History of computers: A brief timeline

By Timothy Williamson published December 01, 2021

The history of computers began with primitive designs in the early 19th century and went on to change
the world during the 20th century.

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History of computers: Apple I computer 1976

(Image credit: Getty / Science & Society Picture Library)

The history of computers goes back over 200 years. At first theorized by mathematicians and
entrepreneurs, during the 19th century mechanical calculating machines were designed and built to
solve the increasingly complex number-crunching challenges. The advancement of technology enabled
ever more-complex computers by the early 20th century, and computers became larger and more
powerful.

Today, computers are almost unrecognizable from designs of the 19th century, such as Charles
Babbage's Analytical Engine — or even from the huge computers of the 20th century that occupied
whole rooms, such as the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator.

Here's a brief history of computers, from their primitive number-crunching origins to the powerful
modern-day machines that surf the Internet, run games and stream multimedia.

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19TH CENTURY

1801: Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French merchant and inventor invents a loom that uses punched
wooden cards to automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards.
1821: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine that
would be able to compute tables of numbers. Funded by the British government, the project, called the
"Difference Engine" fails due to the lack of technology at the time, according to the University of
Minnesota(opens in new tab).

1848: Ada Lovelace, an English mathematician and the daughter of poet Lord Byron, writes the world's
first computer program. According to Anna Siffert, a professor of theoretical mathematics at the
University of Münster in Germany, Lovelace writes the first program while translating a paper on
Babbage's Analytical Engine from French into English. "She also provides her own comments on the text.
Her annotations, simply called "notes," turn out to be three times as long as the actual transcript,"
Siffert wrote in an article for The Max Planck Society(opens in new tab). "Lovelace also adds a step-by-
step description for computation of Bernoulli numbers with Babbage's machine — basically an algorithm
— which, in effect, makes her the world's first computer programmer." Bernoulli numbers are a
sequence of rational numbers often used in computation.

Babbage's Analytical Engine

Famed mathematician Charles Babbage designed a Victorian-era computer called the Analytical Engine.
This is a portion of the mill with a printing mechanism. (Image credit: Getty / Science & Society Picture
Library)

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1853: Swedish inventor Per Georg Scheutz and his son Edvard design the world's first printing calculator.
The machine is significant for being the first to "compute tabular differences and print the results,"
according to Uta C. Merzbach's book, "Georg Scheutz and the First Printing Calculator(opens in new
tab)" (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1977).

1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch-card system to help calculate the 1890 U.S. Census. The
machine, saves the government several years of calculations, and the U.S. taxpayer approximately $5
million, according to Columbia University(opens in new tab) Hollerith later establishes a company that
will eventually become International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).

EARLY 20TH CENTURY

1931: At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Vannevar Bush invents and builds the
Differential Analyzer, the first large-scale automatic general-purpose mechanical analog computer,
according to Stanford University(opens in new tab).
1936: Alan Turing, a British scientist and mathematician, presents the principle of a universal machine,
later called the Turing machine, in a paper called "On Computable Numbers…" according to Chris
Bernhardt's book "Turing's Vision(opens in new tab)" (The MIT Press, 2017). Turing machines are
capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern computer is
based on his ideas. Turing is later involved in the development of the Turing-Welchman Bombe, an
electro-mechanical device designed to decipher Nazi codes during World War II, according to the UK's
National Museum of Computing(opens in new tab).

1937: John Vincent Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, submits
a grant proposal to build the first electric-only computer, without using gears, cams, belts or shafts.

original garage where Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard started their business

The newly renovated garage where in 1939 Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard started their business,
Hewlett Packard, in Palo Alto, California. (Image credit: Getty / David Paul Morris)

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1939: David Packard and Bill Hewlett found the Hewlett Packard Company in Palo Alto, California. The
pair decide the name of their new company by the toss of a coin, and Hewlett-Packard's first
headquarters are in Packard's garage, according to MIT.

1941: German inventor and engineer Konrad Zuse completes his Z3 machine, the world's earliest digital
computer, according to Gerard O'Regan's book "A Brief History of Computing(opens in new tab)"
(Springer, 2021). The machine was destroyed during a bombing raid on Berlin during World War II. Zuse
fled the German capital after the defeat of Nazi Germany and later released the world's first commercial
digital computer, the Z4, in 1950, according to O'Regan.

1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design the first digital electronic computer in
the U.S., called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). This marks the first time a computer is able to store
information on its main memory, and is capable of performing one operation every 15 seconds,
according to the book "Birthing the Computer(opens in new tab)" (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016)

1945: Two professors at the University of Pennsylvania, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, design and
build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The machine is the first "automatic,
general-purpose, electronic, decimal, digital computer," according to Edwin D. Reilly's book "Milestones
in Computer Science and Information Technology" (Greenwood Press, 2003).
Computer technicians operating the ENIAC

Computer operators program the ENIAC, the first automatic, general-purpose, electronic, decimal,
digital computer computer, by plugging and unplugging cables and adjusting switches (Image credit:
Getty / Historical)

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1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the Census
Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and government applications.

1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent the transistor.
They discover how to make an electric switch with solid materials and without the need for a vacuum.

1949: A team at the University of Cambridge develops the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
(EDSAC), "the first practical stored-program computer," according to O'Regan. "EDSAC ran its first
program in May 1949 when it calculated a table of squares and a list of prime numbers," O'Regan wrote.
In November 1949, scientists with the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), now called
CSIRO, build Australia's first digital computer called the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Automatic Computer (CSIRAC). CSIRAC is the first digital computer in the world to play music, according
to O'Regan.

LATE 20TH CENTURY

1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as COBOL,
which stands for COmmon, Business-Oriented Language according to the National Museum of American
History(opens in new tab). Hopper is later dubbed the "First Lady of Software" in her posthumous
Presidential Medal of Freedom citation. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson
Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.

1954: John Backus and his team of programmers at IBM publish a paper describing their newly created
FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, according to MIT(opens in new
tab).

1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip. Kilby is
later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work.
1968: Douglas Engelbart reveals a prototype of the modern computer at the Fall Joint Computer
Conference, San Francisco. His presentation, called "A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect"
includes a live demonstration of his computer, including a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI),
according to the Doug Engelbart Institute(opens in new tab). This marks the development of the
computer from a specialized machine for academics to a technology that is more accessible to the
general public.

The first computer mouse, invented in 1963 by Douglas C. Engelbart

The first computer mouse was invented in 1963 by Douglas C. Engelbart and presented at the Fall Joint
Computer Conference in 1968 (Image credit: Getty / Apic)

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1969: Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and a group of other developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an
operating system that made "large-scale networking of diverse computing systems — and the internet
— practical," according to Bell Labs(opens in new tab).. The team behind UNIX continued to develop the
operating system using the C programming language, which they also optimized.

1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip.

1971: A team of IBM engineers led by Alan Shugart invents the "floppy disk," enabling data to be shared
among different computers.

1972: Ralph Baer, a German-American engineer, releases Magnavox Odyssey, the world's first home
game console, in September 1972 , according to the Computer Museum of America(opens in new tab).
Months later, entrepreneur Nolan Bushnell and engineer Al Alcorn with Atari release Pong, the world's
first commercially successful video game.

1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for connecting
multiple computers and other hardware.

1977: The Commodore Personal Electronic Transactor (PET), is released onto the home computer
market, featuring an MOS Technology 8-bit 6502 microprocessor, which controls the screen, keyboard
and cassette player. The PET is especially successful in the education market, according to O'Regan.
1975: The magazine cover of the January issue of "Popular Electronics" highlights the Altair 8080 as the
"world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." After seeing the magazine issue, two
"computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC
language. On April 4, after the success of this first endeavor, the two childhood friends form their own
software company, Microsoft.

1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak co-found Apple Computer on April Fool's Day. They unveil Apple I,
the first computer with a single-circuit board and ROM (Read Only Memory), according to MIT(opens in
new tab).

Apple I computer 1976

The Apple I computer, devised by Steve Wozniak, Steven Jobs and Ron Wayne, was a basic circuit board
to which enthusiasts would add display units and keyboards. (Image credit: Getty / Science & Society
Picture Library)

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1977: Radio Shack began its initial production run of 3,000 TRS-80 Model 1 computers — disparagingly
known as the "Trash 80" — priced at $599, according to the National Museum of American History.
Within a year, the company took 250,000 orders for the computer, according to the book "How TRS-80
Enthusiasts Helped Spark the PC Revolution(opens in new tab)" (The Seeker Books, 2007).

1977: The first West Coast Computer Faire is held in San Francisco. Jobs and Wozniak present the Apple
II computer at the Faire, which includes color graphics and features an audio cassette drive for storage.

1978: VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet program is introduced.

1979: MicroPro International, founded by software engineer Seymour Rubenstein, releases WordStar,
the world's first commercially successful word processor. WordStar is programmed by Rob Barnaby, and
includes 137,000 lines of code, according to Matthew G. Kirschenbaum's book "Track Changes: A
Literary History of Word Processing(opens in new tab)" (Harvard University Press, 2016).

1981: "Acorn," IBM's first personal computer, is released onto the market at a price point of $1,565,
according to IBM. Acorn uses the MS-DOS operating system from Windows. Optional features include a
display, printer, two diskette drives, extra memory, a game adapter and more.
A worker using an Acorn computer by IBM, 1981

The Acorn was IBM's first personal computer and used MS-DOS operating system. (Image credit: Getty /
Spencer Grant)

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1983: The Apple Lisa, standing for "Local Integrated Software Architecture" but also the name of Steve
Jobs' daughter, according to the National Museum of American History (NMAH), is the first personal
computer to feature a GUI. The machine also includes a drop-down menu and icons. Also this year, the
Gavilan SC is released and is the first portable computer with a flip-form design and the very first to be
sold as a "laptop."

1984: The Apple Macintosh is announced to the world during a Superbowl advertisement. The
Macintosh is launched with a retail price of $2,500, according to the NMAH.

1985: As a response to the Apple Lisa's GUI, Microsoft releases Windows in November 1985, the
Guardian reported(opens in new tab). Meanwhile, Commodore announces the Amiga 1000.

1989: Tim Berners-Lee, a British researcher at the European Organization for Nuclear Research
(CERN(opens in new tab)), submits his proposal(opens in new tab) for what would become the World
Wide Web. His paper details his ideas for Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), the building blocks of
the Web.

1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.

1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.

1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which at the time is struggling financially. This investment
ends an ongoing court case in which Apple accused Microsoft of copying its operating system.

1999: Wi-Fi, the abbreviated term for "wireless fidelity" is developed, initially covering a distance of up
to 300 feet (91 meters) Wired reported(opens in new tab).

21ST CENTURY
2001: Mac OS X, later renamed OS X then simply macOS, is released by Apple as the successor to its
standard Mac Operating System. OS X goes through 16 different versions, each with "10" as its title, and
the first nine iterations are nicknamed after big cats, with the first being codenamed "Cheetah,"
TechRadar reported.(opens in new tab)

2003: AMD's Athlon 64, the first 64-bit processor for personal computers, is released to customers.

2004: The Mozilla Corporation launches Mozilla Firefox 1.0. The Web browser is one of the first major
challenges to Internet Explorer, owned by Microsoft. During its first five years, Firefox exceeded a billion
downloads by users, according to the Web Design Museum(opens in new tab).

2005: Google buys Android, a Linux-based mobile phone operating system

2006: The MacBook Pro from Apple hits the shelves. The Pro is the company's first Intel-based, dual-
core mobile computer.

2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7 on July 22. The new operating system features the ability to pin
applications to the taskbar, scatter windows away by shaking another window, easy-to-access jumplists,
easier previews of tiles and more, TechRadar reported(opens in new tab).

Apple CEO Steve Jobs holds the iPad during the launch of Apple's new tablet computing device in San
Francisco

Apple CEO Steve Jobs holds the iPad during the launch of Apple's new tablet computing device in San
Francisco, 2010. (Image credit: Getty / )

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2010: The iPad, Apple's flagship handheld tablet, is unveiled.

2011: Google releases the Chromebook, which runs on Google Chrome OS.

2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.
2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been any
quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their system.
They're usually each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author Shantanu Debnath,
a quantum physicist and optical engineer at the University of Maryland, College Park.

2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new "Molecular
Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set of properties that
we may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and processing," Anne Fischer,
program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a statement. "Millions of molecules exist,
and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional atomic structure as well as variables such as shape,
size, or even color. This richness provides a vast design space for exploring novel and multi-value ways
to encode and process data beyond the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures."