Tegmark astro-ph/9511148

3
 Lecture III:
1. The origin of the CMB, spectrum, history
2. Balloons, WMAP satellite and maps
3. The CMB power spectrum
4. Understanding main features, esp 1st peak
position
5. Extraction of cosmological parameters
6. Polarization
7. The future
 The Fluctuations

An image of the Universe

at 380,000 years old

The CMB
(Cosmic Microwave Background)

The Structures
 The History of CMB observations

1965 Discovery

Graphic from WMAP website

1992 COBE

2003 WMAP
• Predicted in 1948
G.Gamow

Discover accidently
in 1964 by
Penzias & Wilson

7
The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)

Temperature range 0-4 Kelvin

measured the temperature of the CMB

satellite- all sky
FIRAS: CMB has blackbody spectrum with T=2.728+/-0.004
Kelvin
DMR: temperature measurements with 7o beam
variation amplitude is 30+/-3µK

8
Isotropic 3K background.
The most perfect blackbody
we know

Dipole (3.4 mK).

Our motion relative to CMB

Primordial fluctuations
20 µΚ

9
 The Cosmic Background Explorer
(COBE)

Dipole removed but emission

from galaxy still present

Our rest frame ? CMB rest frame

dipole anisotropy of ~0.1%
Foreground sources
most obviously our own Galaxy

Homogeneous early universe

CMB tells us about nature of universe at time of decoupling
recombination occurs when universe is ~300,000 years old
It is the first picture of the universe….

density uniform to ~1 part in 100,000 fluctuation are 10-5 10

The cosmic microwave background

Perfect black body

At 2.73 K
1964
A perfect black body

cobe
 The frequency spectrum
• Universe in equilibrium -> Black body
• Observe perfect black body at 2.73K
in fact it is the most perfect black body spectrum ever measured in nature,
better than the calibration sources used on COBE,

• the black body is preserved as the Universe

expands and cools.

=> We can deduce the temperature and the size

of the universe at decoupling
13
 Blackbody energy spectrum

Epeak ˜ 2.8kB T

The peak in the

f peak ˜ 2. 8k BT / h hf
distribution k BT

Thus the typical energy of photons is around kBT.

The mean energy (temperature) E ~ 3kBT = 13.6 eV
h is Planck’s constant and kB is the Boltzmann constant. 14
 Universe size and temperature at decoupling
Total energy density:

Boltzmann ρ rad ∝ ε rad ∝ T 4 (integration of previous fonction)

Fluid equation (from first lecture)

 a&  1
ρ& + 3   (ρ + p ) = 0 ρ rad ∝ a −4
⇒T ∝
a a

13.6eV
Tdec = ≈ 3000K
9
3k B ln(10 ) adec = 1 / 1100
and T0 = 2.7 K
(if you ignore the Boltzmann suppression factor we get a much higher temperature
of ~50,000K (fraction of photons with energy exceeding I in the black body distribution) 15
 Universe ….
• Around z ~1100 ( ~ 300 000 ans after the big
bang, T ~ 3000 K), universe was composed of

– neutrinos → gravitational interaction

– photons
– « baryons »
– Dark matter → gravitational interaction

Plasma photons-baryons
Compton diffusion on electrons
Low energy : Thompson cross section

• Universe is homogeneous, isotrope at 10-5

16
 Equilibrium and decoupling
• When the rate of interaction Γ (Compton diffusion) is larger than H-1,
one have thermal equilibrium

• when Γ << H-1, no more equilibrium, the photons can travel →

decoupling
§ Γ = ne σThomson where ne is the number of free electrons (σThomson =
6.65x10-25cm2)

• ne decrease when the temperature is under the ionisation energy of

hydrogen (13.6 eV)

• As there is ~109 photons/electron, atoms stay ionised up to T ~ 0.3

eV (Saha equation)

17
 Recombination and decoupling

• « recombination » is the time when 90% of electrons are combined to

photons mean around T ~ 0.3 eV this is T ~ 3700 K and z ~ 1350

• recombinaison is not instantaneous mean than there is a « surface » of

last diffusion

• decoupling is when photons are free => Γ-1 ~ [ne σThomson]-1 ne→0
[NB: recombinaison ? decoupling ]

18
Can calculate the proportion of particules

19
 After decoupling

• photons are free

• Their distribution on
the sky can be
describe as a
wavelength of scale
k which have an
angular distribution

© F. Bouchet
© F. Bouchet (IAP)

20
 Making a map

COBE satellite:
BOOMERanG balloon:
discovered the fluctuations first of the new generation
21
 BOOMERanG

Mason et al. astroph/0205384

(May 2002)

CBI…

22
The next step ….Balloon

1992

23
 Archeops

Ø link the plateau and the first

accoustic peak & better determine
the later
ØGalaxy: Polarisation

COBE: Balloon
satellite + on-ground
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 Archeops Maps
• First submillimetric maps at 15 arcmin resolution, 30% sky
143 GHz • Pointing reconstruction with stellar sensor (rms < 1.2 arcmin)
2.1 mm

143 GHz
217 GHz
1.4 mm

Lin-Log Scale
353 GHz
0.85 mm
Polarized

217 GHz
545 GHz
0.55 mm
25
25
END of 2002 STatus…
Benoit et al 2003, A & A, 399, L25

Octobre 2002

26
 The WMAP Satellite

Graphic from WMAP website

WMAP=Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
27
Launch June 2001

28
What WMAP saw

29
Graphic from WMAP website
Background……

30
Zooming the colour scale…
1 in 1000 Earth is turning
Give a Doppler effect

31
Graphic from WMAP website
Removing the effect of our motion
through the galaxy

32
Graphic from WMAP website
WMAP:Observations in 5 frequency bands 23 GHz to 90 GHz

33
 We have to look through our own
galaxy

Dust in our galaxy is the most

prominent feature

34
 An image of the Universe
at 380,000 years old!

Map covers whole sky

resolution ~0.2°
good power spectrum to 3rd peak 35
also measuring polarisation Graphics from WMAP website
 Extracting the results…

Raw data maps

Spectrum cosmological parameters

© Hu & Dodelson ARAA 2002

36
 What are the Cl s?
power in each Fourier mode
Spherical harmonics

37
A characteristic scale
exists of ~ 1 degree

38
Graphics from WMAP website
 results

First peak

l µ 1/ angular scale

l=100 => 1°
Characteristic scale
Understanding the peaks

40
3 regimes of CMB power spectrum
Acoustic oscillations

Damping tail

Large scale plateau

 The fluctuations
Recombinaison

radiation-DM equality baryons fall in DM

Cold DM no pressure Structures can start
Can be affected by
gravity

ter
mat ons
CDM rk ary
Radiation Da B
dominated
dominated
Post-
recombination
∆ρ/ρ

Plasma γ-baryon
Interaction
oscillation

Zeq ~ Ωmh2 Zdec ≈1100 R or t

42
 Primary anisotropies

gravitational well Doppler effect Overdensity

• Initial adiabatic conditions: overdensities and

gravitational wells compensate
• Large scale (> horizon) δ(r) ~ - 2 Ψ(r) → give a plateau
names the Sachs-Wolfe plateau
• This 3 mecanisms doesnt change the black body
spectrum 43
The plateau or the Sachs-Wolfe effect
(scale > horizon)
• Gravitational potential wells due to DM
– Follows large scale matter power spectrum
• Photons climb out of potential wells
– gravitational redshift: cold -> deep well
– ∆ ν / ν ~ ∆ T / T ~ ∆ Φ / c2
• Full GR
– factor 2/3 ~ deep wells, it is smaller -> hotter
– ∆ T / T = 1/3 ∆ Φ /c2

Stop when scale enter horizon and matter dominate

44
 anisotropies

45
Graphic by Wayne Hu, http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/beginners/introduction.html
 Oscillations
For scales smaller than the horizon there are oscillations

Mechanism is due to a gravity-pressure equilibrium

between photons and baryons (Jeans mechanism)
This is frozen at decoupling

If the oscillation are in phase, we

expect large peaks, when there is
compensation, peak disappears

We can look at it as a function of a

characteristic physical length scale
Corresponding to k
© Hu

46
Dark matter decoupling
=radiation

47
Baryons wants to go in the wells

eaks Ωb
the p to
r are ted
ighe is rela
ty , h eak
i p
dens even
© Hu a ryon dd -
b
the een o
he r is betw
Hig ratio 48
e
Th
 Increasing Baryon Density

49
Graphic by Wayne Hu, http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/beginners/introduction.html
 First peak and curvature

First peak = angular size

of horizon at the epoch of
recombination = angulaire
distance at last scattering
surface
50
 CMB Curvature of the Universe

• Ω 0 = 1, k= 0 ( flat )
1°
N
(Observer)
• Ω 0 > 1, k = + 1 ( Closed )

• Ω 0 < 1, k = – 1 ( Open )

N 51
 Total density

52
Graphic by Wayne Hu, http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/beginners/introduction.html
secondary anisotropies

53
 Integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect (ISW)
• Photons traveling through
constant potential wells
are not redshifted
• If there is a gradient,
photons are redshifted

• when radiation is
dominating
Early ISW
• when the cosmological
constant or curvature is
dominating
late ISW
© Hu, Sugiyama & Silk 1996
•Boosts power at low l in CTTl
54
 Secondary anisotropies

55
Graphic by Wayne Hu, http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/beginners/introduction.html
 Silk damping (damping tail)
• recombination have an intermediate regime with
Γ ~ H-1
• photons can time to time interact with baryons
with an exponential
• Temperature fluctuations decrease exponentially
on angular scales < 1°

56
Extracting cosmological parameters

57
 WMAP Cosmology

h = 0.72 ± 0.05
Temperature
Obh2 = 0.0226±0.0008
Omh 2 = 0.133 ± 0.006
Ototh 2 = 1.02 ± 0.02
Oνh2 < 0.0076 (95%)
n = 0.99 ± 0.04
age of universe = 13.7 ± first stars born
0.2 Gyr 200 Myr after Temperature
Big Bang
-polarization

(WMAP only)
58
(also uses 2dF and Ly a)
 How to extract cosmological parameters?

Do a complete fit of all parameters together

cosmological parameters h, Ω T, Ω b, Ω m, Ω Λ, w
inflation parameters As, At, ns, nt, ,r=As/At
other parameters: neutrinos fraction fϖ, reionisation τ ….

⇒A lot of degenerencies
⇒Need prior assumptions ( flatness, h)
⇒Help a lot to combine with other data

hep.upenn.edu/.webloc

59
 Degenerencies

h ⇔ Ωm

Need to fixe h (HST key

project), to fixe Ωm

60
spatiale curvature or Λ?
© Hu & Dodelson ARAA 2002

61
 Degenerencies
ΩΛ ⇔ Ωm

62
baryons or dark matter ?
© Hu & Dodelson ARAA 2002

63
Best Current Cosmological Model
(prior: ΛCDM)
assumption needed to extract others.. Ωtot = 1, h is fixed

64
 How much dark matter is there?

Cmbgg OmOl
CMB

65
 How much dark matter is there?

Cmbgg OmOl
CMB
+
LSS

66
 How clumpy is the Universe?
Cmbgg OmOl

67
 How clumpy is the Universe?
Cmbgg OmOl
CMB

68
 How clumpy is the Universe?
Cmbgg OmOl
CMB
+
LSS

69
 Inflation
• Inflation n short period of accelerating, exponential
expansion in the very early universe
• Extremely rapid expansion: by a factor of 1043 in less
than 10-36 seconds
• Should connect cosmology and particle physics
beyond the Standard Model

Solves the Big Bang problems:

– Flatness problem: inflation drives density towards critical density
– Horizon problem: points A and B are causally connected through inflation
– Origin of structure : inflationary quantum fluctuations provide the seeds
for structure formation
70
 No inflation

inflation

71
 Basic principle
• Need a scalar field ..a lot in particle physic …even if never
observed! 1 &2
ρφ = φ + V (φ )
2
Friedmann 1 &2
p φ = φ − V (φ )
8πG  1 & 2  2
H =2
 φ + V (φ )
3 2  V (φ)
&& & dV
φ + 3Hφ = −
dφ

1 φ
&& > 0 ⇔
Inflation => a p < − ρ ⇔ φ& 2 < V (φ )
3
“inflaton”
72
φ should evolute slowly in time
 Testing inflation
• One need to carry perturbation outside the horizon for
causality

• Above 1°, we are looking above the horizon at last

scattering anisotropies cant have been generated after
last scattering

Acoustic oscillations probe potentials just before last

scattering

• Inflationary hypothesis

73
 test initial conditions

Adiabatic: Isocurvature:
Associated to a curvature perturbation Unperturbed geometry:
(gravitational potential):
Associated to a relative-species perturbation:
Perturbation affecting all the cosmological
species such that: δ (nDM / nrad ) ≠ 0
δ ( nDM / nrad ) = 0

Position of acoustic peak sensitive to the initial conditions:

WMAP: adiabatic perturbations

74
 Testing Inflation

• Universe is flat Ωtot = 1.02 +/- 0.02

• No evidence for non-Gaussianity
-58 < f NL < 134
• Fluctuations are adiabatic
• Fluctuations are nearly scale invariant

75
 Testing inflation
Cmbgg OmOl
CMB

76
 Testing inflation
Cmbgg OmOl
CMB
+
LSS

77
POLARIZATION

78
 CMB polarization

Polarization from Thomson

diffusion from temperature
Anisotropies
(cross section depend of angle 79
and of polarization)
 CMB polarization

• Measure polarization angle and mag. at each

point on the sky
• Decompose this into 2 maps: E and B
• E is like contour lines on a map
• B is like water going down a plughole
• Can correlate with non-polarized signal
• possible power spectra: TT, TE, TB, EE, EB,
BB
• Expect TB and EB to be zero due to parity

Scalar perturbations give only E mode

observation of primary B mode would be
the signature of tensor mode.
80
 CMB TE polarization

Reionization peak

Acoustic oscillations

Damping

81
 hu polarization
TT
plot

TE
EE
BB

82
Graphic by Wayne Hu, http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/beginners/introduction.html
 WMAP results

Measures same cosmological parameters as TT. Tests assumptions

Acoustic oscillations

83
From WMAP website
Future

84
 The near future
• Full WMAP data release
– error bars shrink by factor of ~2
– EE results
• Small scale data from ground based
– CBI, VSAE, VSASE, ACBAR
• Polarization experiments
– Boomerang, CBI, Pique, Clover, QUest

85
Launch
in 2007

86
 Planck (~2007-2008)
• MAP is cosmic variance limited for l<?
– so Planck cannot improve here
• beam size ~ ? cf MAP ~?
– max l = ? cf MAP ?

– write the above on a Planck cls plot

87
Graphic by Wayne Hu, http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/beginners/introduction.html
 CTE

COMPARISONS OF PROJECTED C(l) SENSITIVITIES

CEE

88
 Scalar modes
versus
tensors modes
tensoriels

Only tensorial modes contribute to B modes

And tensorial modes are expected from primordial gravity waves
89
 POLARISATION TYPE B

Thèse Riazuelo

CBB

LSS lensing

T E Φ Even with an optimist estimation of the

level of fluctuation, Planck will be
limited by detector noise…
T+ Φ E+ Φ B+ Φ 90
91

F. R. Bouchet, Marseille Conference, 2003/06/23

 Increase sensitivity

COBE

x ? (under study)
x40

x 20
MAP

Courtesy F.Bouchet
Need to increase detector sensitivity
Planck will be near the quantum noise 92
 PLANCK Focal plane

100 mK stage
1.6 K stage

4 K stage

BOLOMETERS
93
18 K plate The HFI is built by a French-lead consortium
 Polarisation experiment..
• The next challenge…

94
ANNEXES

95
96
Multiwavelength Milky Way
At this frequency, most of the
Radio 408MHz emission is from the scattering
of free electrons in interstellar
plasmas (hot, ionized interstellar
gas). Some emission also comes
from electrons accelerated in
strong magnetic fields.

97
Atomic hydrogen

The 21-cm emission traces

the "warm" interstellar
medium, which on a large
scale is organized into
diffuse clouds of gas and
dust that have sizes of up to
hundreds of light years.

98
Infrared

Most of the emission is thermal,

from interstellar dust warmed
by absorbed starlight, including
star-forming regions embedded
in interstellar clouds.

99
 Owing to the strong
optical obscuration by interstellar dust
the light is primarily from stars
within a few thousand light-
years of the Sun, nearby on the
scale of the Milky Way, which
has a diameter on the order of
100,000 light years. Nebulosity
from hot, low-density gas is
widespread in the image. Dark
patches are due to absorbing
dust clouds, which are evident
in the Molecular Hydrogen and
Infrared maps as emission
regions.
100
 Shown is extended soft X-ray emission
X ray from tenuous hot gas. At the lower
energies the cold interstellar gas strongly
absorbs X-rays, and clouds of gas are seen
as shadows against background X-ray
emission. Color variations indicate
variations of the absorption or of the
temperatures of the emitting regions. The
Galactic plane appears blue because only
the highest-energy X-rays can pass
through the large column densities of gas.
The large loop near the center of the
image is the North Polar Spur, an old
supernova remnant. Many of the white
sources are younger, more compact and
more distant supernova remnants.

101
 The map includes all photons with
Gamma ray energies greater than 100 MeV. At these
extreme energies, most of the celestial
gamma rays originate in collisions of
cosmic rays with nuclei in interstellar
clouds, and hence the Milky Way is a
diffuse source of gamma-ray light.
Superimposed on the diffuse light of the
Milky Way are several gamma-ray
pulsars, e.g., the Crab, Geminga, and
Vela pulsars along the Galactic plane on
the right-side of the image. Away from
the plane, many of the sources are
known to be active Galactic nuclei

102
 recombinaison
• reaction p + e → H + γ

with ∆m = 13.6 eV

• x = ne/(np+nH) fraction of free electrons =

Saha equation

n is the fraction of baryons , can be estimated from Ωb

103
 Pressure of plasma

• where cs = ?P/ ?ρ is the speed of sound

• Two solutions depending of a critical value kJ of

k
§ k < kJ perturbations are amplified
§ k > kJ oscillations
§ Jeans wavelength is
104
 Jeans mass
• For small scales (λ << λJ), pressure dominate and density
perturbations oscillate ( acoustic waves) without growing

• At large scales (λ >> λJ), gravitation wins and perturbations are

growing (exponentially or linearly)

λJ is the larger distance of propagation of a pressure fluctuation which

have a velocity cs, during a time tG = [4p Gρ0]-1/2

• The Jeans mass is the mass inside a sphere of diameter λJ

MJ ∝ cs3 ρm / ρ03/2

105
 Equation of Hu & Sugiyama
• Evolution equation (Θ = ∆T/T) can be written (Hu & Sugiyama
(1995) )

Accélération effective
• Ψ ιs the
R=gravitational potential

• Φ (~ -Ψ) is the curvature potential

• The speed of sound is cs = c/v3meff

• It is equivalent to an oscillator

106
 False Vacuum
• During inflation, the Universe is stuck in a state
of false vacuum which decays very slowly
• When it reaches the true vacuum state,
inflation will stop and particles will form

The shallow slope near

the false vacuum
allows the Universe to
keep the energy
density almost
constant as it expands
107
108
 Initial conditions

Adiabatic: Isocurvature:
Associated to a curvature perturbation Unperturbed geometry:
(gravitational potential): δρ = 0 ⇒ ψ in = 0
δρ
ψ in ≈ ≠0
ρ Associated to a relative-species perturbation:

Perturbation affecting all the cosmological δ (nDM / nrad ) ≠ 0

species such that:
δ ( nDM / nrad ) = 0
δρ rad
δρ rad
~ A cos(kcs d h ) ~ B sin( kcs d h )
ρ rad ρ rad
Position of acoustic peak sensitive to the initial conditions:

WMAP: adiabatic perturbations

109
Basic results

© Peacock 2003
110
Probing Physics of Inflation
• CMB data requires
spectral index near 1
and disfavors
significant tensor
contribution

111
Gravity wave amplitude, r What is the Physics of Inflation?

nS

Less More
power Equal power
at small power at at small 112
scales all scales scales
 Reionisation
• A long time after recombination, hydrogen is reionized perhaps with
first stars
• We know that because there is no absorption of the Lyα features in
quasars at z < 6 (Gunn & Peterson) mean than almost all H is
ionised
• Indication of absorption at z> 6

• But WMAP seems to say that there is a reionization at z = 17

find the bug !
113
 Angular power spectrum

© Zaldarriaga 2003

114
 Polarization
• From observations, one usually deduces the Stokes
Parameters Q and U (assuming no circular
polarization V)
• This description is not invariant under rotation of the
coordinate system:

• But the description in terms of the scalar and pseudo-

scalar fields E and B is rotationally invariant
• Four independent power spectra can be measured,
the others being zero by symmetry: 115

CTT, CTE, CEE, CBB

 EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

• MAP & PLANCK both full sky, at L2, with polarization capability, making
highly redundant measurements. Differences:

• Resolution: σBeam ~ 10’ → 5’, σM/σP = 2

• Sensitivity: S = σpixΩpix1/2 = 11.8 µK. deg @ 90GHz → 0.9, 0.8, 1.2 µK.deg
@100, 143, 217GHz,
SM/SP > 10 per channel (mission duration sensitive, ∝ t-1/2)

• Frequency coverage: [30, 44, 70, 90] MAP → [30, 44, 70, 100]LFI + [100,
143, 217, 354, 550, 857] HFI,
a new window in space (and foregrounds control)

• 116
 bolometer sensitivity
2000
Increase each 2
years
1500

1000 NET ( µK v s )

NET =equivalent
500 noise temperature

0
1989 1992 1995 1998

Today detectors are quantum noise limited

117
example (Polarbear)

• Parameter
– 900 pixels @ 150 GHz, 3000
bolometers

• Calendrier (?)
– 2004: 100 channels,
1 SQUID/bolo

– 2006: 3000 channels

multiplexing readout

118