Contents

I. Overview of English Grammar..........................................1

1. Form and Function..............................................................................................................................................1

2. Grammatical Forms.............................................................................................................................................1

3. *Grammatical Functions.....................................................................................................................................3

4. Grammar and Meaning......................................................................................................................................3

5. Grammar is evolving..........................................................................................................................................4

II.Grammatical Forms.............................................................5
1. Word structure and formation...........................................................................................................................5

2. Word classes.........................................................................................................................................................6

3. Phrases................................................................................................................................................................. 15

4. Clauses................................................................................................................................................................ 16

5. Sentences.............................................................................................................................................................28

III. Grammatical functions.................................................36

1. Subject.................................................................................................................................................................36

2. Predicate..............................................................................................................................................................40

3. Object.................................................................................................................................................................. 41

4. Complement.......................................................................................................................................................43

5. Adjuncts.............................................................................................................................................................. 44

IV. Grammar and Meaning.................................................46

1. Tense and Aspect...............................................................................................................................................46

2. Mood and Modality..........................................................................................................................................47

3. Semantic roles....................................................................................................................................................47

4. Information structuring....................................................................................................................................48

5. Parallelism..........................................................................................................................................................50

6. Negation..............................................................................................................................................................51

V. Grammar in Context..........................................................51
VI. Word Classes..................................................................53
1. Noun.................................................................................................................................................................... 54

2. Pronoun............................................................................................................................................................... 60

3. Verb.....................................................................................................................................................................65

4. Adjective.............................................................................................................................................................80

5. Adverb................................................................................................................................................................. 85

6. Conjunction........................................................................................................................................................89

7. Preposition..........................................................................................................................................................91

8. *Determiner........................................................................................................................................................94

9. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................................99

10. Further reading................................................................................................................................................100

VII. Paragraph....................................................................107
1. Sentence Variety..............................................................................................................................................107

2. Tense & Pronoun Consistency......................................................................................................................116

3. Coherence and Transitions............................................................................................................................117

4. Paragraph development..................................................................................................................................118

VIII. Essay............................................................................120
1. The writing processes.....................................................................................................................................120

2. Structural considerations...............................................................................................................................120

3. Patterns of composition..................................................................................................................................120

IX. Appendix........................................................................120
1. Irregular Verbs.................................................................................................................................................120

2. Punctuation.......................................................................................................................................................121

3. Contraction.......................................................................................................................................................126

4. Abbreviation....................................................................................................................................................127

5. Capitalization...................................................................................................................................................128

6. Spelling Rules..................................................................................................................................................129

7. Trouble-shootings...........................................................................................................................................129

X. Reference............................................................................132
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I. Overview of English Grammar

1. Form and Function

Form and Function are two extremely important concepts to fully understand how grammar

works in a sentence.

Grammatical Form refers to the category labels used for the building blocks of grammar, i.e.,

word classes, phrases, and clauses. Grammatical Function refers to what roles these various

building blocks can perform, i.e., Subject, Object, Adverbial, etc.

The police attacked the demonstrators.

The demonstrators attacked the police.

Comparing the examples above, the reason why they convert into different meaning is that

grammatically here they have the same form, but have different functions.

In summary, analysing grammatical form and function is analysing the structure of a

sentence. For examples:

2. Grammatical Forms

2.1 Word structure and formation

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In the example of sentence (1), it is constructed by fourteen words separated by blank spaces.

Words, like noisy, visitor, receptionist, caretaker, library, which can act as dictionary entries

are called lexemes, that is, you can look up this word directly in a dictionary.

Whereas word, like insulted, which performs a particular grammatical role is called

inflectional form, for example, the word insulted ends in -ed which is called a past tense inflection,

thus this word communicates two things: the meaning “offend verbally”, and in “past tense”. This

is the internal structure of words, or word structure. The word-formation processes, such as

derivation, compounding, and conversion, will be introduced later.

2.2 Word classes

Traditionally words are categorized into eight parts of speech, or word classes, namely noun,

verb, adjective, adverb, determiner, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.

(1) The very noisy visitor continually insulted the receptionist and the caretake in the library.

In (1) the words visitor, receptionist, caretaker, and library are nouns, words that name persons,

places, or things. The word the is an example of a determiner. Very, continually are belongs to the

word class of adverbs. Noisy is a descriptive word that talks about the person that the noun visitor

refers to, which is called adjective. The inflectional form insulted is a verb. And is a conjunction

used to link the receptionist and the caretaker. The word in is a preposition.

2.3 Phrases

Words are then grouped together into phrases. In (1), noun phrases are the very noisy visitor,

the receptionist, the caretaker, and the library. The string the very noisy is an adjective phrase. The

words very and continually are adverb phrases (a word on its own can also be a phrase in some

situation). In the library is a prepositional phrase. And the verb phrase consists not only of the verb

insulted, but also includes the phrases continually, the receptionist and the caretaker, and in the library.

Every phrase has an element that functions as its Head. Noun phrases are headed by nouns,

adjective phrases by adjectives, verb phrases by verb, and so on.

2.4 Clauses

Phrases are constructed into clause. A clause is a grammatical structure that exemplifies a

Subject-Predicate relationship, that is, a structure where ‘something is said about’ (‘predicated of’)

a Subject.
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(2) Paul lives in London.

(3) Does Paul live in London?

(4) Leave the house at once.

(5) What a nice house you live in!

There are four clause types: declarative clause ((2)) is to make a statement; an interrogative

clause ((3)) is to ask a question; an imperative clause ((4)) is to give an order; an exclamative

clause ((5)) is to utter an exclamation.

(6) I think that he sings with a choir.

Simple sentences like (1) to (5) contain only one clause, whereas (6) contains two clauses,

namely the sentence as a whole, and the string that he sings with a choir. Each clause in (6) expresses

its own Subject-Predicate relationship. For the entire sentence, it is called a matrix clause, and for

the string, it is a subordinate clause.

2.5 *Sentences

3. *Grammatical Functions

3.1 Subject

3.2 Predicator

3.3 Object

3.4 Completement

3.5 Adverbial

4. Grammar and Meaning

4.1 Tense and aspect

Time is a real-word semantic concept that structures our existence. English language uses the

system of tense to express time. English has only two tenses: the present tense and the past tense.

Tense express that an event happens or happened at some point in a time line. Aspect, on the

other hand, illustrates how an event unfolds in time. There are two aspects in English: the perfect

aspect and the progressive aspect.

(7) We pursued a limited war for limited objectives.

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(8) We have pursued a limited war for limited objectives.

(9) We are pursuing a limited war for limited objectives.

In (7), it shows the pursuance of the war is viewed as being wholly to at some point in the

past, that is, over and done with. In (8), however, the pursuance, by using present perfect

construction, is not only being wholly in the past, but also has relevance at the present time. In (9),

by using present progressive construction, the pursuance of the war is still on the go over a certain

time span.

4.2 Mood and modality

Tense and aspect in English are used to communicate straightforward statements of fact;

meanwhile, modality is another grammatical device used to express situations which have not

happened yet, or are hypothetical, uncertain, desirable, or necessary, as in the following examples.

(10) You may be left out of it because you are a freelancer.

(11) You must keep them moist.

(12) I will leave the decision up to you.

In (10) the speaker is expressing a ‘possibility’; in (11) an ‘obligation’ is ‘imposed’; while in

(20) a ‘resolve’ is expressed. These are three of a number of modality concepts. In English modality

is principally expressed by a group of verbs called modal auxiliaries, namely can/could, may/might,

shall/ should, will/would, must, etc.

4.3 Semantic roles

4.4 Information structuring

Voice in English influences the information structuring, but it does not change the meaning of

the information. There are two voices: active voice and passive voice. The example of sentence (1),

repeated here as (13), is an active version, while in (14) the sentence has a passive voice but the

meaning doesn’t change at all.

(13) (1) The very noisy visitor continually insulted the receptionist and the caretake in the

library.

(14) (2) The receptionist and the caretake were continually insulted by the very noisy visitor

in the library.

The choice between two structures depends on what part of the information the speaker
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wants to address. Thus, (13) can be said to have the very noisy visitor as its topic of interest, while

(14) has the receptionist and the caretaker as its topic.

5. Grammar is evolving

We have to be adult about this.

Here the word adult is an adjective used in the sense ‘grown-up’. Language users are

experimenting with new usages all the time, as the passage from the Huffington Post shows:

*Look at me adulting all over the place. Although I still look to adultier adults (i.e., my husband, who is

the adultest) for advice, as I look back on the last almost-decade of my life, I realize I actually have learned a

ton of lessons.

The author here manages to use adult both as a verb adulting and as an adjective adultier,

adultest, which in the standard grammar point of view is ungrammatical. This remind us that

English is constantly changing, and that some words do not exclusively belong to only one word

class over time.

The grammar of a language is shaped over time by the speakers of that language, not by self-

appointed individuals or learned bodies. The efforts of those who have tried in the past to

influence how the language should be used have generally failed.

II. Grammar in Context

1. Avoid adjectives overuse

Grammatically, it is possible to write a sentence that uses all the groups, for example:

my beautiful long curving new pink western Christian silk wedding dress.

This style, however, should be avoided, for it can lead to the problems of comprehension due

to human memory. Instead, it can be rewritten into several sentences like:

Have you seen my beautiful new pink silk wedding dress? It’s long and curving, and is in western

Christian style.

A different technique can be applied to describe a person or thing by using the actions of the

character and letting us draw our own conclusion from this. For example,
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Martina was angry.

Martina’s face started to turn from smile to frown and she slammed her fist down on the counter of the

shop.

2. Avoid adverbs overuse

A common writing problem is to rely too heavily on manner adverbs to describe the action in

a story. For example:

The door opened suddenly and Josh came quickly into the room. He saw Fiona chatting flirtatiously

with Adam, and went over to her angrily. ‘What are you doing here?’ he yelled aggressively.

All the manner adverbs in this passage ending in -ly sound clumsy when they occur close

together. They seem to clog up the writing and stop it from flowing, as well as fail to provide a

vivid description of the action. Experienced writers advise us to ‘show rather than tell’ the reader

what is happening.

Here is a possible way of rewriting the passage:

The door burst open and Josh stroke into the room. He saw Fiona leaning in close to Adam, and went

over to her on heavy steps. ‘What are you doing here?’, he roared with an aggressive breath.

3. Conjunctions and Ambiguity

Ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase, or sentence can be interpreted with multiple,

different meanings.

Newspaper headlines often compress sequences of actions into very compact structures.

Sometimes the meaning becomes ambiguous as a result.

4. Formal and Informal

English is a language that has a large vocabulary, with many words being closely linked in

meaning but carrying slightly different connotations. Often, these words are members of the same

word class but fit into different registers (i.e. are seen as more formal, informal, appropriate in

certain situations).

Often the informal expressions will vary depending on the area you live in and the social

groups you mix with. Some forms of slang and dialect may well appear frequently in casual
 7

conversation, but not in formal writing.

So for example, if you’re a teenager from London you might say of a footballer that they have

bare skills, but if you were reading a newspaper report about the same player, you might see it

written as That footballer has bountiful ability!

The register we use depends on who we are with, the impression we want to convey and the

language we have at our disposal. You can’t switch into a more formal register if you’ve never

learned it, and likewise you can’t switch into local slang unless you have learned it.

To a large extent, register is linked to your word choices, but there are times when grammar is

relevant to register. Take for example, a number of expressions we use in everyday English

compare with those in higher register:

get off = alight

go out = depart

go up = ascend

tell off = reprimand

Another example of when grammar is relevant to two registers called politeness and

directness, expressions that are used to get others to do something in some way.

In one situation you might choose to use an imperative: Tell him we are waiting for the order.

In another situation you might decide to use a less direct form such as an interrogative: C ould you

tell him we are waiting for the order?

5. *Cohesion and Coherence

Cohesion refers to the grammatical relationships that exist within a text between words,

phrases, etc. Coherence refers to the semantic relationships that exist within a text between words,

phrases, clauses and so on. Cohesion is looking on the grammar, while coherence is on the

meaning.

The sun is shining. Who is your neighbour? I left the washing in the machine. Without doubt she will

succeed.

In the example above, it is agreed that this can hardly be called a text. The reason is that the

sentences don’t link up with each other from the point of view of grammar and meaning. They

lack cohesion and coherence. Now look at the follow example.

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At nine o'clock on the morning of the first of May, 1919, a young man spoke to the room clerk at the

Biltmore Hotel, asking if Mr. Philip Dean were registered there, and if so, could he be connected with Mr.

Dean's rooms. The inquirer was dressed in a well-cut shabby suit. He was small, slender, and darkly

handsome; his eyes were framed above with unusually long eyelashes and below with the blue semicircle of

ill health, this latter effect heightened by an unnatural glow which colored his face like a low incessant fever.

In terms of the cohesion, the passage above clearly qualifies as a text, for the sentences in it are

grammatically linked with each other in many different ways. Cohesion is achieved by using

cohesive devices such as determiners, pronouns, conjunctions, adverbs and ellipsis, and also by

staying on cohesive tense, voice, etc.

Notice first of all how the protagonist is introduced to us by the writer using the noun phrase

a young man. The Head noun man is preceded here by the indefinite article a which signals that

the person that the noun phrase refers to has not yet been introduced into the discourse.

Subsequently this same person is referred to by the personal pronoun he. This creates a link with

the noun phrase a young man. To achieve variation the protagonist is then referred to as the

inquirer, followed again by he, and later the possessive pronoun his is used. The determiners and

pronouns thus establish links between the different sentences. Notice that the sentences are also

linked by having verbs in the past tense (spoke, were, could, was, etc.).

Additionally, notice how clauses is linked by using conjunctions and, and how the noun

phrase the Biltmore Hotel is subsequently referred to by the adverb there.

A further way of creating cohesion is by the use of ellipsis: leaving out words. This occurs in

the sentence His eyes were framed above with unusually long eyelashes and below with the blue

semicircle of ill health. The 'full' version of this would be His eyes were framed above with

unusually long eyelashes and his eyes were framed below with the blue semicircle of ill health.

Repeating the words his eyes were framed would make the writing cumbersome and repetitive, so

we leave them out, but the very fact that we know that words have been left out links the deleted

words with what went before.

III. Paragraph
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1. Sentence Variety

 Use different sentence types

Simple, compound, complex, compound complex

 Start sentence differently

Adverbs: Quietly, Frequently…

Prepositional phrases: In the morning, Due to stress, after work…

Transitions: The last time, For example, Furthermore…

 Use different sentence lengths

Using too many short sentences results in a choppy bad style. However, short sentences could

be used effectively if they mix with medium and long sentences.

 Use synonyms effectively

Repeat keywords by synonyms or different expressions.

The employee, the worker, the staff, employees, the person working in the company, a hired

person…

Avoid short sentence.

1.1 Sentences transformation

The dog ate the bone.

1. Transform to passive voice

The dog ate the bone.

The bone was eaten by the dog.

2. Transform to expletive “there be”

A fly is on the wall.

There is a fly on the wall.

3. Transform to cleft “it be … that/which/who/whom …”, or “what … be …”

The dog ate the bone.

It was the dog that ate the bone.

It was the bone that the dog ate.

What the dog ate was the bone.

4. Transform to negative
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1) With a verb of Being as the main verb, add not to the verb.

Fido is my dog.

Fido is not my dog.

2) With an action or linking verb that has an auxiliary verb (have/be), add not tot the

verb.

The dog is eating the bone.

The dog is not eating the bone.

The grass was growing fast.

The grass was not growing fast.

3) With an action or linking verb that does not have an auxiliary verb, add not to the

appropriate number and tense of do.

The dog eats the bone.

The dog does not eat the bone.

The grass grew fast.

The grass did not grow fast.

5. Transform to yes-no question

1) With a verb of Being as the main verb, transpose the position of the subject and verb.

Fido is my dog.

Is Fido my dog?

2) With an action or linking verb that has an auxiliary verb (have/be), transpose the

position of the subject and the auxiliary verb

The dog is eating the bone.

Is the dog eating the bone?

The grass is growing fast.

Is the grass growing fast?

3) With an action or linking verb that does not have an auxiliary verb, Add the

appropriate number and tense of do.

The dog eats the bone.

Does the dog eat the bone?

The grass grew fast.

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Did the grass grow fast?

6. Transform to interrogative

Interrogative words: what, when, where, where, how, which, who, whom

1) Place the interrogative word at the beginning of the sentence,

2) Reverse positions of the subject and verb, and

3) Add auxiliary do if the action verb or linking verb does not have a auxiliary verb.

Joe is happy.

Why is joe happy?

The dog is eating the bone.

Where is the dog eating the bone?

The grass is growing fast.

Why is the grass growing fast? How fast is the grass growing?

The dog eats the bone.

How does the dog eat the bone?

The grass grew fast.

Why did the grass grow fast? How fast did the grass grow?

*Note sentences using which or whose to create the interrogative may not require transposing

the position of the subject and verb, or adding auxiliary do.

The dog eats the bone.  whose dog eats the bone?

The bog is eating the bone.  which dog is eating the bone?

The grass has grown tall.  which grass has grown tall?

7. Transform to emphasis

This transformation is not suitable for those sentences that the Be is the main verb, nor

suitable for those sentences that have auxiliary verbs (have/be). Add the auxiliary do to the action

or linking verb.

The dog eats the bone.  the dog does eat the bone.

The grass grew tall.  the grass did grow tall.

8. Transform to imperative

When transforming to imperative sentence, there is only one tense: simple present, no matter

which tense the original sentence has.

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The dog eats the bone.  Eat the bone.

Mary gave joe a ring.  Give Joe a ring.

We consider Joe intelligent.  Consider Joe intelligent.

The people made Olaf king.  Make Olaf king.

The grass grew tall.  Grow tall.

I am happy  be happy.

9. Transform to exclamatory

This transformation creates a surprise statement. To make the exclamatory transformation, 1)

place “what a/an adjective noun “, or “how adjective….”

The dog eats the bone.  What a bone the dog eats!

Mary gave joe a ring.  What a ring Mary gave joe!

We consider Joe intelligent.  How intelligent we consider Joe!

The people made Olaf king.  What a king the people made Olaf!

The grass grew tall.  How tall the grass grows!

I am happy  How happy I am!

1.2 Sentence-combining skills

The Need to Combine Sentences

Sentences have to be combined to avoid the monotony that would surely result if all
sentences were brief and of equal length. (If you haven't already read them, see the sections
on Avoiding Primer Style and Sentence Variety.) Part of the writer's task is to employ
whatever music is available to him or her in language, and part of language's music lies within
the rhythms of varied sentence length and structure. Even poets who write within the formal
limits and sameness of an iambic pentameter beat will sometimes strike a chord against that beat
and vary the structure of their clauses and sentence length, thus keeping the text alive and the
reader awake. This section will explore some of the techniques we ordinary writers use to
combine sentences.

Compounding Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. That means that

there are at least two units of thought within the sentence, either one of which can stand by itself
as its own sentence. The clauses of a compound sentence are either separated by
a semicolon (relatively rare) or connected by a coordinating conjunction (which is, more often
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than not, preceded by a comma). And the two most common coordinating conjunctions
are and and but. (The others are or, for, yet, and so.) This is the simplest technique we have for
combining ideas:

 Meriwether Lewis is justly famous for his expedition into the territory of the Louisiana
Purchase and beyond, but few people know of his contributions to natural science.
 Lewis had been well trained by scientists in Philadelphia prior to his expedition, and he
was a curious man by nature.

Notice that the and does little more than link one idea to another; the but also links, but it
does more work in terms of establishing an interesting relationship between ideas. The and is
part of the immediate language arsenal of children and of dreams: one thing simply comes after
another and the logical relationship between the ideas is not always evident or important. The
word but (and the other coordinators) is at a slightly higher level of argument.

Click here to review the rules of comma usage when you combine two independent clauses
with a coordinating conjunction.

Compounding Sentence Elements

Within a sentence, ideas can be connected by compounding various sentence elements:

subjects, verbs, objects or whole predicates, modifiers, etc. Notice that when two
such elements of a sentence are compounded with a coordinating conjunction (as opposed to the
two independent clauses of a compound sentence), the conjunction is usually adequate and no
comma is required.

Subjects: When two or more subjects are doing parallel things, they can often be combined
as a compounded subject.

Working together, President Jefferson and Meriwether Lewis convinced

Congress to raise money for the expedition.

Objects: When the subject(s) is/are acting upon two or more things in parallel, the objects
can be combined.

    President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri reached all the way to
the Canadian border.
    He also believed that meant he could claim all that land for the United States.
 President Jefferson believed that the headwaters of the Missouri might reach all the way
to the Canadian border and that he could claim all that land for the United States.
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Notice that the objects must be parallel in construction: Jefferson believed that this was true
and that was true. If the objects are not parallel (Jefferson was convinced of two things: that the
Missouri reached all the way to the Canadian border and wanted to begin the expedition during
his term in office.) the sentence can go awry. Click here to review the principles of parallelism.

Verbs and verbals: When the subject(s) is/are doing two things at once, ideas can
sometimes be combined by compounding verbs and verb forms.

    He studied the biological and natural sciences.

    He learned how to categorize and draw animals accurately.
 He studied the biological and natural sciences and learned how to categorize and
draw animals accurately.

Notice that there is no comma preceding the "and learned" connecting the compounded
elements above.

    In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the movement of the stars.

    He also learned to analyze their movements with mathematical precision.
 In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart and analyze the movement of the stars with
mathematical precision.
 OR — In Philadelphia, Lewis learned to chart the stars and analyze their movements
with mathematical precision.

(Notice in this second version that we don't have to repeat the "to" of the infinitive to
maintain parallel form.)

Modifiers: Whenever it is appropriate, modifiers such as prepositional phrases can be

compounded.

    Lewis and Clark recruited some of their adventurers from river-town bars.
    They also used recruits from various military outposts.
 Lewis and Clark recruited their adventurers from river-town bars and various
military outposts.

Notice that we do not need to repeat the preposition from to make the ideas successfully
parallel in form.

Subordinating One Clause to Another

The act of coordinating clauses simply links ideas; subordinating one clause to another

establishes a more complex relationship between ideas, showing that one idea depends on
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another in some way: a chronological development, a cause-and-effect relationship, a

conditional relationship, etc.

    William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the expedition's
departure.
    Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark as his equal in
authority and rank.
 Although William Clark was not officially granted the rank of captain prior to the
expedition's departure, Captain Lewis more or less ignored this technicality and treated Clark
as his equal in authority and rank.

    The explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri.

    They discovered, to their horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them
and their goal, a passage to the Pacific.
 As the explorers approached the headwaters of the Missouri, they discovered, to their
horror, that the Rocky Mountain range stood between them and their goal, a passage to the
Pacific.

When we use subordination of clauses to combine ideas, the rules of punctuation are very
important. It might be a good idea to review the definition of clauses at this point and the uses
of the comma in setting off introductory and parenthetical elements.

Using Appositives to Connect Ideas

The appositive is probably the most efficient technique we have for combining ideas.
An appositive or appositive phrase is a renaming, a re-identification, of something earlier in
the text. You can think of an appositive as a modifying clause from which the clausal machinery
(usually a relative pronoun and a linking verb) has been removed. An appositive is often, but not
always, a parenthetical element which requires a pair of commas to set it off from the rest of the
sentence.

 Sacagawea, who was one of the Indian wives of Charbonneau, who was a French fur-

trader, accompanied the expedition as a translator.
 A pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian woman, Sacagawea, one of the wives of the
French fur-trader Charbonneau, accompanied the expedition as a translator.

Notice that in the second sentence, above, Sacagawea's name is a parenthetical element
(structurally, the sentence adequately identifies her as "a pregnant, fifteen-year-old Indian
woman"), and thus her name is set off by commas; Charbonneau's name, however, is essential to
the meaning of the sentence (otherwise, which fur-trader are we talking about?) and is not set off
by a pair of commas. Click here for additional help identifying and punctuating around
parenthetical elements.
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Using Participial Phrases to Connect Ideas

A writer can integrate the idea of one sentence into a larger structure by turning that idea
into a modifying phrase.

    Captain Lewis allowed his men to make important decisions in a democratic manner.
    This democratic attitude fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment on the part
of Lewis's fellow explorers.
 Allowing his men to make important decisions in a democratic
manner, Lewis fostered a spirit of togetherness and commitment among his fellow explorers.

In the sentence above, the participial phrase modifies the subject of the

sentence, Lewis. Phrases like this are usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

    The expeditionary force was completely out of touch with their families for over two
years.
    They put their faith entirely in Lewis and Clark's leadership.
    They never once rebelled against their authority.
 Completely out of touch with their families for over two years,  the men of the
expedition put their faith in Lewis and Clark's leadership and never once rebelled against their
authority.

Using Absolute Phrases to Connect Ideas

Perhaps the most elegant — and most misunderstood — method of combining ideas is
the absolute phrase. This phrase, which is often found at the beginning of sentence, is made up
of a noun (the phrase's "subject") followed, more often than not, by a participle. Other modifiers
might also be part of the phrase. There is no true verb in an absolute phrase, however, and it is
always treated as a parenthetical element, an introductory modifier, which is set off by a comma.

The absolute phrase might be confused with a participial phrase, and the difference
between them is structurally slight but significant. The participial phrase does not contain the
subject-participle relationship of the absolute phrase; it modifies the subject of the the
independent clause that follows. The absolute phrase, on the other hand, is said to modify the
entire clause that follows. In the first combined sentence below, for instance, the absolute phrase
modifies the subject Lewis, but it also modifies the verb, telling us "under what conditions" or
"in what way" or "how" he disappointed the world. The absolute phrase thus modifies the entire
subsequent clause and should not be confused with a dangling participle, which must modify
the subject which immediately follows.

    Lewis's fame and fortune was virtually guaranteed by his exploits.

    Lewis disappointed the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
 His fame and fortune virtually guaranteed by his exploits,  Lewis disappointed
the entire world by inexplicably failing to publish his journals.
 17

    Lewis's long journey was finally completed.

    His men in the Corps of Discovery were dispersed.
    Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely alone.
 His long journey completed and his men in the Corps of Discovery
dispersed, Lewis died a few years later on his way back to Washington, D.C., completely
alone.

2. Tense & Pronoun Consistency

In writing, don’t shift the tense or pronoun to others unless you have a good reason to do so.

Stay in the same basic tense and remain consistently within the same pronoun case.

In Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye, we find the narrator to be one of the few truly successful

characters in terms of moral development. However, even the narrator, you soon realize, was

seriously flawed.

In Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye, we find the narrator to be one of the few truly successful

characters in terms of moral development. However, even the narrator, we soon realize, are

seriously flawed.

 If the main clause is in simple present, the subordinated clause can use any tense in any

purpose.

I am eager to go to the concert because I love the wallflowers.

I know that I made the right choice.

They believe that they have elected the right candidate.

The President says that he will veto the bill.

 If the main clause is in simple past, the subordinated clause uses past or past perfect

tense, unless it is a general truth.

I wanted to go home because I missed my parents.

She knew she had made the right choice.

The Deists believed that the universe is like a giant clock.

 If the main clause in in future tense, the subordinated clause uses present/past/present
 18

perfect for purpose.

I will be so happy if they fix my car today.

You will surely pass this exam if you studied hard.

The college will probably close its doors next summer if enrolments have not increased.

 If the main clause in in present/past perfect, the subordinated clause uses the past tense

for any purpose.

She has grown a foot since she turned nine.

The crowd had turned nasty before the sheriff returned.

 If the main clause in in future perfect, the subordinated clause uses the present/present

perfect tense for any purpose.

Most students will have taken sixty credits by the time they graduate.

Most students will have taken sixty credits by the time they have graduated.

 Present infinitive shows same-time action or action later than the verb.

Coach Espinoza is eager to try out her new drills.

She would have liked to see more veterans returning.

 Perfect infinitive shows action earlier than the verb.

The fans would like to have seen some improvement this year.

They consider the team to have been coached very well.

 Present participle show action occurring at the same time as that of the verb.

Working on the fundamentals, the team slowly began to improve.

 Past/present perfect participle shows action occurring earlier than that of the verb.

Prepared by last year’s experience, the coach knows not to expect too much.

Having experimented with several game plans, the coaching staff devised a master

strategy.

3. Coherence and Transitions

To stay in coherence. They are four basic mechanical considerations in providing transitions

between ideas.

3.1 Using transitions

Addition: again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further,
 19

furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too.

Comparison: also, in the same way, likewise, similarly

Concession: granted, naturally, of course

Contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite, that, even so,

even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding,

on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet

Emphasis: certainly, indeed, in fact, of course

Illustration: after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed,

in fact, in other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus,

truly

Summary: all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words,

in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it

differently, to summarize

Sequence, after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that

time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the

first place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly,

simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when

Note that do not interlard your text with transitional expressions merely because you know

theses devices connect ideas. Transitions must appear naturally, where they belong, or they’ll stic

like a fishbone in your reader’s craw.

3.2 Repeating keywords and phrases

Although there is a natural resistance based on the fear of being repetitive, the ability to

connect ideas by means of repetition of keywords and phrases lead to a sense of coherence. Just

remember not to overwhelmingly repeat; try using synonyms.

3.3 Using pronoun reference

Pronouns is defined naturally to refer the reader to something earlier in the text. Keep in

mind that every pronoun should have a clear antecedent.

3.4 Using parallel form

Parallelism requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly
 20

similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of conten

and function. Thus, this bring a sense of coherence overall.

4. Paragraph development

A basic expository paragraph starts with a controlling idea or claim, which it then explains,

develops, or supports with evidence. Digressions and deviations often come in the form of

irrelevant details or shifts in focus.

Irrelevant details:

When I was growing up, one of the places I enjoyed most was the cherry tree in the back yard.

Behind the yard was an alley and then more houses. Every summer when the cherries began to

ripen, I used to spend hours high in the tree, picking and eating the sweet, sun-warmed cherries.

My mother always worried about my falling out of the tree, but I never did. But I had some

competition for the cherries — flocks of birds that enjoyed them as much as I did and would perch

all over the tree, devouring the fruit whenever I wasn't there. I used to wonder why the grown-

ups never ate any of the cherries; but actually when the birds and I had finished, there weren't

many left.

No sentence is completely irrelevant to the general topic of this paragraph (the cherry tree),

but the sentences Behind the yard was an alley and then more houses and My mother always worried

about my falling out of the tree, but I never did do not develop the specific idea in the first sentence:

enjoyment of the cherry tree.

Shifts in focus:
1
It is a fact that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. 2Statistics show that in states

with capital punishment, murder rates are the same or almost the same as in states without

capital punishment. 3It is also true that it is more expensive to put a person on death row than

in life imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security. 4Unfortunately, capital

punishment has been used unjustly. 5Statistics show that every execution is of a man and that

nine out of ten are black. 6So prejudice shows right through.

no sentence in this paragraph is completely irrelevant to the general topic (capital

punishment), but the specific focus of this paragraph shifts abruptly twice. The paragraph starts

out with a clear claim in sentence 1: It is a fact that capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime.
 21

Sentence 2 provides evidence in support of the initial claim: Statistics show that in states with capital

punishment, murder rates are the same or almost the same as in states without capital punishment.

Sentence 3, however, shifts the focus from capital punishment as a deterrent to crime to the cost of

incarceration: It is also true that it is more expensive to put a person on death row than in life

imprisonment because of the costs of maximum security. Sentence 4 once again shifts the focus, this

time to issues of justice: Unfortunately, capital punishment has been used unjustly. Sentences 5 and 6,

Statistics show that every execution is of a man and that nine out of ten are black and So prejudice

shows right through, follow from 4 if one believes that executing men and blacks is in fact

evidence of injustice and prejudice. More importantly, however, we are now a long way off from

the original claim, that capital punishment does not deter crime. The focus has shifted from

deterrence to expense to fairness.

Topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea or claim controls the rest of the paragraph; the

body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence.

The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph, but it may come after a

transition sentence or even at the end of a paragraph. Topic sentences beginning with transitional

clauses referring to the previous paragraph is a good way to bridge between paragraphs.

Soon after the spraying had ended there were unmistakable signs that all was not well.

Within two days dead and dying fish, including many young salmon, were found along the banks

of the stream. Brook trout also appeared among the dead fish, and along the roads and in the

woods birds were dying. All the life of the stream was stilled. Before the spraying there had been

a rich assortment of the water life that forms the food of salmon and trout — caddis fly larvae,

living in loosely fitting protective cases of leaves, stems or gravel cemented together with saliva,

stonefly nymphs clinging to rocks in the swirling currents, and the wormlike larvae of blackflies

edging the stones under riffles or where the stream spills over steeply slanting rocks. But now the

stream insects were dead, killed by DDT, and there was nothing for a young salmon to eat.

IV. Essay
 22

1. The writing processes

2. Structural considerations

3. Patterns of composition

V. Appendix

1. Irregular Verb tense forms

Verb Past Simple Past Participle

abide abode, abided aboded, abided
arise arose arisen
awake awoke awoken
be was/were been
bear bore borne/born (us)
beat beat beaten/beat (us)
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bet bet bet
bid bid bid
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
 23

broadcast broadcast broadcast

build built built
burn burnt burnt
bust bust bust
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
dive dived, dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt dwelt
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fit fit/fitted fit/fitted
flee fled fled
 24

fling flung flung

fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forecast forecast forecast
foresee foresaw foreseen
foretell foretold foretold
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
forswear forswore forsworn
freeze froze frozen
get got got
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
Hamstring Hamstrung hamstrung
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hew hewed hewn, hewed
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
inlay inlaid inlaid
inset inset inset
interweave interwove interwoven
keep kept kept
kneel knelt knelt
 25

knit knitted, knit knitted, knit

know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lean leaned/ leant(uk) leaned/leant(uk)
leap leaped/leapt(uk) leaped/leapt(uk)
learn learned/learnt(uk) learned/learnt(uk)
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
light lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
miscast miscast miscast
misplay mislaid mislaid
mistake mistook mistaken
pay paid paid
prove proved proved/proven (us)
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
 26

see saw seen

seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn
shake shook shaken
shed shed shed
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
slit slit slit
smell smelt smelt
sneak sneaked/snuck (us) sneaked/snuck (us)
sow sowed sown
speak spoke spoken
speed sped/speeded sped/speeded
spell spelt spelt
spend spent spent
spill spilt spilt
spin spun spun
spit spat spat
split split split
 27

spoil spoilt spoilt

spread spread spread
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
strike struck struck
strive strove/strived striven/strived
string strung strung
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertake
upset upset upset
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weave wove/weaved (us) woven/weaved (us)
weep wept wept
win won won
 28

wind wound wound

withdraw withdrew withdrawn
write wrote written

2. Plural forms

A. Most singular nouns form the plural by Song-songs

adding -s.
B. A singular noun ending in s, x, z, ch, sh Box-boxes

makes the plural by adding-es. Church-churches

C. A singular noun ending in a consonant and Baby-babies, city-cities,

then y makes the plural by dropping the y

and adding-ies.
D. Four nouns end in -o add -es to form the Echo-echoes, potato-potatoes, hero-heroes,

plural. tomato-tomatoes

In other case, add -s instead.

E. Some nouns that end in -f or -fe are Calf-calves, life-lives, thief-thieves, loaf-loaves,

changed to -ves to form the plural. wolf-wolves, knife-knives, leaf-leaves, shelf-

However, some nouns that end in -f simply shelves

add -s to form the plural. Belief-beliefs, cliff-cliffs, chief-chiefs, roof-roofs

Scarf-scarves/scarfs
F. Some nouns have the same singular and Deer, series, fish, sheep, means, shrimp (or

plural form shrimps), offspring, species, aircraft

G. Common irregular nouns list Man-men

woman-women

child-children

tooth-teeth

goose-geese

foot-feet
 29

mouse-mice

louse-lice

ox-oxen

cactus-cacti(uk)/cactuses(us)

Fungus-fungi(uk)/ funguses(us)

Nucleus-nuclei/nucleuses

Syllabus-syllabi/syllabuses

Focus- focuses/ foci(formal)

Person-people/persons(formal)

Criterion-criteria

Phenomenon-phenomena

Bacterium-bacteria

Curriculum-curricula

Datum-data

Medium-media

Memorandum-memoranda

Analysis-analyses

Basis-bases

Crisis-crises

Hypothesis-hypotheses

Parenthesis-parentheses

Thesis-theses
For most compound nouns, the plural ending is added to the last noun, but exceptions can be

seen in a few compound nouns. As the examples show below.

A bedroom  two bedrooms

An Indian take-away  two Indian take-aways

A games console  three games consoles

Vegetable soup  two bowls of vegetable soups

Office building  a row of office buildings

Two hour test  several two-hour tests

 30

A compound noun formed from a noun and an adverb phrase or prepositional phrase makes

the first word plural.

A passer-by  several passers-by

Daughter-in-law  daughters-in-law

Compound nouns with woman as the first word make both words plural.

A woman doctor  several women doctors

A woman driver  four women drivers

A compound word which ends in -ful normally adds -s to the base noun.

A cupful  three cupsful

A spoonful  two spoonsful

Some nouns referring to clothes and tools where two equal parts are joined together, such as

trousers, binoculars, and tongs, are treated as being plural and are followed by a verb in the

plural. To talk about quantity of these items, use the expression a pair of, two pairs of, etc.

My shorts are dirty.

The scissors are on the table.

John bough a pair of jeans.

Martina bought five pairs of tights.

Noun phrase, likes, a sum of money, a period of time, a distance etc, is seen as a whole.

Fifty thousand pounds was stolen.

Three years is a long time to be without a job.

Two miles isn’t very far to walk.

Ordinary numbers, such as dozen and million, have no plural form. But they can appear in

plural form in the prepositional “of” phrases to express a large number.

Nine million stars, two dozen eggs

There are millions of pebbles on the beach.

I saw dozens of children in the playground.

3. Comparison forms

Adjectives Comparative and Superlative

One syllable Commonly add -er, -est Fast-faster-fastest
 31

Small-smaller-smallest

Weak-weaker-weakest

Old-older/elder-oldest/eldest*
Ending in -e, add -r, -st Fine-finer-finest

Large-larger-largest

Nice-nicer-nicest

Wise-wiser-wisest
Ending in a vowel + a Hot-hotter-hottest

consonant, Thin-thinner-thinnest

double consonant, add -er, -est Big-bigger-biggest

Wet-wetter-wettest

Flat-flatter-flattest
Two Combined with More, Most Polite-more polite-most polite

syllables Helpful-more helpful-most helpful

Honest-more honest-most honest

Famous-more famous-most famous

Ending in -ow, -le, -er, Narrow-narrower-narrowest

Add -er, -est Shallow-shallower-shallowest

Gentle-gentler-gentlest

Simple-simpler-simplest

Clever-cleverer-cleverest
Ending in -y, Friendly-friendlier-friendliest

drop y and add -ier, -iest Easy-easier-easiest

Heavy-heavier-heaviest

Noisy-noisier-noisiest

Happy-happier-happiest

Busy-busier-busiest
Three or Combined with More, Most Interesting-more interesting-most interesting

more Difficult-more difficult-most difficult

syllables Expensive-more expensive-most expensive

 32

Popular-more popular-most popular

Confident-more confident-most confident

Irregular adjectives Good/well-better-best

Bad/badly-worse-worst

Far-farther/further-farthest/furthest*

Little-less-least

Much/many-more-most
Negative expression (less and least) Stupid-less stupid-least stupid

Beautiful-less beautiful-least beautiful

*older/oldest refer to persons or things, elder/eldest can only be used for family members

*farther/farthest generally refer to distance, further/furthest also have the meaning of

“additional”

Both adverbs and adjectives in their comparative and superlative forms can be accompanied

by premodifiers, single words and phrases, that intensify the degree.

We were a lot more careful this time.

He works a lot less carefully than the other jeweller in town.

We like his work so much better.

You'll get your watch back all the faster.

4. Punctuation

Conjunctions and punctuation

4.1 Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks:

1) To enclose titles

The newspaper sported an article titled “Trapped Couple Lived Thirteen Days on Cookies.”

Who wrote “The Star Spangled Banner”?

2) To enclose words used ironically or where the term so-called could be inserted.

He is one of the “fifty something” crowd.

The five-year-old prepared a “gourmet” breakfast for his mother on Mother’s Day.

3) To enclose a direct quotation

 33

He said, “You have won the lottery.” = he said that I have won the lottery.

*Note that

1. Start the quotation with a capital letter.

2. Place commas and periods INSIDE the quotation marks.

3. Place semicolons and colons OUTSIDE the quotation marks.

4. Place question marks and exclamation marks INSIDE the quotation marks if the quotation

itself is a question or an exclamation.

5. Place question marks and exclamation marks OUTSIDE the quotation marks if the

quotation itself is NOT a question or exclamation.

6. USE single quotation marks to enclose a quotation inside another quotation.

“Please stop saying, ‘I love you,’” he begged.

He said, “you asked, ‘Do you love me?’”

He asked, “Did you say, ‘I love you’?”

4.2 Question Mark

A question mark is used to end a question sentence, an uncertainty, a doubt. For examples:

What are you doing?

Are you happy now?

She asked, “where did he stay?”

John was born in 1988 (?).

We have never seen that, have we?

4.3 Exclamation Mark

An exclamation mark is used to end a exclamatory sentence, an emotion, a command, a

emphasis, etc. For examples:

Aah! It’s eating my leg!

Sit down!

I won’t do it!

4.4 Comma

Use a comma:

1) In a series that three or more items connected by a coordinating conjunction.

 34

Jones, Smith, and Jackson presented an interesting report.

The novel is available in print, on audio tape, and on video cassette.

The lawyer argued that the weather was bad, that the car had bad brakes, and that the other

river was speeding.

2) on detailed dates and addresses.

The house at 100 West 67th Street, Baltimore, MD 21210, was sold today.

My son was born on January 5, 1976, in Chicago, Illinois.

She lives at 100 West 67th Street in Baltimore.

3) Between equal adjectives

She bought a red, fuzzy coat.

The professor gave a hard, final examination.

This is a long, short story.

4) In compound sentences.

The war lasted for two years, but very few people supported it.

5) To separate interrupters, contractions

The meeting was, in my opinion, very productive.

The committee members, however, lacked initiative.

You will see, ladies and gentlemen, that I have nothing up my sleeve.

Service professions, such as social work and teaching, offer many non-monetary rewards.

Jones likes to read about dogs, especially Welsh Corgis, in his spare time.

His wife, not his brother, needs the money more.

I want chocolate, not vanilla.

6) Verbal phrases

Speaking at the meeting today, the woman opposed the merger. (present participle)

Terrified, the mouse ran behind the cupboard. (past participle)

Upon entering the room, the police heard a gunshot. (gerund as objects of preposition)

*Entering the room was dangerous. (no need of comma when gerund functions as subject.)

To buy that car, you must pay a $40,000 deposit. (adverbial infinitive begins the sentence)

To buy that car is my dream. (no need of comma when infinitive function as subject.)

You must pay a $40,000 deposit to buy that car. (no comma when it is placed at the end)
 35

7) Nonessential Adjective Clauses

Mary Jones, who spoke at the meeting today, opposed the merger.

Mary Jones, who is frightened by a mouse, bought a cat.

4.5 Full Stop

Use a full stop:

1) at the end of a complete sentence.

I like chocolate.

The wedding will take place next Friday.

2) As a decimal point

He won 1.3 million dollars on the lotto.

Sales were up 13.5% last year.

3) following abbreviation

approx. = approximately

etc. = and so on

i.e. = in other words

Apr. = April

4) After titles in American English (this is much less seen in British English).

He owes a lot of money to Mr. Smith. (In British English: Mr Smith)

5) A full stop can

4.6 Hyphen

Hyphens are completely different from dashes in terms of its usages. hyphens can be used to

join numbers, fractions, compound word, or prefixes to words. For examples:

Twenty-two, two-thirds, well-known, good-looking, ex-wife, mother-in-law, etc.

4.7 Apostrophe

Use an apostrophe:

1) To show ownership

The boy’s hat is beautiful.

The students’ homework is well completed.

The men’s shoes are dirty.

 36

Nan and Ted’s dog is cute.

Nan’s and Ted’s dogs are both cute.

Anybody’s hat is left here.

2) To abbreviate phrases

It is nice to see you. = It’s nice to see you.

It has been a cold winter. = It’s been a cold winter.

We will not hire you. = We won’t hire you.

3) To form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of words referred to as words.

How many and’s are there in the second paragraph?

Remember to cross all of the t’s in that word.

4.8 Colon

Use a colon:

1) Before formally introducing a list.

I ordered the following supplies: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee.

Theories which try to explain the secrets of fire walking fall into three categories: physical,

psychological, and religious.

*Note that an independent clause must precede the colon.

2) In the initial greeting of a letter. (In American, but a comma in British)

Dear Mr. Randhawa:

Dear Mr. Randhawa,

3) To introduce a quotation.

Bacon says: “Reading makes full man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready man."

4) Before two independent clauses when the second explains or expands the first.

The leaders made the final decision: the victims would receive food and medical supplies.

The sign was all too clear: “Do not swim in this area.”

Here is our honest opinion: we think you are a genius.

5) Before a formal appositive.

The reaction of the audience signified one overwhelming feeling: fear.

*Note that an independent clause must precede the colon.

6) Between hour and minute, chapter and verse (Bible), no need of space
 37

At 4:01 p.m. the doors will be opened to the public.

You will find those words in Genesis 1:14-17.

4.9 Semicolon

Use a semicolon:

1) between independent clauses without coordinating conjunctions.

He promised to reform; a few days later he forgot everything.

2) Between independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverb

He promised to reform; however, a few days later he forgot everything.

3) Between items or independent clauses in a series containing internal punctuation

Captain Zeno, a television star; Harriet Smith, who writes fiction; and Mel Stevens, a

psychiatrist, meet for an hour every Thursday to discuss the geopolitical situation.

To engender self-confidence, we must help others; but tot procure love, we must please them.

4.10 Dash

Use a dash to set off parenthetical matter, use as a emphasize.

Barbara’s latest purchase – a condominium at the beach – pleases her greatly.

Barbara’s latest purchase, a condominium at the beach, pleases her greatly.

The human mind is – as Luther said – a factory busy with making idols.

The human mind is, as Luther said, a factory busy with making idols.

4.11 Parentheses

Use parentheses:

1) To enclose interrupting elements that add information or identification.

I walked right up to him (nobody was with him at the time) and told him what we had

decided.

The NRA (National Rifle Association) has a strong lobby in Washington.

2) To enclose figures or letters when used for enumeration within a sentence.

Each essay will be judged on the basis of (a) its length, (b) its artistic merit, and (c) its

originality.

5. Contraction

Contraction is frequently spoken rather than written. It can be seen in informal writing.
 38

With Pronouns With Nouns With Questions Words

Am I’m reading.
Is She’s hot. My book’s on the table. Where’s my book?

He’s handsome. Mary’s at home. Who’s that man?

It’s beautiful.
Are You’re working hard. Where’re you going?

They’re waiting for us. What’re they doing?

Has She’s been here for a year. My book’s been sold. Where’s Sally been living?

It’s been cold lately Sally’s never met him. What’s been going on?
Have I’ve finished my work. Where’ve you been?

They’ve never met you. How’ve you been?

Had He’d been waiting for us.

We’d forgotten about it.

Will I’ll come later. The weather will be nice. What’ll you do tomorrow?

She’ll help us. Who’ll be at the meeting?

would He’d like to go there. Where’d you like to go?

They’d come fi they could.

Contractions with negatives

Is not = isn’t, are not = aren’t, was not = wasn’t, were not = weren’t

Cannot = can’t, could not = couldn’t

Will not = won’t, would not = wouldn’t

Did not = didn’t, do not = don’t, does not = doesn’t

Have not = haven’t, has not = hasn’t, had not = hadn’t

Must not = mustn’t, should not = shouldn’t

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6. Abbreviation

A.C. / A.C.N. = B.C. / B.C.E.

A.D. = C.E.

A.K.A. = also known as

A.M. = before midday

A.S.A.P. = as soon as possible

e.g. = for example

etc. = and so forth

i.e. = that is to say, in other words, in this case

p.m. = after midday

P.S. =a postscript is writing added after the body of a letter

R.I.P. = rest in peace

R.S.V.P. = respond if you please, a request that the recipient of an invitation confirm or decline

attendance

7. Capitalization

Capitalize:

1) The first word of a sentence

Start a sentence with a capital letter.

2) Proper nouns

I have travelled through Pacific Ocean.

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3) Titles of books, articles, songs, etc.

Have you read Melville’s great novel, Moby Dick?

4) Days of the week, months of the year, events, and holidays

I will leave on Friday.

In December, I will return home.

Victorian Era is a great period of history in the UK.

China Spring Festival is most world-wide celebrated.

5) Countries, nationalities, and languages

In Japan, such thing is not allowed.

I am a Chinese, speaking Mandarin.

6) Names of organizations, trademarks, and planets

Have you read the latest Time magazine?

I want to grab a coffee from Starbucks.

You have a nice Toyota car.

7) The first word of a sentence in a quotation, or following a colon

The students asked, “May we turn in our papers late?”

Joe’s late arrival made no difference: He had nothing important to add.

8) The first word in each line of poetry

Whose woods these are I think I know.

His house is in the village though;

He will no mind me stopping here.

To watch his woods fill up with snow.

(from “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost)

9) The first word in salutations and closings in letters

Dear student, My dear friend, My dearest darling love,

Yours truly, Love, With much love, With great affection,

8. Spelling Rules

9. Trouble-shootings
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9.1 Avoid comma splices in compound sentences

Two major errors can occur when constructing compound sentences.

Error #1: The Comma Splice

Writers make this error when they try to separate the two independent clauses in a

compound sentence with a comma alone.

A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark to separate the two independent clauses

by itself; thus, using it causes the clauses to be spliced together.

Wrong: Tom read the novel, his friend saw the movie. (wrong comma placement)

Right: Tom read the novel; his friend saw the movie. (change the comma to a semicolon)

Right: Tom read the novel, but his friend saw the movie. (use a coordinative conjunction)

Right: Tom read the novel; however, his friend saw the movie. (use a conjunctive adverb)

9.2 Redundancy

Redundancy means using words unnecessarily or repeatedly. The most common error is the

use of a phrase “the reason…because…”. The redundancy in such sentence arises because the

word reason itself signifies because. Such sentences should be corrected by replacing the

conjunction because with that.

 The reason why India is economically weak is because it was under foreign rule for over

two hundred years. (Incorrect)

 The reason why India is economically weak is that it was under foreign rule for over two

hundred years. (Correct)

 The reason why I did not attend the party last night was because I had a headache.

(Incorrect)

 The reason why I did not attend the party last night was that I had a headache. (Correct)

Example 1:

Wrong: If all of us cooperate together, we will succeed.

The words “cooperate, together” convey the same meaning and should be dropped one of

them.

Right: If all of us cooperate, we will succeed.

Right: If all of us work together, we will succeed.

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Example 2:

The accused was guilty of false misstatement.

 The accused was guilty of misstatement.

Example 3:

It was the general consensus of opinion that we must go to the movie.

 It was the general opinion that we must go to the movie.

 It was the general consensus that we must go to the movie.

Example 4:

The three brothers had nothing in common with each other.

 The three brothers had nothing in common.

 The three brothers had nothing the same with each other.

Example 5:

There was an ovation when the minister rose up to speak.

 There was an ovation when the minister rose to speak.

Example 6:

Do not return back home without completing work.

 Do not return home without completing work.

More examples:

Examples:

You must first do this before you go. (Incorrect)

You must do this before you go. (Correct)

The flight will arrive at 7 p.m. in the afternoon. (Incorrect)

The flight will arrive at 7 p.m. (Correct)

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He carefully examined each and every letter. (Incorrect)

He carefully examined each letter. (Correct)

In my opinion, I think it is going to rain. (Incorrect)

I think it is going to rain. (Correct)

Frank was elected as Chairman unanimously by all members. (Incorrect)

Frank was elected as Chairman unanimously. (Correct)

I have a client of mine who insists on paying his fee in advance. (Incorrect)

I have a client who insists on paying his fee in advance. (Correct)

Have you read the latest biography of Indira Gandhi’s life? (Incorrect)

Have you read the latest biography of Indira Gandhi? (Correct)

The police restored the stolen purse back to the rightful owner. (Incorrect)

The police restored the stolen purse to the rightful owner. (Correct)

All other boys except Peter came for picnic. (Incorrect)

All boys except Peter came for picnic. (Correct)

I am looking for a job with a salary of at least US $2000 or more. (Incorrect)

I am looking for a job with a salary of at least US $2000. (Correct)

You must come promptly at 10 a.m. or else we will leave without you. (Incorrect)

You must come promptly at 10 a.m. or we will leave without you. (Correct)

The prices of Car companies have fallen down by 30% in the last one week. (Incorrect)

The prices of Car companies have fallen by 30% in the last one week. (Correct)
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9.3 Ambiguity

Ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase, or sentence can be interpreted with multiple,

different meanings.

Newspaper headlines often compress sequences of actions into very compact structures.

Sometimes the meaning becomes ambiguous as a result.

VI. Reference

Oxford Modern English Grammar, by

Grammar in use

understanding and using English grammar

Towson University Website: https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/index.asp