Concrete Blocks: Limits of Application

n Add some water.
Limits of Application
Concrete Blocks
n Raw materials must be locally available, of good quality
and economically viable.
n Relatively large amount of cement is needed, which can
be expensive and difficult to obtain.
n Special knowledge and experience of the production
n In hot climates, the fresh mix must be shaded from the
Technical Data process is needed.
sun.
Building element Wall 2. Moulding:
Raw Material
Size Various sizes n Put the mixture into wooden
Mixing ratio 1 cement : 6-8 aggregate Cement: or steel mould boxes or
Cement used per m3 250 - 300kg n Ordinary Portland Cement moulding machine.
n Special cements
Resistance to earthquakes Very good
Resistance to typhoons Very good Aggregate:
Resistance to rain Very good n Sand or gravel
n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10mm.
Resistance to insects Very good
n Suitable aggregates are usually obtained from natural n Demould blocks immediately
Climatic suitability All climates after compaction.
sources (river beds, gravel pits, volcanic deposits) or
Stage of experience Widely used method from industrial by-processes (granulated blast furnace
Production costs per m2 Rp. 55,000 slag, sintered fly ash).
Durability Approx. 30 years Cement-Aggregate Ratio:

n Suitable proportion of aggregate to cement must be
found by testing
Short Description Advantages n Common ratios are 1:6, 1:8
n Test the quality of blocks produced
Concrete block construction has gained importance and Technical advantages
Water-Cement Ratio: 3. Curing:
has become a valid alternative to fired clay bricks. The Solid blocks:
essential ingredients of concrete are cement, aggregate n Only drinking quality water should be used to mix the n Cover demoulded blocks with plastic sheets for 24hrs.
n High compressive strength, resistance to weathering,
(sand, gravel) and water. Concrete blocks are produced in concrete. n Keep the concrete blocks moist by keeping under water
impact and abrasion
a large variety of shapes and sizes. They can be produced n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5 in tanks or by regularly spraying with water for 7 days.
n Capability of being moulded into components of any
manually or with the help of machines. 4. Storing:
shape and size
Most commonly used concrete blocks are sized: n Good fire resistance up to about 400°C Equipment n Do not expose to direct sun light; keep the blocks in a dry
and covered area.
Length: 40cm (half blocks: 20cm) n Rapid construction n Masonry tools
n Store for 2 weeks before usage.
n Very good stability n Mixers: Pan mixers; Trough mixers
Height: 20cm
Width: 8/10/15/20cm n Blockmaking machine: Hand-operated; “Egg-laying” mo-
Hollow blocks:
bile machines; fully mechanised stationary machines
Skills required
ArCli uses the sizes 14,5 x 29 x 14cm, 14,5 x 14,5 x 14cm n Can be made larger than
(width x length x height) solid blocks Concrete making and masonry skills
n Are lighter in weight
Solid blocks have no cavities, or- according to US stand-
n Construction of walls is Costs for Equipment
ards- have no voids amounting to not more than 25% of the
easy and quick
gross cross-sectional area. n Manual press machine Rp. ####
n The voids can be filled with
steel bars and concrete, n Semi automatic press machine Rp. ####
Hollow blocks are the most common type of concrete
blocks, having one or more holes that are open at both achieving high earthquake n Mould full size block Rp. ####
sides. The total void area can amount to 50% of the gross resistance n Mould half size block Rp. ####
cross-sectional area. n The air space provides n Hand press Rp. ####
good thermal insulation
n The cavities can be used Equipment Supplier
for electrical installation
and plumbing Production Process Parry Associates, UK
Economic advantages www.parryassociates.com
1. Batching and mixing:
n Production can be started n Batch aggregates and ce- TARA Technology and Action, India
with little capital. ment by weight. www.devalt.org/TARA/
n Less working time required n Mix cement and aggregates Appro-Techno, Belgium
for brick laying work with using mattock, shovel or
www.appro-techno.com
concrete blocks. mixer until it reaches homo-
n Less mortar consumption geneous condition. Local suppliers (for hand operated equipment)
n Generally, production costs
of concrete blocks are
slightly lower than of fired
bricks.
Text & Layout by: Skat, Vadianstrasse 42, CH-9000 St.Gallen, Switzerland, phone: +41 71 228 54 54, mail: info@skat.ch, web: www.skat.ch
4. Storing
Equipment
n Do not expose to direct sun light, keep the tiles in a dry
Cement Floor Tile

n Mixers : Pan Mixers, Trough mixers and covered area
n Matras cement tile n Store for 2 weeks before usage
•n Manual moulds
•n Pallet
n Masonry tools
Technical Data
Building element Floor
15 x 15 x 1.4cm (w x l x t)
20 x 20 x 2.0
Sizes in cm 25 x 25 x 2.4 Costs for Equipment
30 x 30 x 2.6
Mixing ratio 1 cement : 5 aggregates n Mechanized equipment sets range up to 5000 USD
Cement used per m3 300 kg n Hand operated equipment is 150 USD
Weight per m³ 2.3 t
Resistance to earthquakes -
Resistance to typhoons -
Resistance to water Very good
Climatic suitability - Production Process Skills Required
Stage of experience Widely used method
1. Batching and mixing n Concrete making and masonry skills
Production costs per m3 Rp. 20,000
Durability Approx. 30 years n Prepare mix for cement tile with the ratios of 1:5 (cement/ n Special training at ArCli is recommended
aggregate) for the body layer, and 1:0.2 (cement/ stone
dust) for the head layer.
Short Description Limits of Application n Add some water
Cement Floor Tiles are used for the finishing of indoor n Raw materials must be locally available of good quality sun
floors. and economically viable
n Relatively large amount of cement is needed which can
They are prefabricated in diverse sizes according to the
be expensive and difficult to obtain
planned design and needs of the customer. They are pro-
duced either through the wet method (wet head tile) or the
process is needed
dry method (dry head tile). The upper layer is made from
portland cement with or without coloring or additives. The n Can be laid only on solid under-structure
bottom layer is made from a strong mixture of cement and
sand (1:5).
Cement Floor Tiles are an excellent value-for-money and a 2. Moulding
good alternative to ceramic tiles n Prepare first the head layer:
Raw Material n Fill the mix into prepared tile moulds up to fixed level to
obtain uniform thickness of first layer
Head Layer Cement
Body Layer n Secondly, prepare the body layer:
n Ordinary Portland Cement
n Fill the prepared mix in stages on top of the first layer
n Special cements and colours until the mould is completely filled
Aggregate n Demould tiles after compaction
n Sieved stone dust 3. Curing

Advantages n Sand (sieved with Ø 5 mm sieve) n Cover demoulded tiles with plastic sheets for 24 hours
n Gravel n Keep the tiles moist by keeping under water in tanks or
Technical advantages
n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10mm by regularly spraying with water for 5 days.
•n Capability of being moulded in different sizes, shapes,
and colours n The ideal aggregate is of hard fine aggregate (passing an
ISO 8mm sieve) by using 8 - 4 - 2 - 1 - 0,500 - 0,250 mm
n Good stability
sieves
n Easy to produce
n Aggregate must be well cleaned
n Easy laying
n Good indoor climate (balanced humidity; cool) Cement – Aggregate Ratio
n Various attractive patterns can be formed •n A test is recommended to select the appropriate mixing
of aggregate and cement
Economic advantages
•n Common ratio is 1:5
n Production can be started with little capital
n Can be massed produced Water-Cement Ratio
•n Equipment to produce tiles can be easily made by local n Only drinking quality water should be used to mix the
workshop concrete
n Can be an attractive business for small-scale enterprise n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.4
Production Process Skills Required
Concrete Beam
n Prepare the cement mix using cement, aggregates, and n Special training is needed
water (cement-aggregates ratio is 1:5) n Engineer has to calculate reinforcement of beams
Equipment Supplier
Technical Data
Building element Beam of slab system No special equipment required
Mixing ratio 1 cement : 4 aggregates

Cement used per m3 460 kg Costs for Equipment
n Prepare formwork by placing it on an even and neat floor No special equipment required
Resistance to typhoons Very good
with 10cm empty spaces in between
Resistance to rain Very good
00
n Place the steel reinforcement and stirrups in the beam

.4
ax
Resistance to insects Very good moulds

m
n Cast the moulds with the mortar to produce the beams

Climatic suitability All climates
n Cover with plastic sheet; keep the beams moist
Stage of experience Experimental
n Let the beams cure for 7 days before demoulding
6
Production costs per m2 Rp. 95,000 - 115,000

per beam n Store the beams for 2 weeks before use
10
Durability Approx. 30 years
Short Description Raw Material

n Prefabricated reinforced concrete beams with integrated Cement:
iron brackets n Ordinary Portland Cement
n Beams are produced for slab system
Aggregate:
n Appropriate dimensions for the reinforcement have to be
calculated according to span length and load n Sand or gravel
n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10mm
Size: 10 x 6 x max. length 400cm
n Suitable aggregates are usually obtained from natural
from industrial by-processes (granulated blast furnace
slag, sintered fly ash)
Advantages Cement-Aggregate Ratio:

Technical advantages found by testing
n High structural strength
n Common ratio is 1:5
n Good fire resistance up to about 400°C
n Rapid construction Water-Cement Ratio:
n Only drinking quality water should be used to mix the
Economic advantages concrete.
n Production can be started with little capital n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5
n Economises on building material, through longer spans
Steel reinforcement:
n Less wood is consumed
n U 24, U 39
Limits of Application Equipment

n Span length is limited to max. 4m n Ordinary masonry equipment: spades pans, sieves, trow-
n Skilled labourers and engineers required els, sand and cement batching boxes, balance, etc.
n Engineer has to calculate reinforcement dimensions and n Testing equipment
details n Shuttering for beam moulds
Equipment Costs for Equipment
Rooster
n Mixers: Pan mixers, Trough mixers n Manual press machine Rp. ####
n Matras Rooster n Semi automatic press machine Rp. ####
n Manual moulds n Block mould Rp. ####
•n Pallet
n Masonry tools
Technical Data
Building element Wall
Size 29 x 14.5 x 14cm Production Process Skills required

(length x width x height)
Mixing ratio 1 cement : 6-8 aggregates 1. Batching and mixing n Concrete making and masonry skills
Cement used per m3 Depends on ratio and pattern n Batch aggregates and cement by weight n Special training at ArCli is recommended
Resistance to earthquakes Very good n Mix cement and aggregates using mattock, shovel or
mixer until it reaches homogeneous condition
n Add some water
Resistance to insects Very good sun
2. Moulding
n Put the mixture into wooden or steel mould boxes or
Production costs Rp. 50,000 mould machine
Durability Approx. 30 years n Demould blocks immediately after compaction.
3. Curing
Short Description Limits of Application n Cover demoulded blocks with plastic sheets for 24 hours
n Keep the concrete blocks moist by keeping under water
Ventilation Blocks (also known as Rooster) are widely used n Can not be used as load bearing elements in tanks or by regularly spraying with water for 7 days
in walls (external and internal) to maintain necessary air n Raw materials must be locally available of good quality
circulation within buildings and screens. They can be also and economically viable 4. Storing
used for toilet parapets and fencing walls. n Relative large amount of cement is needed which can be n Do not expose to direct sun light keep the blocks in a dry
expensive and difficult to obtain and covered area
The empty spaces within
n Special knowledge and experience of the production n Store for 2 weeks before usage
the ventilation block can
be designed according process is needed
to the required volume
of fresh air circulation.
Raw Material
Cement
Advantages •n Ordinary Portland Cement

•n Special cements
Technical Advantages
n Capability of being moulded into components of any Aggregates
shape and size n Sand and gravel
n Can have same size as concrete blocks n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10 mm
n Good stability, resistance to weathering, impact and
abraison
n Easy to produce from industrial by-processes (granulated blast furnace
n Can be easily built into walls slag, sintered fly ash)
n More durable than window shutters
Cement – Aggregate Ratio
Economic Advantages •n Suitable proportion of aggregate to cement must be
n Production can be started with little capital found by testing
n Can be massed produced n Common ratio is 1: 5
n Equipment to produce rooster can be easily made by lo-
cal workshop Water-Cement Ratio
n Production of roosters can be easily combined with con- n Only drinking quality water should be used to mix the
crete blocks concrete
n Can be an attractive business for small-scale enterprise n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5
Curved Concrete Tile

n Prepare the cement mix using cement, aggregates, and n Special training is needed
water (cement-aggregates ratio is 1:4) n Engineer has to calculate reinforcement of beams
Equipment Supplier
Technical Data
Building element Tile of slab system ArCli, Banda Aceh

Cement used per m3 460 kg Costs for Equipment
Tile production equipment incl. 100 tile moulds:
n Apply cement on vibrating table and make it plane
Resistance to typhoons Very good Rp. 15,000,000
n Apply and align the wet concrete tile on mould
n Let the freshly cast moulds dry for 24hrs to attain a mini-
Resistance to insects Very good mum strength
Climatic suitability All climates n Demould the curved tiles
n Stack the tiles and cure them in water for minimum of 7
Stage of experience Experimental
days
2
Production costs per m Rp. 4,000- 5,000 per tile

n Curved concrete tiles are prefabricated and used in Slab Cement:
Systems n Ordinary Portland Cement
n Tiles are manufactured using high strength concrete
made of an optimised mix of cement, aggregate and Aggregate:
water n Sand or gravel
Size: 30 x 60 x 2cm n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10mm

Cement-Aggregate Ratio:
found by testing
Water-Cement Ratio:
concrete.
Advantages n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5
Technical advantages Steel reinforcement:

n High structural strength n U 24, U 39
n No shuttering required
n Rapid construction
Economic advantages
n Production can be started with little capital Equipment
n Less wood is consumed
n Ordinary masonry equipment: spades pans, sieves, trow-
els, sand and cement batching boxes, balance, etc.
n Screeding machine: includes a vibrating surface and a
hinged frame (MCR vibrating table)
n Skilled labourers required n Testing equipment
Architecture Clinic Equipment Surface Treatment
MCR
n Ordinary masonry equipment: spades pans, wheelbar- n Painting of tiles with elastomeric or rubberised paints for
rows, sieves, trowels, sand and cement batching boxes, a durable fungus-resistant top coat.
Micro Concrete Roof balance, etc.
n Fungicidal washes such as sodium silicate, copper sul-
n Screeding machine: includes a vibrating surface and a phate or even household bleaching.
hinged frame.
n Painting needs to be re-applied after some years.
Technical Data n Setting moulds: made of impact-resistant PVC or fibre
Building element Roof glass, with rib markings (for accurate positioning of the
tile edge) and supporting frame for stacking.
Size 25 x 50 x 1.0 cm
Mixing ratio 1 Cement : 2-3 Aggregates n Testing equipment
Installation of MCR
Cement used per m² 5-7 kg
n MCR tiles are fixed well to the substructure in order not to
Weight per m² 37 kg
be torn off by typhoon or earthquake.
Resistance to earthquakes Good Production Process
n MCR tiles are laid on timber laths or steel angles (spaced
Resistance to typhoons Satisfactory
1. Prepare the aggregates (sand, gravel) in ratio 1:2 at 40 cm).
Resistance to rain Good
2. Mix cement and aggregates by using shovel, hoe or me- n Fixed with wire loops, nailed or tied onto the timber laths
Resistance to insects Good
chanic mixer. Then add sufficient water. or steel angles.
3. Put the wet mix onto the polythene interface sheet on the
Stage of experience Mature technology
screeding machine and, under vibration, smooth with a
Production costs per m² Rp. 26,000 trowel to the same level as the surrounding steel frame.
Durability 15-20 years
Short Description Limits of Application

Micro Concrete Roofing (MCR) is a roofing technology de- n MCR tiles are used for sloping roofs with minimum incli-
veloped 20 years ago. It consists of concrete tiles made of nation of 20°; (25° in regions with tropical heavy rains or
a cement mortar mix. MCR tiles are produced on a small typhoons)
vibrating table, which can be operated by a single trained n Good quality raw materials are necessary to produce
worker. MCR allows for decentralised and small-scale pro- high quality MCR tiles.
duction.
n An MCR rooftop can not function as an area for gather- Skills required
Dimension and shape: ings, drying of cloth or placing aerial antennas, etc.
Training from well-qualified and experienced resource
n In areas where there is no tradition in the use of concrete
persons is a must before an MCR production unit is estab-
roof tiles, extra efforts to boost the product in the market
4. Lift off the steel frame from the screeding surface. Pull a lished
are necessary.
polythene sheet over the PVC setting mould.
n If MCR tiles are not painted, fungal and algal growth is
common in tropical humid climates.
n The manufactory of MCR tiles should be located closely Equipment Supplier
to the reseller’s market (not more than 100 km) in order
to reduce handling and transportation cost. Parry Associates, UK
n Special training is required. www.parryassociates.com
Eco Sur, Ecuador

ecosur@ecosur.org
TARA Technology and Action, India

Advantages Raw Material
www.devalt.org/TARA/
Technical Advantages Cement: Ordinary Portland Cement; Cement/aggregate
Appro-Techno, Belgium
n Good stability and durability, if properly manufactured ratio is 1:3
www.appro-techno.com
and installed.
Aggregates consist of:
n MCR tiles are easy to handle.
n In hot climates, houses covered with MCR remain cooler Sand: Angular particles and good grain size distribution be-
compared to metal sheet roofs. tween 0.06 and 2 mm (33%); free from silt and clay. 5. Place the mould with the fresh tile on a stack of moulds
n MCR tiles are lighter than pressed concrete tiles. for initial setting and curing for 24 hours.
Costs for Equipment
Gravel: Mix of grain sizes: 2-4 mm (33%), 4-6 mm (33%);
n MCR tiles are more environmental friendly produced and 6. Demould tiles afterwards and let them cure for 2 weeks in Vibrating screeding machine, 200 moulds, and accessory
Sand/gravel ratio is 1:2
recycled compared to metal sheet roofs. water tanks. pack: Rp. 15,000,000
n MCR can be produced in many different colours. Water: Good quality water (drinkable water); water/cement
ratio is 0.5-0.65 by weight
Economic Advantages
n Locally produced and low-cost Admixtures: Waterproofers are used, if the sand is not
n Labour-intensive well graded, and colorants, if the grey cement colour is not
n Only little investment is needed desired.
4. Storing:
Production Process
n Do not expose to direct sun light; keep the blocks in a dry
Paving Blocks
1. Batching and mixing: and covered area
n Batch aggregates and cement by weight n Store for 2 weeks before usage
n Mix cement and aggregates using mattock, shovel or
Technical Data
Skills Required
Building element Yards, sidewalks
Size Various sizes n Concrete making and masonry skills
Mixing ratio 1 cement : 8-10 aggregate n Semi-skilled labour
Cement used per m3 250-300kg

Resistance to typhoons Very good n Add some water
Costs for Equipment
n Manual press machine Rp. ####
n Semi automatic press machine Rp. ####
n Mould Rp. ####
Production costs per m2 Rp. 50,000
n In hot climates, the fresh mix must be shaded from the Equipment Supplier
sun
Short Description Raw Material Parry Associates, UK
2. Moulding: www.parryassociates.com
Paving blocks are prefabricated in many shapes and sizes. Cement:
They are made of cement, aggregates and water. n Ordinary Portland Cement n Put the mixture into wooden or steel mould boxes or TARA Technology and Action, India
moulding machine www.devalt.org/TARA/
They can be used for home yard floors, sidewalks or roads
Aggregate: n Demould blocks immediately after compaction
because of their high resistance to rain and heavy weather. Appro-Techno, Belgium
n Sand and gravel
3. Curing: www.appro-techno.com
Size and shape are variable. n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10mm
n Cover demoulded blocks with plastic sheets for 24hrs Local suppliers
sources (river beds, gravel pits, volcanic deposits) or n Keep the concrete blocks moist by keeping under water
from industrial by-processes (granulated blast furnace in tanks or by regularly spraying with water for 7 days
Advantages
n Easy to produce
n Common ratios are 1:8, 1:10
impact and abrasion n Test the quality of blocks produced
shape and size Water-Cement Ratio:
n Rapid laying
concrete.
n Very good stability
n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.35 - 0.45
Economic advantages
n Production can be started with little capital.
n Time and cost efficient to produce
n Time and cost efficient to install Equipment Blocks cured in water tank
n Masonry tools
n Mixers: Pan mixers; Trough mixers
n Moulding machine
n Relatively large quantity of raw material is needed
n Moulds
n If paved area is used for vehicles, special preparation of
the ground is needed
Equipment Skills Required
Beam Block
n Blockmaking equipment n Concrete making and masonry skills
n Masonry tools n Special training at ArCli is recommended
n Manual moulds
Production Process Costs for Equipment

Technical Data
Building element Wall 1. Batching and mixing: n Manual press machine Rp. ####
14,5 x 29 x 14cm n Batch aggregates and cement by weight n Semi automatic press machine Rp. ####
Size
(width x length x height) n Mould beam block Rp. ####
Mixing ratio 1 cement : 6-8 aggregates mixer until it reaches homogeneous condition
Cement used per m3 250-300kg
Resistance to earthquakes Very good Equipment Supplier
Resistance to typhoons Very good Parry Associates, UK
Resistance to rain Very good www.parryassociates.com
Climatic suitability All climates www.devalt.org/TARA/
ArCli, Banda Aceh
Production costs per m Rp. 7,500
Durability Approx. 30 years n Add some water Local suppliers

Beam Blocks (u-shaped) are used for reinforced ground n Raw materials must be locally available, of good quality
beams, lintels, and ring beams. The usage of Frame Block and economically viable
minimises wood consumption because formwork is no more n Relatively large amount of cement is needed, which can
necessary. be expensive and difficult to obtain
process is needed
sun
2. Moulding:
Raw Material n Put the mixture into wooden or steel mould boxes or
moulding machine
Cement: n Demould blocks immediately after compaction
3. Curing:
Aggregates:
Advantages
n Cover demoulded blocks with plastic sheets for 24hrs
n Sand and gravel
Technical Advantages n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10mm n Keep the concrete blocks moist by keeping under water
in tanks or by regularly spraying with water for 7 days
n Very good stability n Suitable aggregates are usually obtained from natural
n For strong and light walls sources (river beds, gravel pits, volcanic deposits) or
from industrial by-processes (granulated blast furnace 4. Storing:
slag, sintered fly ash) n Do not expose to direct sun light; keep the blocks in a dry
n Voids can be filled with steel bars and concrete and covered area
n Are lighter in weight than solid blocks n Store for 2 weeks before usage
n The cavity provides good thermal insulation
found by testing
Economic Advantages n Common ratios are 1:6, 1:8
Water-Cement Ratio:
n Less working time required for brick laying work with
concrete blocks
concrete
n Less mortar consumption
n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5
n Generally, production costs of Frame blocks are slightly
lower than of fired bricks
Production Process
1. Batching and mixing:
Concrete Door & Window Frames n Batch aggregates and cement by weight
Technical Data
Building element Door and window frame
Size Various sizes
Cement used per m3 460 kg
n Add some water
Resistance to insects Very good Equipment Supplier
Stage of experience Commonly used www.devalt.org/TARA/
Production costs Please fill in!
bmtpc, India
Durability 50 years
www.bmtpc.org/machines/CC-1.htm
sun Local suppliers
2. Moulding:
Concrete doors and windows frames are an attractive alter- Cement: n Put the mixture into moulds
native to wooden frames where there is scarce wood. And it n Ordinary Portland Cement
Costs for Equipment
n Let dry for min. 7 days
can help to save wood and therefore to protect natural forest
n Special cements n Frame mould: 50-100 USD
resources. n Demould frames
Optional:
Aggregate: 3. Curing:
n Frame Moulding machine: ca. 1,000 USD
Advantages n Sand and gravel, max. particle size of coarser aggre- n Keep the concrete frames moist by keeping under water
gates is 6mm n Mixer machine: ca. 1,200 USD
in tanks or by regularly spraying with water for 7 days
Technical Advantages n Suitable aggregates are usually obtained from natural
n Good weather resistance sources (river beds, gravel pits, volcanic deposits) or 4. Storing:
from industrial by-processes (granulated blast furnace n Do not expose to direct sun light; keep the frames in a dry
n High structural strength
slag, sintered fly ash) and covered area
Skills Required
n Fast construction
Cement-Aggregate Ratio: n Store for 2 weeks before use Special training is needed
n Easy installation
n Flexible in use n Suitable proportion of aggregate to cement must be
found by testing
n Frames can be adjusted to the building design
n Easy maintenance
n Good fire resistance up to 500°C Water-Cement Ratio:
Economic Advantages concrete.
n Savings in working time through fast construction
n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.45
n Cost-efficient and durable compared to wooden frames
n Steel reinforcement
(up to 50% saving)
Limits of Application Equipment

n Raw materials must be locally available, of good quality n Masonry tools
and economically viable n Mixers: Pan mixers; Trough mixers
n Frame moulds
process is needed
n Formwork/moulds must be accurate and of very good
quality, preferably made of steel
n Regular quality control is a must
n Fixing of hinges and locks require special skills
n Doors and window shutters must match with frames
Curing of the blocks:
Production Process
n Stack the CEBs
CEB Compressed Earth Block

Preparation of the soil:
n Select soil with good grain size distribution and good
cohesive performances
Technical Data
Building element Wall
Size Various sizes
Mixing ratio Cement/soil 1:5-10
Weight per m3 1,7-2,2t n Keep the CEBs moist
n Pulverise the raw material and sieve out clay lumps, n Cure for 4 weeks
Resistance to earthquakes Good
gravel and stones
Resistance to typhoons Good n A hot and humid atmosphere gives best results
Resistance to rain Good n Do not expose to sun and rain
Climatic suitability Suitable for all climates, Equipment Supplier

except very wet climates
Stage of experience Used in many countries Development Alternatives, Delhi- India
Production costs per m3 Please fill in! Email: tara@devalt.org
Durability 50 years n Mix the prepared soil with the stabiliser
Auroville Earth Institute
Auroshilpam, Auroville- India
Email: earth-institute@auroville.org.in
Economic Advantages
Short Description Parry Associates, UK
n Lower production cost and energy input compared with
fired bricks www.parryassociates.com
To produce Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB), soil (raw or
stabilised) is slightly moistened, poured into a steel press, n Locally produced (less transportation costs) Fernco Metal Products
and then compressed. n Flexible production size unit (from small scale workshop Email: fernco@ferncometal.com
n Moisten the mix with water
to large scale plant)
The usage of stabilisers allows building higher and thinner
n Labour intensive. Creates jobs.
walls, which have a much better compressive strength and
water resistance. n Saves on wood consumption. No wood is required. Costs for Equipment
n Profitable business if well managed
Various sizes and shapes can be produced. n Hand operated press machine costs ca. 900-1,200 USD
n Air/hydraulically operated press is ca. 1,800 USD
A common size of CEBs in Indonesia is 22x10x8cm.
n Lack of good soil
Compression of the mixture: Skills required
n Lack of good equipment
n Pour into a steel press Special training is needed
n Cannot be used for big loads or in high rise buildings
n Cannot be used underwater or in continuously wet condi-
tions
Advantages Raw Material

n Environmental-friendly technology n Suitable soil with a good grain size distribution and a clay
content of 10-25%
n Stabiliser (cement, lime)
n Compress manually or motorised
n Waterproofing agents are optional
Equipment
n Block press (manually or mo-
torised operated)
n Masonry tools (sieve, crusher,
Technical Advantages wheelbarrows, mixer, basic
n Good stability and strength tools, PVC sheets, etc.)
n Thermal insulation n Quality control devices
n Very regular in size and shape
n CEBs can be produced in various shapes and sizes.
n Easy transportation of dried blocks
Equipment Skills Required
Well Ring
n Mixers: Pan Mixers, n Concrete making and masonry skills
Trough mixers
n Manual moulds
•n Masonry tools
n Steel formwork
Technical Data Equipment Supplier
Building element Well Ring
n Steel or wooden formwork can be produced locally
Size Variable
Weight per unit 125 kg (size: 90 x 30cm)
Cement used per m3 300 kg
Resistance to typhoons Very good Production Process Costs for Equipment
Resistance to water Very good
1. Batching and mixing •n Steel formwork: Rp. #####
n Batch aggregates and cement by weight n Wooden formwork: Rp. #####
Stage of experience Widely used method mixer until it reaches homogeneous condition
Production costs per unit Rp. 80,000

Well ring units are used to build wells, water tanks, latrines, n Not recommended for overhead water tanks
and culverts. n Raw materials must be locally available of good quality
and economically viable n Add some water
Ring wells can be also used as supporting rings during the
building of foundations. Well rings hold the surrounding soil n Special formwork of steel or wood is required
and prevent it from collapsing during the casting of founda-
tions.
Well rings can be produced in many sizes and shapes. The
most common size is:
Outer Diameter: 90 cm
Raw Material
Inboard Diameter: 80 cm
Height: 35 cm
Cement
n Ordinary Portland Cement sun
Aggregates 2. Moulding
n Sand and gravel n Put the mixture into wooden or steel mould (round tun
n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10 mm shaped)
n Suitable aggregates are usually obtained from natural n Let dry for min. 7 days
sources (river beds, gravel pits, volcanic deposits) or n Demould well rings
Advantages slag, sintered fly ash) 3. Curing
Technical Advantages n Keep the well rings moist by keeping under water in large
Cement – Aggregate Ratio
•n Can be produced in various shapes and sizes tanks or by regularly spraying with water for 7 days.
n Proportion of aggregate to cement can be optimized
n High compressive strength through testing 4. Storing
n Resistance to soil acids, impact and abrasion n Common ratio is 1: 8 (cement: aggregates) n Do not expose to direct sun light and rain
n Very good stability n Store for 2 weeks before usage
Water-Cement Ratio
n Easy to produce
•n Only drinking quality water should be used to mix the
n Rapid construction concrete
Economic Advantages n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5
•n Can be mass produced
n Is an attractive business for small-scale enterprises
Production Process
n Prepare foundation trenches in the soil (min. depth
Rubble Stone Masonry Foundation 40cm)

n Apply a layer of lean concrete (min. 5cm) or tramped
sand
n Mount carefully the stones in required width and height
Technical Data n Keep joints as narrow as possible
Building element Foundation n Fill all cavities well with mortar
Width: 30-40cm n Refill foundation trenches
Size
Heigth: 80-150cm n Compact the refilling
Mixing ratio -
Cement used per m3 -
Weight per m3 -
Resistance to earthquakes Good Skills Required
Resistance to typhoons Good n Masonry skills
Resistance to rain Good n Semi-skilled labour
Stage of experience Widely used
Production costs per m3 Rp. 500,000 Costs for Equipment
Durability 50 years No special equipment required

Equipment Supplier
Stone foundations are made of rubble stone. A similar n Construction should start on firm, uniform, and strong
construction is possible with concrete from demolished subsoil No special equipment required
buildings. n Do not construct on grass, black fertile soil, filled up ma-
terials, or mud
The quality of mortar is of high importance to achieve good
n In earthquake areas, reinforcement with wire mesh or
strength.
steel rods is required; professional advice should be
Suitable size of stones is 10-25cm. sought
Raw Material
Stone:
n Cleaned rubble stone stone, or concrete pieces
Mortar:
n Made of cement, sand, and water
n The recommended ratio for cement/sand is 1:4
n The recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5
Advantages Equipment
Technical advantages n Ordinary masonry tools
n Good stability
n Long lasting
n Raw materials are locally available and easy to trans-
port
n Easy to be processed by semi-skilled labourers
Economic advantages
n Cost efficient to construct
n Generally, material costs are lower than of concrete foun-
dations
n Processing can be started with little capital
Water-Cement Ratio: 3. Curing:
n Only drinking quality water should be used to mix the n Cover demoulded footings with plastic sheets for 24hrs
concrete. n Keep the concrete footings moist by keeping under water
Prefabricated Concrete Footings n Recommended water-cement ratio is 0.5
Reinforcement
in large tanks or by regularly spraying with water for 7
days
n Steel bars of 12-16mm diameter, as per engineer’s cal- 4. Storing:

culation n Do not expose to direct sun light; keep the footings in a
Technical Data dry and covered area
Building element Foundation n Store for 2 weeks before use
Size As per engineer’s calculation Equipment
n Ordinary masonry equipment: spades pans, sieves, trow-
Cement used per m3 Equivalent to P 350 (in CH) Costs for Equipment
els, sand and cement batching boxes, balance, etc.
Weight per m3 2,3 t n Mixers: Pan mixers; Trough mixers Has to be requested from ArCli, Banda Aceh
Resistance to earthquakes Very good n Moulds
Resistance to typhoons Very good n Reinforced concrete making equipment (spacers, steel
Resistance to rain Very good cutter)
Equipment Supplier
Resistance to insects Very good n Lifting equipment No special equipment needed
Stage of experience Commonly used
Production costs per m3 Please fill in!
Durability Approx. 50 years 1. Batching and mixing: n Concrete making and masonry skills
n Batch aggregates and cement by weight n Skilled labour

Prefabricated concrete footings are a solid and durable al- n Size and required reinforcement should be calculated by
ternative to rubble stone masonry foundations. an engineer
n Raw materials must be locally available, of good quality
Concrete footings have a very good resistance to earth-
and economically viable.
quakes and can be used in various types of grounds and
n Special knowledge and experience of the production and
soils.
installation process is needed.
n The bottom of foundation has to be well prepared with a n Prepare the cement mix using cement, aggregates, and
soling and neat for the placement of the footings water
sun
2. Moulding:
n Prepare molds/formwork Vertical section
n Place the steel bars and necessary brackets in the
moulds
Advantages
impact and abrasion
n Lifting equipment is required
shape and size according to the type and pressure of the n Fill the cement mix into prepared moulds
planned building, and the type of soil Raw Material n Demould footings immediately after compaction Horizontal section
Cement:
n Very good stability
n Long lasting n Special cements
Economic advantages Aggregate:

n Production can be started with little capital n Sand and gravel
n Time and cost efficient to produce Cement-Aggregate Ratio:

n Time and cost efficient to install n Suitable proportion of aggregate to cement must be
n In good soils and non-earthquake zones, footings can be found by testing
made without reinforcement n Common ratio is 1:4
Architecture Clinic Production Process Skills Required
Wooden Roof Truss

Wooden roof trusses can be prefabricated or in situ as- Good carpentry skills
sembled.
n Prepare a template by drawing the dimensions of the
truss on a flat surface Costs for Equipment
n Cut the truss members and assemble them according to
Technical Data the template No special equipment required
Building element Roof structure n Prepare template for the nail fixing at the ends of the
truss pieces
Size -
n Connect the timber pieces using nails, bolts or plates Equipment Supplier
Mixing ratio -
Cement used per m3 - Local suppliers
Weight per m3 - Installation
Resistance to earthquakes Good
Resistance to typhoons Good n Trusses must be fixed properly to the supporting ring
beam or column
Resistance to rain -
n Wooden roof trusses need a carefully fixed bracing
Resistance to insects Needs protection treatment against wind forces
Climatic suitability All climates n Distance between the trusses depends on size of purlin
Stage of experience Commonly used and weight of roofing materials
Production costs per m3 Please fill in!
Durability 50 years
Economic advantages
Short Description
n Economic use of timber
The wooden roof truss system is used as roof sub-construc- n Mass production of trusses economises in production
tion. Different types of roof coverings can be combined with costs
it. n Advantage in transport and assembly compared to con-
ventional roof structures
The wooden roof truss is a structure with straight members
forming triangles to support a load. The pieces of the trian- n Relatively small profiles required
gles are placed under tension and compression, but must
not bend.
Roof trusses can be made for flat, single and double pitched
roofs. Limits of Application
Joints of wooden roof trusses can be made with nails, bolts n Requires Engineer’s calculation or use of Roof Truss
or plate connectors Guide
Spans of nail trusses can vary from 6- 20m. n Timber must have good resistance against rot, insects
and fungal attack
n Timber must be protected fully against weather impacts
Raw Material
n Timber of good quality and well dried
n Nails (min. tensile strength 600 N/mm²) or screws, or
bolts
n Plate connectors
Advantages Equipment
Technical advantages n Carpenters tools
n Good stability
n Light weighted
n Suitable for construction in remote areas and at sites
without lifting equipment. Can be handled manually.

Concrete Blocks: Limits of Application

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n Add some water.

Durability Approx. 30 years Cement-Aggregate Ratio:

Cement Floor Tile

n Sieved stone dust 3. Curing

Mixing ratio 1 cement : 4 aggregates

n Place the steel reinforcement and stirrups in the beam

Resistance to insects Very good moulds

n Cast the moulds with the mortar to produce the beams

Production costs per m2 Rp. 95,000 - 115,000

Short Description Raw Material

Advantages Cement-Aggregate Ratio:

Limits of Application Equipment

Size 29 x 14.5 x 14cm Production Process Skills required

Advantages •n Ordinary Portland Cement

Curved Concrete Tile

Mixing ratio 1 cement : 4 aggregates

Short Description Raw Material

Size: 30 x 60 x 2cm n Max. particle size of coarser aggregates is 10mm

Technical advantages Steel reinforcement:

Short Description Limits of Application

Eco Sur, Ecuador

TARA Technology and Action, India

Mixing ratio 1 cement : 8-10 aggregate n Semi-skilled labour

Cement used per m3 250-300kg

Production Process Costs for Equipment

Short Description Limits of Application

Limits of Application Equipment

CEB Compressed Earth Block

Resistance to rain Good n Do not expose to sun and rain

Resistance to insects Good

Climatic suitability Suitable for all climates, Equipment Supplier

Advantages Raw Material

Short Description Limits of Application

Rubble Stone Masonry Foundation 40cm)

Short Description Limits of Application

n Steel bars of 12-16mm diameter, as per engineer’s cal- 4. Storing:

Short Description Limits of Application

Economic advantages Aggregate:

n Time and cost efficient to produce Cement-Aggregate Ratio:

Wooden Roof Truss

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