Tyndale-Biscoe & Mallinson Society

S.St. (T1) Tutorial for Class 8

Session: 2021-2022
SUBJECT: HISTORY

Chapter 5: When People Rebel – 1857 and After.

 Dear students try to find out meaning of the following words/terms.

Vocabulary:

Revolt Memoirs Mutiny Confederacy

Domain Firangi Monopoly Sepoy
Inherit Cavalry Nodal points Desertions
Paramount Infantry Annex Garrison

Introduction: The Revolt of 1857 was one of the most important struggle of the Indian people for liberation
from the British rule in India. This Revolt shook the foundations of the British rule in India. Some of the
contemporary observers called it a national revolt. Indians regarded it as the First war of Independence.
People who participated in the Revolt of 1857 were: The dispossessed rulers of Indian states, the nobles,
the Zamindars who had been deprived of the Lands, the Indian soldiers of Britain’s army in India, and the
vast masses of peasants, artisans and others who had been ruined by British economic policies.

Early Revolts against the British: Rebellion and uprising among the peasantry and the tribals were a
regular occurrence since 1757. The Sanyasi Rebellion broke out soon after the British conquest of Bengal.
Tribes like Bhils, Kols, Gonds, Khonds, Mundas and the Santhals rebelled against the British from time to
time. The Farazi Movement, a religious reform movement was started by Haji Shariatullah, championed
under his son Dudhu Miyan, for the cause of the oppressed section of the Muslims in lower Bengal.
Similarly the Wahabi Movement was started by Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi in Bengal to overthrow the British
rule in India.(For more examples read page number 62 and 63 of your textbook.)

Causes of Revolt of 1857:

1. Political Causes
• Discourtesy to the Mughal Emperor: Dalhousie announced in 1849 that the successor to
Bahadur Shah would have to abandon the historic Red Fort and move to a humbler residence at
the Qutab on the outskirts of Delhi. And in 1856, Canning announced that after Bahadur Shah’s
death, the Mughals would lose the title of Kings and would be known as mere princes.
Consequently, such a discourtesy to the Mughal Emperor hurt Muslim sentiments considerably.
• The policy of annexation and subordination: The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie in
1856 (Subsidiary Alliance) along with the other annexation created panic among the rulers of
the native States. The British had repeatedly broken their written and oral pledges and treaties
with the Indian powers and annexed them or reduced them to subordination and imposed their
own nominees on their thrones. For example, the Policy of Doctrine of Lapse, according to
which the British refused to grant Nana Sahib the pension they were paying to Baji Rao II, the
last Peshwa, and forced him to live at Kanpur far away from his family seat at Poona. Similarly,
the British insistence on the annexation of Jhansi incensed the proud Rani Lakshmi Bai, who

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 wanted her adopted son, Anand Rao, to succeed her deceased husband. This policy of annexation
and subordination was directly responsible for making Nana Sahib, the Rani of Jhansi and
Bahadur Shah their staunch ememies.
2. Social and Religious Causes:
• Indians were discriminated by the British. Indian people were given inferior position in all
services. They were not allowed to travel in the first class coaches in a train.
• Governor-General Lord William Bentinck declared Sati an illegal practice in 1829, they also
introduced a law regarding widow remarriage. Women were encouraged to take up Western
learning.
• Christian missionaries in India were involved in converting the people. As per the legislation
which was passed in 1850, a convert could inherit ancestral property. At the same time the
British taxed the land belonging to temples and mosques. This hurt the religious sentiments
of the people. The British promoted Western education. They imposed English as the official
language, while Persian was sidelined. As a result, many Muslims and Hindus lost their jobs.
3. Economic Causes:
• Economic policies of the British were not in favour of the Indians. The land revenue policies
of the British made the life of poor peasants tough. They often lost their lands.
• Indian artisans and craftsmen suffered as machine made goods from Britain were cheaper.
British goods were not taxed in India while Indian goods were heavily taxed in Britain.
Therefore, the Indian traditional handicrafts was ruined.
4. Military Causes:
• The Indian sepoys were not satisfied with the policy of the British. Their salaries were low in
comparison to those of the British soldiers. They did not get equal opportunities of
promotion. The allowance or bhatta was discontinued, this was given when they were sent
outside the country to fight.
• In 1856, the company passed General Service Enlistment Act. According to this every new
recruit had to serve overseas and in those times crossing of the sea was in violation of the
religious sentiments of many Indians.
• Soldiers were unhappy because their families in the countryside lost their traditional lands
due to the exploitative taxation policies.
5. Immediate Causes:
• The whole country was discontented and angry against the unjust policies of the British. Only
a small spark was required to ignite the situation. In 1856, sepoys were asked to use a new
gun called the Enfield Rifle. In order to load the rifle, soldiers had to bite off the cartridge
that was covered in a grease coated paper to make it waterproof. At this time the rumours
spread among the soldier that the grease contained beef tallow and pig fat, which were taboos
for Muslims and Hindus. The sepoys were enraged, believing that the British were
deliberately using the greased cartridges to defile the religion of both the Hindus and
Muslims. The news of the greased cartridges spread like forest fire. Letters were exchanged
among the sepoys. Hence, sepoys rejected the use of Enfield rifle. Mangal Pandey - a soldier
attacked his superior in Barrackpore on 29 March 1857 as a protest against these rifles. He
was arrested and executed. This resulted in outbreak of the Revolt at Meerut.

Main Cetres of the Revolt: Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Awadh (lucknow), Bareilly (Rohilkhand),
Gwalior, Jhansi, Kanpur, Faizabad, Arrah.

The revolt of 1857 failed because of many reasons viz,:

• It was confined to only a few places in India. South India and the region such as Assam,
Orissa, Rajasthan and Punjab did not participate.
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 • Many princely groups such as the chiefs of Nabha, Patiala, Karnal and Jind did not support
the revolt.
• The rebels were poorly organised.
• The absence of a unifying cause hurt the cause of the rebels.
• The lack of strong leadership also hampered the cause of the rebels.
• The rebels did not possess modern weapons and technology and were thus no match for the
British troops.
Questions/Answers
Q1: What was the demand of Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi that was refused by the British?
Ans: British formed new policies to expand their Empire. One of the policies was Doctrine of lapse, which
was based on the idea that in case a ruler of dependent state dies childless, the right of ruling over the
state reverted or lapsed to the sovereign .Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the East India Company
to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after the death of her husband. This demand
was refused by the British

Q2: What did the British do to protect the interest of those who converted to Christianity?
Ans: After 1830 the company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even
own land and property. Those who converted to Christianity were given jobs and other facilities just
like English people. They were also exempted from further taxes. In 1850 and new law was passed to
make conversion to Christianity easier. This allowed an Indian who had converted to Christianity to
inherit the property of their ancestors.

Q3: What objections did the sepoys have to the new cartridges that they were asked to use?
Ans: In 1856, sepoys were asked to use a new gun called the Enfield Rifle. In order to load the rifle,
soldiers had to bite off the cartridge that was covered in a grease coated paper to make it waterproof.
At this time the rumours spread among the soldier that the grease contained beef tallow and pig fat,
which were taboo for Muslims and Hindus. The sepoys were enraged, believing that the British were
deliberately using the greased cartridges to defile the religion of both the Hindus and Muslims and
hence the sepoys refused to use the cartridges.

Q4: How did the last Mughal emperor live the last years of his life?
Ans: Dalhousie announced in 1849 that the successor to Bahadur Shah would have to abandon the historic
Red Fort and move to a humbler residence at the Qutab on the outskirts of Delhi. And in 1856,
Canning announced that after Bahadur Shah’s death, the Mughals would lose the title of Kings and
would be known as mere princes. After the Revolt, when the British captured Delhi on 28 September
1857, the aged emperor Bahadur Shah was taken prisoner. His two sons and his grandson were shot
dead in front of his eyes. He and his wife Begum Zeenat Mahal were sent to Rangoon jail in October
1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in Rangoon jail in November 1862, lamenting bitterly the fate which
had buried him far away from the city of his birth.

Q5: What could be the reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before
May 1857?
Ans: The reasons for the confidence of the British rulers about their position in India before May, 1857
were:
1. The Mughal Emperor had lost its control over the provinces. The traditional rulers fought among
themselves and could not present a united front against a powerful foreign rule.
2. In the mid 18th century, the powers of Nawabs, rajas, zamindars etc. were eroded. The freedom of the
Indian rulers was reduced, their armed forces were disbanded, and their revenue and territories
were taken stage by stage.
3. Company was confident of its superiority and military powers and imposed Doctrine of Lapse.

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 4. In 1801 a subsidiary Alliance was imposed on Awadh and in 1856 it was taken over. It was one of
the last territories to be annexed.

Q6: What impact did Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion have on the people and the ruling
families?
Ans: Bahadur Shah Zafar was not quite willing to challenge the mighty British power but the soldiers
persisted. They forced the ways in to the palace and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader.
The aged Emperor had to accept this demand.

There was a wide spread impact on the people of the whole country and its ruling families after Bahadur
Shah Zafar accepted leadership and extended his support to the rebellion. He wrote letters to all the chiefs
and rulers of the country to come forward and organize a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British.
This single step taken by Bahadur Shah had great implications. All small and big kingdoms, kings, Nawabs,
Rajas, princes, zamindars, chiefs and even many Hindu and Muslim religious leaders welcomed this initial
step taken by the Emperor and joined hands to rebel against the British.

Regiment after regiment mutinied and started to join other troops at nodal points like- Delhi, Kanpur and
Lucknow. The people of towns and villages also joined the rebellion in mass and rallied around local
leaders, zamindars and rulers who were prepared to regain their lost authority and fight against the British.
The British had not expected this to happen. They thought that like many other revolts which occurred in the
past, this revolt would also die down. But Bahadur Shah Zafar’s decision to bless the rebellion changed the
situation dramatically. This filled the people with inspiration, enthusiasm, courage, hope and confidence to
rise up to the situation and act against the British.

Q7: How did the British succeed in securing the submission of the rebel landowners of Awadh?
Ans: The Revolt at Awadh was led by Begum Hazrat Mahal. She was the wife of the deposed ruler Wajid
Ali Shah. Sepoys, peasants,talukdars and chiefs supported Begum Hazrat Mahal in the revolt.
MaulviAhmadullah and Begum Hazrat Mahal inspired the sepoys but after a serious battle, Lucknow
was recaptured by British in March 1858 and the Begum escaped to Nepal.

The Britishers tried their best to win back the loyalty of the people.Especially it wanted to win the
hearts of the Zamindars of Awadh. Nevertheless, hundreds of sepoys, rebels, Nawabs and Rajas were
tried and hangedThe British tried several ways to win back the hearts of the rebel landlords and
zamindars. They announced rewards for loyal landlords that they would be allowed to continue
traditional rights over their lands. Those who had rebelled were told that, if they submitted to the
British and if they had not killed any white people they would remain safe and their rights and claims
to land would not be denied.

Q8: In what ways did the British change their policies as a result of the rebellion of 1857?
Ans: Changes that were introduced by the British as a result of the rebellion of 1857 are:
1. In 1858, a proclaim of the Queen of England was issued, which transformed the powers of the East
India Company to the British crown as it would be responsible for the administration of Indian
affairs. The Governor-general was henceforth known as the Viceroy.
2. Religious tolerance was promised and due attention was to be paid to ancient customs and traditions
3. The rights of the Indian rulers were recognised and they were assured that their lands would not be
annexed. Doctrine of lapse was abolished.
4. A military reorganisation was arranged to end the dominance of the Bengal Army.
5. The land and property of the Muslims were confiscated and they were treated with suspicion and
hostility.
6. Policies were made to protect and safeguard the landlords and zamindars and gave them security of
rights over their lands and other properties.

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Q9: Find out more about Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi. In what ways would she have been an unusual
woman for her times? (self attempt).

Chapter 2: Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners.

Note: Read the above chapter thoroughly.
 Dear students try to find out meaning of the following words/terms.
Vocabulary:
Calico Muslin Chintz Artisan
Wootz Furnace Smelting Aurang
Spinning jenny Bellows Slag heaps Ore

Introduction:
India was a flourishing centre of craft and industry before the establishment of the British rule. It has
been described as the ‘industrial workshop of the world’. The cities had workshop or Karkhana
where several artisans could work on a piece together. In the villages, the artisans worked from
home. They were helped by family members and used their own equipments. Such a system of
production is called a cottage industry. There were flourishing Cotton textile centres at Murshidabad,
Banaras, Krishnanagar, Dhaka, Ahmedabad and Mathura. Articles made by Indian artisans had a
market across the world. The main exports in the 17th century were Calico, Muslin, Yarn, Raw
cotton, Raw silk, gold and silver artefacts,jewellery, leather, sugar, rice, Indigo, pepper, and other
spices. The value of exports from India far exceeded the value of imports into India. Exports were
mainly paid for in silver or gold.

 The Decline of Indian Industry: The traditional industries of India went through very troubled
times and many finally disappeared all together. India became a source of raw materials for British
industries and the market for their finished goods. The main reasons for the decline of Indian
industry were:
• Impact of the industrial revolution.
• Loss of Royal patronage.
• Loss of external markets.
• Coercive tactics used by the British.
• Indifference of the British rulers.
 Industrialisation in India in the 19th century:
The British government’s attitude to industrial development in India was lukewarm. The growing
National Movement in India put pressure on British to do something about the dying industries of
India. The recurring famines in India forced the British to setup the famine commission in 1880,
which recommended the setting up of factories in India as this would reduce pressure on agriculture.
A separate Department of Commerce and Industry was established by Lord Curzon in 1905. The
Swadeshi Movement started by Mahatma Gandhi, which stressed the need to develop indigenous
Industries, also gave a boost to the industrialization of India.
 The beginning of the modern Indian Industry:
Large-scale industries required large-scale movement of raw materials and finished products. For
this, modern and efficient means of transport and communication were needed. India lacked both. So
the British started building roads and railways across the country. Steam navigation along the rivers
was developed. Post and Telegraph were introduced to speed up communication. British investors

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 built Jute factories in Calcutta and cotton mills in Kanpur, followed by metal works, coal mines, oil
wells etc. This encouraged the growth of ancillary (subsidiary) industries, usually run by Indians.

When World War I broke out in 1914, Britain was importing parts of its steel requirements from
India. As it was becoming difficult to get their essential supplies from England due to the war, so the
British were forced to start factories in India. The important organised industries in India are cotton,
jute, iron and steel, paper and Leather. The first cotton mill was established in 1818 at Fort Gloster
near Kolkata but was commercial failure.
• Cotton Textiles: The first cotton mill was set up in Bombay in 1854, by Cowasjee Nanabhai.
The next one came up in Ahmedabad in 1861. Ahmedabad soon became the second most
important centre for Textiles, closely followed by Madras.
• The Jute Industries: The first Jute mill in Bengal started in 1855. The number of mills grew
slowly to 64 by World War I.
• Coal mining: The steam engines that pulled the trains were powered by coal. As the need for
coal grew, coal mines were opened in Bengal, Orissa and Bihar, which had rich seams of
coal.
• The sugar industry: Sugar was imported into India since British rule began. Sugar factories
were concentrated in Maharashtra because of the availability of sugarcane.
• The iron and steel industry: Iron and steel is one of the most important and basic industries
of a modern economy. In 1907 the Tata Iron and Steel Company was founded by the
visionary JamsetjiNusserwanji Tata in Jamshedpur, Bihar. This was the first Indian-owned
steel producing unit in India. The need for Iron and Steel increased in 1939 during World
War II and the industry received a boost.

Note: Read the story of Wootzsteel .... from the sword of Tipu Sultan... through the abandoned furnaces in
villages....and how Weld and Dorabji reached Rajhara hills in search of iron ore...and finally TISCO
came up. (pg no.74-78 ).
Question no.9 and 11 of your textbook (self attempt)
Questions/Answers
Q1: What kinds of cloth had a large market in Europe?
Ans: Articles made by Indian artisans had a market across the world. The main exports in the 17th century
were calico, muslin, yarn, raw cotton, raw silk, gold and silver artefacts, jewellery, leather, sugar,
rice, Indigo, pepper, and other spices. Cotton and silk textiles had a huge market in Europe. Indian
textiles were by far the most popular, both for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship.
Different varieties of Indian textiles were sold in the Western markets; for example,
chintz, cossaes or khassa, bandanna and jamdani. From the 1680s, there started a craze for printed
Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe, mainly for their exquisite floral designs, fine texture
and relative cheapness.

Q2: What is jamdani?

Ans: Jamdani is a fine muslin cloth (woven textile) on which decorative motifs are woven on the loom,
typically in grey and white. Often a mixture of cotton and gold thread is used.
The most important jamdani weaving were Dacca in Bengal and Lucknow in the United Provinces.

Q3: What is bandanna?

Ans: The term “bandanna” is derived from the word bandhna (hindi for tying). Bandana referred to variety
of brightly coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying. The word bandanna now
refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head.
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Q4: Who are the Agaria?
Ans: The Agaria were an Indian community of iron smelters who were specialised in the craft of iron
smelting

Q5: Fill in the blanks (self attempt)

Q6: How do the names of different textiles tell us about their histories?
Ans: By tracing the origins of the names of different textiles, one can find out a lot about their histories.
For example calico— When the Portuguese first came to India in search of spices, they landed in
Calicut on the Kerala coast in south-west India. The cotton textiles which they took back to the
Europe along with the spices, came to be called calico (derived from Calicut).
Chintz - a printed cotton cloth, is a term that is derived from the Hindi word chhint—a cloth with
small and colourful flowery designs.
Another example is muslin—a word that refers to any finely woven textile. This word is a derivative
of the city of Mosul (in present-day Iraq). It was here that the European traders first encountered fine
cotton cloth from India, which was brought over from India by Arab merchants.
Bandanna-The term “bandanna” is derived from the word bandhna (hindi word for tying). Bandana
referred to variety of brightly coloured cloth produced through a method of tying and dying. The
word bandanna now refers to any brightly coloured and printed scarf for the neck or head.
The widespread use of such words shows how popular Indian textiles had become in different parts
of the world.

Q7: Why did the wool and silk producers in England protest against the import of Indian textiles in
the early eighteenth century?
Ans: Indian textiles had long been renowned, both for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. They
were extensively traded in Southeast Asia and West and Central Asia. From the sixteenth century,
European trading companies began buying Indian textiles for sale in Europe. There was quite a craze
for Indian cotton textiles in England and Europe, mainly for their exquisite floral designs, fine
texture and relative cheapness.
By the early eighteenth century, textile industries had just begun to develop in England. Unable to
compete with Indian textiles, English producers wanted a secure market within the country by
preventing the entry of Indian textiles. In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning
the use of printed cotton textiles – chintz in England. This Act was known as the Calico Act. The
first to grow under government protection was the calico printing industry. Indian designs were now
imitated and printed in England on white muslin or plain unbleached Indian cloth.

Q8: How did the development of cotton industries in Britain affect textile producers in India?
Ans: The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India in several ways:
(i) Indian textiles had to compete with the increased productivity and cheap prices of British
textiles in European and American markets.
(ii) Exporting textiles to England became increasingly difficult due to the very high duties
imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain.
(iii) By the beginning of the nineteenth century, English-made cotton textiles ousted Indian
textiles from their traditional markets, thereby throwing thousands of Indian weavers out of
employment. The English and European companies stopped buying Indian textiles and their
agents no longer gave out advances to weavers to secure supplies.

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 (iv) By the 1830s, British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets; two-third of all cotton clothes
worn by Indians were made of cloth produced in Britain. This greatly affected both the
weavers and the spinners.
(v) Many weavers became agricultural labourers. Some migrated to the cities to work in mills
and some worked in plantations in Africa and South America.
Thus, Indian textiles declined in the nineteenth century, and thousands of Indian weavers and
spinners lost their livelihood.

Q9: Why did the Indian iron smelting industry decline in the nineteenth century?
Ans: (Self attempt)

Q10: What problems did the Indian textile industry face in the early years of its development?
Ans: By 1900, over 84 textile mills started operating in Bombay. Many of these were started by Parsi and
Gujrati businessmen who had made their money through trade with China. Growth of these textile
mills led to a demand for labour. Thousands of poor peasants, artisans and agricultural labourers
move to the cities to work in these mills.
In the first few decades of its existence, the Indian textile industry faced certain problems. One such
problem was that of competition from imported goods. Being in its early years of development, the
Indian textile industry found it difficult to compete with the cheap textiles imported from Britain.
Unlike other countries where governments allowed local industries to grow by imposing heavy
duties on imports, the colonial government in India did not protect and support the local textile
industries in any such way.

Q10: What helped TISCO expand steel production during the First World War?
Ans: (self attempt)

Chapter-3: Civilizing the “Native”, Educating the Nation

Note: Read the chapter thoroughly
Education before British rule:

 Till 19th century, there was a system of religious education in India for providing education via
customary ‘pathshalas’, ‘madrasas’ and ‘makhtabs’.
 These small Institutions laid emphasis on education that was mainly religious in nature.
 No steps were taken to improve the education level of Indians.
 Subjects like Sanskrit, Persian, grammar, poetry, geometry and astronomy were taught. Science and
geography were usually ignored.
 The students were not aware of the new developments in different fields.
 Printed books were not available to the students.
 The mode of teaching was oral.
 There was no fixed time of admissions.
 There were no curriculums.
 Fees were not fixed.
 Teachers were paid by the parents in cash or in kind.
New Education system introduced in India by the British:

The British brought almost all territories of India under their control during 1765 to 1857. They felt the need
to administer them effectively. They came up with new policies on education, administration, culture,
society and economy. They claim that these policies were brought for the welfare of the people. In reality,
these were aimed to maximize the colonial interest.

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The new education system laid emphasis on the teaching of English language and literature where the study
of Indian languages had no place. People who wanted to encourage the study of classical languages such as
Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic, had to make individual efforts.

The British motive behind the New Education System or Modern Education:

• To encourage the study of English language and literature: They wanted the people under their rule
to learn the English language so that they might be able to communicate with them easily. Besides, they also
wanted to establish the British rule all over India through their language.
• To reduce the expenditure on the administration: They wanted to employ them on low salaries to
reduce the expenditure on the administration. Bringing in Englishmen for various administrative jobs was
possible only by paying them very high salaries for working in India.
• To expand the market for British manufacturers: The English capitalist thought that after acquiring
modern education, the Indians would become English in their interests, ideas and intelligence. This, they
thought, would help to expand the market for British manufacturers.
• Spread of Christianity: The Christian missionaries, with the help of modern education wanted to end
the little faith of Indians and their religious beliefs, so that they would easily accept Christianity.
Orientalists and Anglicists:

Orientalist: Sir William Jones and Henry Thomas Colebrooke were prominent orientalists. They advocated
the study of ancient sacred and legal texts as these could provide a better understanding of real India. Many
company officials believed that the British should promote Persian and Hindi literature and poetry as this
will help them to win a place in the hearts of their subjects. The Calcutta Madrasa was set up by Warren
Hastings in 1781. The purpose behind this Madrasa was to teach and study Islamic law and other subjects.
William Jones started the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 and started a journal- Asiatic Researches. A
Sanskrit college was started by Jonathan Duncan in 1792 at Banaras. The purpose was to study Hindu law
and philosophy.
Anglicist: In the early 19th century, some English people began to criticize the view of the Orientalist on
learning. They had the opinion that knowledge of the east was unscientific and full of flaws. The western
system of learning was far superior. The people of India should be made familiar with scientific and
technical advancements of the west. James Mill was one of the biggest critics of Oriental learning. He was a
senior civil servant in India.
Beginning of the Modern Education:
• Early steps taken by the Company: In the beginning, the company came to India with the sole aim
of enhancing England's commercial prosperity and not spending money on education. In spite of this, some
British officers made efforts to promote Western education in India. In 1781, Warren Hastings took some
steps in this direction. Three years later, the Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Jones.
The Society proved very helpful in the field of education. To promote Modern Education among Indians, the
Christian College at Madras (Chennai), the Wilson College of Bombay (Mumbai) and the St. John’s College
of Agra were started by the Christian missionaries.
• The Charter Act of 1813: The Charter Act of 1813 incorporated the principle of encouraging
learned Indians and promoting modern science in India. The Act directed the Company to spend an annual
sum of Rs One lakh for spreading education.
• Educational Reforms by Lord Macaulay in 1835: Macaulay was appointed President of the
Committee of Public Instruction, which proposed the introduction of English language, literature, social and
natural sciences as the objective of the British educational policies in India. Macaulay’s views were accepted
and taken up for implementation in March 1835. Another important step was taken to encourage English
learning in 1844 when Lord Hardinge introduced the principle of giving preference to English-educated
Indians in public employment.
• Wood's Despatch 1854: The Wood's Despatch of 1854 brought further changes in education. It is
known as the Wood’s Despatch after its author Charles Wood. It emphasized on the practical benefits of
Western learning system. It also outlined the educational policies to be followed in India.
The Wood’s Despatch highlighted the following benefits of Western education.

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 Indians would be able to realize the benefits from the expansion of trade and commerce.
 Indians would be exposed to Western culture and lifestyle. This would lead to the creation of new
demand for English goods.
 Western learning would supply a new lot of skilled Indians to the Company. They would be loyal
and dependable administrators. This would save the Company’s resources.
The Wood's Despatch also put forward certain measures to improve the education system in India. It
proposed:
1. Setting up of education departments in all provinces which will supervise education and provide
financial aid to the educational institutions.
2. Establishing a grading system in school, colleges and Universities.
3. Giving grants to private schools and colleges.
4. Keeping the medium of instruction vernacular at the primary level and English at the higher levels.
5. Setting up a new institution for training and recruiting teachers.
Effects of Western Education:
Merits:
The new system of education brought order and discipline in the pathshalas.
1. Teaching was based on textbooks and children were tested through a system of examination.
2. Students had to pay regular fees. They had to attend classes regularly. The teacher too had to follow
a fixed time table and curriculum.
3. Besides, government pandits were appointed who were responsible for improving the standard of
education in the pathshalas.
4. Universities were set up in the 1857 in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. At Roorkee and Calcutta, two
engineering colleges were established. In major cities like Bombay, Madras, Calcutta and Lahore,
medical colleges were set up.
5. The Indians learned new concepts of liberty, nationalism and socialism through Western education.
This ultimately helped in attaining Independence later in 1947.
Demerits:
1. Education for all was not the aim of this new educational system.
2. The traditional Indian system of education started to decline.
Major educational institutions were situated in big cities. Small cities towns and villages were
neglected.
3. Education for girls was also neglected as there were only a few provisions for them.
4. This education system was not only rigid but also expensive.
5. The new education glorified the western world. Indians who were educated under the British system
were groomed in western thoughts and science. They were not aware of Bhaskar, Aryabhatta or
Panini.
6. The new education completely sidelined Indian contribution in the fields of literature and Science.
William Adam a Scottish missionary.
In 1830s, William Adam, a Scottish missionary, toured the districts of Bengal and Bihar. He had been asked
by the Company to report on the progress of education in Vernacular schools.
William Adams report:
• There were over 1 lakh pathshalas in Bihar and Bengal. These were small institutions with no more
than 20 students each. But the total number of children being taught in these pathshalas was
considerable over 20 lakh.
• These institutions were set up by wealthy people, or by the local community. At times they were
started by a teacher (Guru).
• The system of education was flexible.
• No printed books.
• No separate school building.

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• No benches or chairs.
• No blackboards.
• No roll call register.
• No annual examinations.
• No regular time table.
• No system of separate classes. In some places classes were held under a Banyan tree, in other places
in the corner of a village shop or temple, or at the Guru’s home.
• There was no fixed fees. Fee depended on the income of the parents. The rich had to pay more than
the poor.
• Teaching was oral, and the Guru decided what to teach, in accordance with the needs of the students.
• Students were not separated into different classes, all of them sat together in one place. The Guru
interacted separately with groups of children with different levels of learning.
• This flexible system was suited to local needs of the peasants. For example, classes were not held
during harvest time, rural children worked in the fields and once the crops had been cut and stored,
they joined back to continue their education.
Introducing order within the system:
 Company appointed a number of government Pandits, each in charge of looking after 4 to 5 Schools.
 The task of a Pandit was to visit the Pathshala and try to improve the standard of teaching.
 Each guru was asked to submit periodic reports and take classes according to a regular time table.
 Teaching was now based on textbooks, and learning was to be tested through a system of annual
examination.
 Students were asked to pay regular fee, attend regular classes, sit on fixed seats, and obey the new
rules of discipline.
 Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported through government grants. Those who
were unwilling to work within the new system received no government support.
 Earlier, children of peasant families had been able to go a Pathshalas, but since the time table was not
flexible now and this new system demanded regular attendance even during the harvest time, the
children of such peasants suffered as they could not attend the school.
National education:
Many people were not satisfied with the British education. It glorified western science and culture. They
advocated the need for an education that would encourage the youth to take pride in their own culture. The
first step in this direction was setting up of the National Council of Education in 1906.
It was aimed at to imparting education through the Vernacular medium, while at the same time retained
English as a compulsory second language. There were also provisions for imparting Technical Education
along with the research in ancient Indian culture and arts. This Council set up several National Institutions
such as Jadavpur University, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Millia Islamia.
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore were two main persons attached to the cause of Indian
education.
Mahatma Gandhi: He was very critical of British education. According to him, English education made
Indians see Western Civilization as superior and our own Civilization as inferior. The Indians educated in
these institutions gradually started admiring the British rule. He, therefore, urged students to leave British
education and proposed an alternative which was popularly known as Nai Talim. He was in favour of an
education system that would impart practical knowledge and make a person self-reliant.
Rabindranath Tagore: Rabindranath Tagore firmly believed that human beings are most creative and
receptive in their natural surroundings. A classroom with four walls will automatically block the mind of the
student. Tagore opened an educational institution at Shantiniketan in 1951, which later became a Central
University and was named Visva Bharati. He emphasized the need to teach Science and Technology in
Shantiniketan along with art, music and dance.

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Textual Question/Answers:
Q1. Self attempt
Q2. Self attempt
Q3. Why did William Jones feel the need to study Indian history, philosophy and law?
Ans. After the British conquest of India, many Englishmen like William Jones, Henry Thomas,
Colebrooke, Nathaniel Halhed, started studying ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion,
politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine and other sciences. Their interest kept them busy in
discovering the ancient Indian heritage, mastering Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and
Persian works into English. Together with them, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal and
started a journal called Asiatic Researches.
Jones and Colebrooke shared a deep interest and respect for ancient culture, both of India and the
West. Discovering ancient texts, understanding their meaning, translating them and making their
findings known to others, Jones and Colebrooke, believed, it would not only help the British learn
from the Indian culture, but it would also help Indians recover their own heritage and understand the
lost glory of their past. They also believed that in this process, the British would become the
guardians of Indian culture as well as its masters.
Q4. Why did James Mill and Thomas Macaulay think that European education was essential in
India?
Ans. James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientlists. He declared, the approach should not be to
teach what the native wanted, or what they respected, in order to please them and ‘win a place in
their heart. The aim of education ought to be to teach what was useful and practical. So an Indian
should be made familiar with scientific and technical advances that the West had made, rather than
with the unscientific and sacred literature of the Orientalists.
Macaulay saw India as an uncivilized country that needed to be civilized. No branch of Eastern
knowledge according to him could be compared to what England had produced. Macaulay declared
‘that a single shelf of good European literature was worth the whole native literature of India and
Arabia.’ He urged that the British government in Indian should stop wasting public money in
promoting oriental learning, for it was of no practical use.
With great energy and passion, Macaulay emphasized the need to teach the English language. He felt
that knowledge of English would make Indians to read some of the finest literature the world had
produced; it would make them aware of the development on Western science and philosophy.
Teaching of English could thus be a way of civilizing people, changing their tastes, values and
culture.
Q5. Why did Mahatma Gandhi want to teach children handicrafts?
Ans. Mahatma Gandhi believed that education should aim at all-round development of children, bringing
out the best from them as per their abilities and capabilities. According to him, literacy is a part of
education. So, he thought that with the learning how to read and write, the education of children
should be made more useful by teaching them about handicrafts because highest development of the
mind and the soul is possible under such a system of education. And it will also make them self-
dependant and later on will help them to earn for their livelihood.
Q6. Why did Mahatma Gandhi think that English education had enslaved Indians?
Ans. Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of
Indians. It made them see Western civilization as superior and destroyed the pride they had in their
own culture. There was poison in this education, said Mahatma Gandhi. It enslaved Indians.
Appreciating everything that came from the West, Indians getting western education began admiring
British rule. Mahatma Gandhi wanted an education system that could help Indians recover their

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 sense of dignity and self-respect for their own culture and traditions. During the National Movement,
he urged students to leave British educational institutions in order to show to them that Indians were
no longer willing to be enslaved. Mahatma Gandhi strongly felt that Indian Languages must be the
medium of teaching. He strongly believed that education in English has crippled Indians, distanced
them from their own lands. Speaking a foreign language, disrespecting local culture, the English
education did not know how to relate to the masses.ss

SUBJECT: CIVICS

Chapter 1: Judiciary
The Judiciary is the body concerned with upholding the law. It punishes the guilty and settles disputes. The
judiciary has been given the power and the duty to safeguard the basic rights of the citizens of India and
uphold the supremacy of the constitution.
The Indian constitution protects the citizens from any partial Judgment. And, this gives the powers to the
Judiciary to make decisions based on the rules of the law, in case of any dispute. Due to such authority the
Judiciary of the country is an independent body.

Other branches of government – the legislature and the executive – cannot interfere in the work of the
judiciary. The courts are not under the government and do not act on their behalf.

Independent Judiciary: The Indian Constitution protects the citizens from any partial judgment. And, this
gives the power to the judiciary to make decisions based on the rules of the law, in case of any dispute. Due
to such authority, the judiciary of the country is an independent body.

If the judiciary is independent, then it can make fair decisions that uphold the rule of law, an essential
element of any genuine constitutional democracy.

Judicial independence is important because it guarantees that judges are free to decide honestly and
impartially in accordance with the law and evidence without concern or fear of interference, control and
improper influence from anyone. Thus judiciary should be independent.

The Structure of the Judiciary

The Indian judiciary is single, integrated and unified. It means that if a person is not satisfied with
the judgment got in the lower courts, he or she can appeal to a higher court.
The Judiciary in India is organized in a hierarchy. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the
country. Below the Supreme Court are the High Courts in the states. Under the High Courts are the
District and Subordinate Courts at the district level.

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 Supreme Court

High Court

District court

Subordinate Court

THE SUPREME COURT:-

The Supreme Court is the highest court in India. The chief justice is appointed by the president of
India. The other judges are appointed on the recommendation of the Chief Justice, by the president.
So the legislature or executive cannot interfere in the working of the judiciary.

Guardian of the Constitution

Consists of Chief Justice of India and not more than 25

other judges

Chief Justice and Judges appointed by the President of India on the advice of the
Council Of Ministers and the sitting Judges of the Supreme court.
Supreme Court

The Judge retires on attaining 65 years of age.

can be removed earlier by Parliament in case of proven misbehaviour and

incapability

located in New Delhi

Required qualifications:
To become a judge of the Supreme Court, besides being an Indian citizen, a person must be an
advocate at a High Court with a minimum of ten years’ experience, or a High Court with at least five
years’experience, or a distinguished jurist i.e., expert in law.
Term of Office:
The retirement age of the judges of the Supreme Court is 65 years. But, if found guilty of misuse of
authority, a resolution will be passed in both the houses of parliament for the removal of the guilty
person, and impeachment procedure will commence. So far no Indian judge has been impeached.

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 Powers and functions of the Supreme Court:
Original jurisdictions: The Supreme Court has the authority to hear certain types of cases for the
first time.
1. Disputes between two state governments or more.
2. Disputes that arise between the central government and one or more state governments.
3. Cases dealing with infringement of fundamental rights.
4. Cases that involve disputes over the interpretation of the constitution can be brought directly
to the Supreme Court.

Jurisdiction of Supreme Court

Original Jurisdiction Appellate Jurisdiction Advisory Jurisdiction

Appellate jurisdiction:-
The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases. It can hear appeals
against judgments rendered by the High Court. In other words, if a person is not happy with a
judgement given by a High Court, he or she can appeal to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court
will then hear the case and give the final judgement.

Advisory jurisdiction:-
The Supreme Court advises the president and the Council of Ministers, on matters of constitutional
issues or issues of public important. The president can seek the advice of the Supreme Court but this
is not binding on the president.

Judicial review:-
The Supreme Court is the defender of our fundamental rights. So, it has the power to issue writs i.e.,
directions or orders for the enforcement of the fundamental rights if limitations are places on them.
The court can order compensation to the victims and punishment to the offenders. So any law or
policy made by the government that is not in accordance with the text or intention of the constitution
can be declared as illegal. This is known as judicial review.

Certiorari

Mandamus Habeas Corpus

Five kinds
of writs

Prohibition Quo Warranto

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Court of Records:-
All the cases brought before the Supreme Court and where judgments have been given are
maintained as record by the Supreme Court.

Contempt of court:-
The Supreme Court has the power to punish anyone for contempt of any law court in India.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL):-

Any citizen of India can go to the court if the interest of the public has been affected by the deeds of
the governments. This is known as public interest litigation (PIL). The courts then study the case
and if necessary, issue orders to check the malpractices of public officials and prevent the misuse of
power by the government.
HIGH COURT:-
The High Court is the apex court in the state. The chief justice of the High Court is appointed by the
president on the recommendation of, and in consultation with, the chief justice of India and the
governor of the state concerned.

The President appoints Chief Justice and other judges of the High
Court in consultation with the Governor and Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court.

Consists of the Chief Justice and other judges.

High Court Judges of the High Court retire at the age of 62

Power to hear original cases and also disputes concerning Fundamental Rights and
election-related disputes.

Hears cases on appeal from subordinate courts.

Supervises and monitors working of the Lower Courts.

Qualification:
To be a High Court judge, a person has to be a citizen of India, a High Court advocate with at least
ten years experience, or a judicial officer with at least ten years’ experience.
Retirement:
A High Court judge retires at the age of 62. He or she can also face impeachment on charges of
misconduct as is the case with the judges of the Supreme Court.
Powers and Functions of the High Court:-
The High Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving the enforcement of fundamental
rights. It can issue writs.
It has appellate jurisdiction over both civil and criminal cases. Its hears appeals against the
decisions taken by the lower courts.
Its supervisory jurisdiction involves supervising the activities of the lower courts.
It also is a court of record.
The High Court thus deals with all cases that pertain to the jurisdiction of that state, both civil and
criminal.
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SUBORDINATE COURTS:

The states are divided into districts. Each of the districts has a district court.
There are separate courts for civil and criminal cases. The court of the district judge is the highest
court for civil justice. Subordinate courts under it are the court of the civil judge and the court of
the munsif.
The court of the sessions judge is the highest court in the district dealing with criminal cases. And
the subordinate courts under it are the courts of the chief judicial magistrate, the first class
judicial magistrates and the second-class judicial magistrates.
In the villages, justice is dispensed through 'Nyaya Panchayats'.

Supreme Court

High Court

District Court

Civil Court Criminal Court

Court of the Civil Judge Court of the Session Judge

Court of the Munsif Court of the Chief Judicial

Magistrate

First class Judicial

Magistrate

Second class Judicial

Magistrate

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LOK ADALATS FOR SPEEDY JUSTICE:

There was a heavy backlog of cases in all the courts. In an effort to speed up the process of settling
cases, Lok Adalats were established by an act of Parliament. Lok Adalat means people's court. The
first Lok Adalat was held in Delhi in 1985.
Lok Adalats, which offered free legal aid, ensured that justice was not denied to the poor for
economic reasons.
Lok Adalats settle disputes through conciliation and compromise.
At Lok Adalat is presided over by a sitting or retired judicial officer as the chairperson, with two
other members, usually a lawyer and a social worker. There is no court fee.

Chapter 2: Understanding Our Criminal Justice System

The police play a vital role in protecting the laws by preventing and solving crimes against society.
THE POLICE AND THE COURTS
When a crime is committed, it is the job of the police to investigate and then arrest the person they
believe committed the crime. The person has to be then produced in court, where the defence lawyer
defends the accused, and the public prosecutor fights the case on behalf of the State. The judge hears
both sides of the case and then gives his or her ruling or judgement. It the judge believes that the
accused is guilty, he or she is punished. It is now the role of the police to carry out punishment.
Some of the important ranks in the police force are the Commissioner of Police or Director General
of Police, Superintendent of Police, Assistant Superintendent of Police etc.
• Commissioner of Police: The police force in the state is headed by Commissioner of Police or
Director General of Police.
• Superintendent of Police: The police force in each district is headed by Superintendent of
Police.

The main activities performed by the police include

a. preventing crime
b. solving crime
c. taking necessary steps to arrest the persons involved in the crime committed
d. investigating and filing charge sheets
e. ensuring that law and order prevails
f. regulating traffic.

Administrative set-up of the police

• Every state is divided into districts; each district's police administration is headed by the
superintendent of police (SP).
• Each district is further divided into five or six circles and a deputy superintendent of police
(DSP) controls each circle.
• Under each circle there are ten police stations or thanas. They are under the custody of an
inspector.
• The bigger cities have commissioners, assistant commissioners and deputy commissioners.

Process of investigation of crimes

• Each police station covers a specific area and so any crime committed in an area has to be
reported at the police station concerned.

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 • The law required the officer of the police station to register a first information report or
FIR whenever information is given that a crime has been committed.
• But the police cannot decide on the guilt of the accused ─ that is the work of the judiciary.

The constitution clearly guarantees the following fundamental rights to all those arrested:
a. the right to know, at the time of arrest, the reason for the arrest
b. the right not to be ill- treated or tortured during arrest and subsequent detention
c. once the FIR has been lodged and arrest made, the matter has to be taken to the court
d. the arrested person has to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest

Filling an FIR

When the police get information about an offence that has been
committed, they file what is known as a First Information Report

The FIR is a written complaint to formally An FIR is normally filed only at the police
register a crime that has been committed. station under whose jurisdiction the crime
has been committed.

An FIR can be filed by either the victim of a In 1999, a court ruled that the police can’t
crime or by someone on behalf of the reject an FIR on the grounds that the crime
victim. Other people can also report to the has been committed outside its jurisdiction.
police when a crime is committed.

A police officer is obliged to file an FIR

under the law and transfer the matter to the
concerned police station later.

An FIR is an extremely important document. The police will begin their investigation into offence only after
an FIR has been lodged.
The victim or the witness should go to the nearest police station and file an FIR. The FIR can be lodged in
any police station, and later transferred to the police station under which the offence occurred.
The FIR must be hand-written, signed and prepared in duplicate. The police officer assigns a registration
number, and signs and gives the informant his or her copy. The FIR should specify the place, date and time
of the incident, and describe the incident in detail. No police officer can refuse to register an FIR.
If the police officer refuses to register an FIR, the aggrieved person has the right to approach the Magistrate
at the High Court and file a complaint petition. The Magistrate can then direct the police to register the case.
If the police do not register an FIR within 24 hours of receiving this order, the Magistrate can start
disciplinary action against the concerned police officer.

Role of the Public Prosecutor.

A Public Prosecutor is a lawyer who fights for or defends the State. He or she is appointed by the State.
The Public Prosecutor:
• is expected to conduct the prosecution (or trial) impartially and

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 is expected to present all the facts evidence and witnesses before the court to enable an unbiased
•
judgement
If the accused is financially incapable, the court will appoint a lawyer for him or her. This lawyer is called
the Defense Lawyer.

The Public Prosecutor is a lawyer He or she is not a representative of any

appointed by the state who appears against
the accused person in the court. This is
because the crime committed against an
individual is regarded as a crime committed
against the entire society. The Public
Prosecutor represents the public interest or
the interest of the society.
The job of the Public Prosecutor is to assist
the state in the administration of justice.
party. He or she helps the court to reach a
decision by placing before it all the relevant
aspects of the case.
Police and Public Prosecutor play a vital
role in maintaining law and order and
delivering justice. They ensure that all
citizens receive the protection of law and
that breaking the law doesn’t go
unpunished.

The trial
A person accused of a crime is considered innocent till proven guilty by a court of law. So, a fair and
open trial is mandatory. The judge, the public prosecutor, the defence lawyer, the accused, the
witnesses and the public are present during the hearing. A witness is a person who actually saw the
crime being committed.
The judge hears both sides of the case. Then based on the evidence or proof presented by the police,
witnesses, defendant and prosecutor, the judge give his or her verdict.
The punishment will vary depending on the magnitude of the crime committed. If the crime so
warrants, the judge may even award the death sentence. But if a lower court awards the death
sentence, the criminal will not be executed till the sentence is confirmed by the High Court. It the
verdict given by the High Court is unsatisfactory, the case can go to the Supreme Court.

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY

Topic: Mineral and Power Resources

“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed”.
Let’s Learn:
• Minerals and energy resources.
• Importance of minerals and energy resources.
• Conservation of minerals and energy resources.
Minerals:
Minerals are invaluable treasures of the earth. Without minerals, we cannot think of industrialisation and the
development of our economy. They are non - renewable resources. So, we need to conserve these resources
and use them carefully.

What are minerals?

Minerals are naturally occurring substances with definite chemical composition and fixed physical
properties.
Minerals are broadly divided into two groups
1. Metallic minerals:

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 • Ferrous (contain iron, e.g. iron ore, nickel, manganese)
• Non – ferrous (E.g. copper, lead, tin, bauxite)
• Precious (E.g. gold, silver)

2. Non – metallic:
e.g. mica, salt, marble, potash, sulphur, granite, limestone etc.
3. Energy minerals:
e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas.
Sources of minerals:
We know that rocks are aggregates of minerals. Sometimes a rock may be formed of a single mineral
like limestone. But most of the rocks are composed of different minerals in varying proportions.
A particular mineral may be concentrated in large amount within a rock. It is called ore of that
mineral. The ore has to be mined. Its impurities have to be removed to acquire the minerals E.g. iron,
gold.
Metallic minerals like copper, zinc and lead are mostly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Examples are:
• Iron ore – North Sweden
• Nickel and copper – Ontario, Canada
• Iron, nickel, chromites, platinum – South Africa
Non – metallic minerals like gypsum, potash, salt are found in sedimentary rocks.
Examples are:
• Limestone deposits – Caucasus region of France.
• Manganese deposits – Georgia and Ukraine.
• Phosphate – Beds of Algeria
Minerals can be extracted from the earth by mining, drilling or quarrying as shown below:

Extraction of minerals

Mining Drilling Quarrying

Open cast Shaft

mining mining

Major Mineral Resources of India and World:

Mineral resources are unevenly distributed over the world. Some areas are very rich in a variety of mineral
resources, Whereas, some areas are poor in minerals.
Let us see the distribution of minerals in different countries of the world.

S.No. Minerals India World

Chattisgarh, Odhisa, Karnataka,
1 Iron
Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh
2 Copper Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Chattisgarh
China, Brazil, Australia, Russia,
Ukraine, USA, Venezuela
Chile, Peru, USA, Russia, Canada,
Zambia

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 Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Australia, China, Brazil, Guinea,
3 Bauxite
Odhisa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh Jamaica
Madhya Pradesh, Odhisa, Chattisgarh, China, Kazakhstan, South Africa,
4 Manganese
Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh Brazil, Ghana, Australia
5 Mica Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan India, Brazil, USA, Canada, Russia
China, Peru, Australia, USA,
6 Zinc Rajasthan
Canada
China, Australia, USA, Peru,
7 Lead Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Odhisa
Mexico
Kolar and Huatti South Africa, Australia, USA,
8 Gold
Mines in Karnataka Canada
9 Diamond Panna in Madhya Pradesh South Africa

Uses of minerals:
The social and economic development of a nation depends on its capacity to utilize these resources,
judiciously. There are variety of minerals available on the earth. They are processed in industries and made
an item of utility for our daily use, For example,
1. Copper is used in manufacturing automobiles, machinery, coins, pipes, tools and utensils.
2. Silicon is obtained from quartz which is composed of silicon and oxygen. It is used in the computer
industry.
3. Gold, silver, platinum and diamond is used to make jewellery.
4. Iron – ore: It is used to make machinery and tools, in construction work, for transport equipment and
as an alloy to make a variety of products.
5. Lead: It is used in lead – acid storage batteries found in automobiles.

agate

olivine
quartz

Semi – precious stones

Peridote amethyst
from minerals

beryl corundum

aquamarine emerald ruby

sapphire

Conservation of minerals:
Mineral deposits in the world are limited. Thus, it is important that they are used judiciously for future
generations.
1. Reclamation: - Efforts should be made to reclaim various minerals by using latest technology like
remote sensing satellite in identifying their reserves.
2. Recycling: - The waste produced during a production process and post consumption such as scrap
iron from old machinery, automobiles, industrial equipment’s, etc. should be recycled.

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 3. Substitution: - Mineral based products should be replaced with alternatives such as plastics etc.
which has now effectively replaced copper in piping and steel in car bodies.
Power Resources:
Power resources are those which can be tapped to generate electricity. Power or energy is very important to
us. We need power for agriculture, industry, defence, transport and communication. Power resources may be
classified as conventional and non – conventional resources.

Natural gas
Fossil fuels coal

Petroleum
others
organic

Fire wood
Tidal energy Biogas energy conventional

inorganic

Non - conventional Power resources

Wind
energy Hydroelectric
Geothermal power
Solar Nuclear energy
energy power

a) Conventional source: refer to those sources of energy that have been used for many years and are
going to get over in a period of time. Firewood and fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy
sources
a) Conventional sources:
Types of energy Advantages Disadvantages

• Takes time to collect

• Easily available • Seasonal use
• Firewood
• Ubiquitous • Causes pollution, deforestation and
greenhouse effect
• Widely available • Polluting
• Coal
• Easily converted to energy • Bulky
• East to transport • Causes acid rain
• Petroleum • Raw material of petrochemical • Oil spills depletes oxygen
industry • Exploration of new oil field is difficult
• Easier to transport
• Natural gas • Difficult to explore
• Cleaner and cheaper than oil
• Non polluting
• Expensive set up
• Supports other commercial
• Hydel power • Changes local environment
activities
• Displaces local population
• Cheap

b) Non – conventional sources of energy are of recent origin. With the help of modern technology,
they involve use of inexhaustible flow resources for generation of power. These include energy from
sun, wind, waves and internal heat of earth.

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 ii) Non – conventional sources:

Energy Types Advantages Disadvantages

• Non – polluting • Noise pollution

• Low production cost • Costly to set up
• Wind
• Safe and clean • Harmful to birds
• inexhaustible • Disturbs TV and radio signals
• Inexhaustible • Expensive devices
• Solar
• Non – polluting • Diffused sources
• Destroys wildlife
• Inexhaustible
• Tidal • Difficult to harness
• Non – polluting
• Localised
• Exhaustible
• Emits large amount of
• Nuclear • Dangerous, emits radioactive waste
energy
• Expensive
• Clean and eco friendly
• Localized
• Geo thermal • Inexhaustible
• Costly to transport
• Non – polluting
• Low cost
• Biogas • Easy to operate • Causes greenhouse effect
• Uses bio waste

Textual Question / Answers:

Q1: Name any three common minerals used by you every day.
Ans: Salt, copper, Iron.
Q2: What is an ore? Where are the ores of metallic minerals generally located?
Ans: A naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable mineral can be profitably
extracted is called an ore. All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
Large plateaus formed by igneous rock formations contain metallic minerals. For example, copper
and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada, iron – ore in North Sweden, Iron, nickel, chromites and
platinum in South Africa.
Q3: Name two regions rich in natural gas resources.
Ans: Natural gas is found mostly along with petroleum. USA followed by Russia, Netherland, Canada,
Britain, West Germany, Mexico and Pakistan are its important producers.
In India, it is found in Krishna, Godavari, Basin, Bombay High, Gulf of Cambay. Ganga –
Brahmaputra Basin and Andaman and Nicobar.
Q4: Which sources of energy would you suggest for
a) rural areas
b) coastal areas
c) arid regions
Ans: a) rural areas: - Biogas and firewood
b) Coastal areas: - Wind and tidal energy
c) Arid regions: - Wind and solar energy
Q5: Give five ways in which you can save energy at home.
Ans: The five ways in which we can save energy at home are: -
a) Cook food with closed lid.
b) Use pressure cooker to cook hard food.
c) Use energy saver for lighting purposes.
d) Soak food like pulses before cooking.
e) Switch off all lighting bulbs during day time.
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b) Give reasons – why?
i) Environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before building huge dams: - because
they cause loss of biodiversity.
ii) Most industries are concentrated around coal mines: -because industries require heat to melt
the steel and form different shapes therefore more heat can be generated by the energy stored in
the coal.
iii) Petroleum is referred to as black gold: - because on account of its value.
iv) Quarrying can become a major environmental concern:- because it degrades soil,
biodiversity, environmental and economical issues.

Q4: Distinguish between:

Conventional Non – conventional
• Non – conventional sources of energy are
• The conventional or traditional sources of
of recent origin. They involve use of
power obtained from minerals
inexhaustible flow resources
• They are formed from decomposition of plant
• They are pollution free and are the cleanest
and animals remnants over long geological
source of power
periods
• They are exhaustible resources • They are inexhaustible resources
• Coal, natural gas, petroleum and firewood are • Solar energy, wind energy and tidal energy
examples are examples
Biogas Natural gas
• It is essentially a mixture of methane and • It is essentially a mixture of hydrocarbon like
carbon dioxide methane, ethane, propane and butane
• It is obtained by the decomposition of • It is found with petroleum deposits and
organic wastes such as dead plants and released when crude oil is brought to the
animal dung and kitchen waste surface
• It is a renewable source of energy • It is non – renewable source of energy

Ferrous Minerals Non – ferrous minerals

• These minerals do not contain iron but may
• These minerals contain iron. contain some other metals such as gold, silver,
copper or lead
• They have magnetic properties • They are non - magnetic
• Iron ore, Manganese and chromatin are
• Bauxite, curprite and copper are examples
examples

Metallic Minerals Non – Metallic minerals

• These minerals contain metal in raw form or
• There minerals do not contain metals
metallic form
• They are strong good conductors of
• They are bad conductors of electricity
electricity
• Manganese, iron ore are some examples • Nitrate, sulphur, potash are some examples

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Topic: Agriculture
Agriculture refers to the process of preparing the land for the cultivation of crops, and to the rearing of
livestock. Agriculture (also called farming) is one of the oldest occupations known to humans. It is a
primary activity. Nearly 50% of the people of the world are engaged in agriculture. In India, two-thirds of
the people depend on agriculture directly or indirectly for their liveli hood. Economic activities are of three
types. These are primary, secondary, tertiary activities. Agriculture is a primary activity. It includes growing
of crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock.
Types of Activities

Primary Secondary Tertiary

* Primary: It involves the extraction and production of resources from land, soil, forests, grasslands,
farming, fishing, rearing of animals and mining are some of the examples.
* Secondary: It deals with processing of primary goods into finished goods. Conversion of iron ore into
tools and machines, sugar cane into sugar, cotton into textiles, etc. are examples of secondary.
* Tertiary: It refers to the services reduced to the community like trade, transport, administration, banking,
insurance etc.
Branches of Agriculture
Sericulture Pisciculture Viticulture Horticulture
Commercial rearing Breeding of fish in Cultivation of grapes. Growing vegetables,
of silkworms. specially constructed flowers and fruits for
tanks and ponds. commercial use.

Factors Influencing Agriculture

Soil Climate Relief Other Factor
The kind of soil Climate controls the Flat land like plains, Other factors like
found in a place pattern of agriculture valleys, the flat top of availability of
affects the kind of around the world. The plateaus and deltas irrigation facilities,
crops grown there. temperature and the are better suited for size of land holdings,
Clayey soils retain amount of rainfall a agriculture than transport facilities,
water, which is place gets are mountainous terrain. nearness of market,
suitable for crops like important determining Hilly areas are more availability of loans
rice and cotton. factors. Certain crops suited for cattle etc., also influence the
Fertile alluvial soil is need hot and wet rearing, for crops nature of agriculture
ideal for agriculture climates to grow (like which need well practiced in an area.
and supports most rice) while certain drained soil like tea
kinds of crops. crops grows in dyer and coffee.
cooler climates (like
wheat)

Answer the following questions:

Q1. What is agriculture? Name the factors influencing agriculture. (Self attempt)
Q2. Differentiate between primary activities and tertiary activities. (Self attempt)

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 FARM SYSTEM
Agriculture is a productive system by itself. Study the flow chart given below. What are the inputs for
agricultural development? What are the outputs?
HUMAN – MADE INPUTS • Ploughing
NATURAL INPUTS
 Irrigation facilities • Sowing * Slope of the land
 High yielding variety of seeds • Irrigation * Fertile soil
• Weeding
 Fertilizers • Harvesting
* Rainfall
 Pesticides • Storing * Organic manure
 Machinery like drillers, • Transportation * Sunshine
• Market for selling
harvesters, threshers etc. * Earthworms which loosen the soil
OUTPUTS OF AGRICULTURE
Crops Dairy products Fish Meat Wool Eggs Chicken Timber

MAJOR TYPES OF AGRICULTURE

All agricultural activities may be divided into two broad categories depending on the geographical
conditions, labour, demand of produce and the level of technology. These are
a) Subsistence Agriculture
b) Commercial Agriculture
a) Subsistence Agriculture: - is carried out by a farmer to satisfy the needs of his family alone. There is
nothing left over for sale. They use primitive methods and technology in the field and do not use hired
labour. Only the family members of the farmer’s household work on the field. It can be classified into
i) Intensive subsistence agriculture
ii) Primitive subsistence agriculture

Intensive subsistence agriculture Primitive subsistence agriculture

Is that type of farming where a farmer
cultivates a small plot of land using simple
tools and large amounts of labour. They
practice intensive methods of cultivation, like
using manure and artificial irrigation and
better quality seeds, to get maximum yield
from the land. It is practiced in the densely
populated tropical monsoon regions of south
and south east Asia.
The farmers also practice herding to meet personal needs.
It enables a farmer get an additional income to meet his
needs. This type of agriculture includes shifting
cultivation and nomadic herding.
Shifting cultivation:-
In shifting cultivation, a small area of a forest is cleared
by cutting down all the trees and the area is burned. The
ashes are mixed with the soil to make it more fertile and
this land is used for growing crops. After a couple of
year, when the land becomes fertile, it is abandoned,
Later, another such area is identified and cleared for
cultivation. This type of farming is generally practiced in
regions with heavy rainfall, so the regeneration of forests
is very quick. This practice is also known as “slash and
burn agriculture”. Shifting cultivation is practiced mainly
in thick forest of Northeast India, South East Asia and the
Amazon Basion. Shifting cultivation is known differently
in different places- Jhumming in the north-eastern states
of India. Roca In Brazil in south America, Milpa in
Mexico and Central America, Masole in the Congo
Basion and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.

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PROBLEMS WITH SHIFTING CULTIVATION:
• It leads to deforestation and soil erosion.
• The yield of crops is very low
• It leads to development of weeds and unwanted vegetation.
• It is not based on scientific methodology to be applied in farming.
NOMADIC HERDING:-
It refers to the practice of farming in which herdsmen move from one place to another, with their families
and their livestock, in search of pastures, fodder and water. Camels, sheep, yaks, and goats are the animals
that are most commonly reared by nomads. The animals provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other animal
products. This practice is prevalent in the Sahara Desert, east and south West Africa, parts of west Central
Asia and northern Europe.

Answer the following questions:-

• What is shifting cultivation? What are the disadvantages? (Self attempt)
• Differentiate between subsistence farming and intensive subsistence farming. (Self attempt)
b) Commercial Farming / Agriculture: - In, commercial farming the farmer cultivates crops and rears
animals for commercial purposes, i.e, for selling. The main motive of the farmer here is making profit.
Most of the work is done by machines and the areas under cultivation, as well as the capital involved,
are huge. It includes
a) Commercial grain farming
b) Plantation agriculture
c) Mixed farming

Commercial Grain Farming or Plantation Agriculture Mixed Farming

Extensive Farming
• Crops like wheat and maize are
grown in large scale under this
farming.
• It is prevalent in the
temperature grasslands of
North America, Mexico,
Europe and Eurasia.
• These farmers are huge, spread
over hundreds of hectors and
are thinly populated.
• Massive machines like seed
drillers, combine harvesters
and threshers are used.
• It is mostly practiced in the • It refers to the cultivation of
tropical and subtropical areas. food crops, fodder crops and the
• It was introduced by the rearing of livestock at the same
Europeans in their colonies time, on the same land.
situated in the tropical • The combination of different
regions. primary activities here is
• In such farming one crop is complementary to each other
produced on a large scale. adds to the farmer’s
Large amounts of capital, profitability.
cheap but skilled labour, • It is practiced in Europe, eastern
scientific techniques, USA, Argentina, South-east
efficient transport network Australia, New Zealand, West
and managerial and Africa and South America.
marketing skills are
employed.
• The farm produce is either
processed in their factories or
sold as raw materials to other
industries. Some of the farm
produce is expected too.
Rubber, tea, coffee,
sugarcane and spices are the
main crops grown on
plantations.

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Answer the following questions:
Q: What is plantation agriculture? (Self attempt)
DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR CROPS IN THE WORLD
A large variety of crops are grown all over the world to meet the requirements of the growing population.
Crops are classified into food crops, fibre crops and beverage crops. Major food crops of the world are
Wheat, rice, maize and millets. Jute and cotton are fibre crops. Important beverage crops are tea and coffee.
FOOD CROPS:
RICE
• It is one of the major food crops of the world.
• It is a Kharif crop.
• It requires high temperature of about 250c, high humidity and an annual rainfall of above 100cm.
• It grows best in alluvial clayey soils, which can retain water.
• China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt
WHEAT
• It requires temperature of 150c – 250c and rainfall about 75 cm.
• It is a rabi crop.
• It needs a cool, moist growing season but sunny weather at the time of harvest.
• It grows widely in well drained loamy soil.
• It needs adequate supply of chemical fertilizers and insecticides.
• Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia and India. In India
it is grown in winter.
MILLETS
• Coarse food grains like jowar, bajra and ragi are millets.
• They are generally grown on less fertile and sandy soils.
• Millets need moderate to low rainfall and high temperature for growth.
• It grows well in India, China and Nigeria.
MAIZE
• It is an important food as well as fodder crop.
• It requires moderate temperature of about 210 – 270, 50 – 75cm of rainfall and plenty of sunshine and
growth.
• It cannot withstand frost.
• The soil should be fertile and well drained.
• It is grown in India, USA, Russia, China, Canada, Mexico and Brazil.
FIBRE CROPS:
COTTON
• It is called a fibre crop.
• It is called a tropical and subtropical crop.
• Cotton requires a temperature of about 250c during the growing period.
• Rainfall should be around 75cm. There should be bright sunshine during the picking season.
• Black lava soil is ideal for cotton. It also grows well in alluvial loams.
• A lot of labour is required for picking cotton.
• Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are also required.
World Distribution: -
China, USA, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt produce cotton on a large scale.
Distribution in India: -
Cotton is produced on a large scale in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. It is
also grown in Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

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JUTE
• It is called the ‘golden fibre’.
• It is the most versatile natural fibre, being 100% biodergrable and recyclable.
• It is strong and the cheapest of all fibres.
• It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature and heavy rainfall.
• The fertile alluvial soils of the flood plains and deltas are ideal for jute and they are renewed by the
annual floods.
• It requires standing water and a lot of manual labour.
World Distribution: -
India, Bangladesh and China account for 85% of the world’s jute production.
Distribution in India: -
West-Bengal is the largest jute producing state followed by Assam and Bihar.
BEVERAGE CROPS:
TEA
• Tea is a beverage and a plantation crop.
• It requires a cool, frost-free climate with abundant rainfall, well distributed throughout the year, for a
good crop.
• It needs well drained loamy soil and gentle slopes that can be terraced for cultivation.
• It is a labour intensive crop and requires a large number of skilled labour to pluck the leaves.
• Tea was introduced to India by the British, Kenya, China and Sri Lanka produce some of the best
quality tea in the world.
COFFEE
• It is a beverage made from coffee seeds and bean, after roasting and grinding.
• It requires warm and wet climate and well drained loamy soil.
• Hill slopes are most suitable for growth of coffee.
• Two major varities of coffee are Arabica or Mocha and coffee Robusta.
• Brazil is the leading producer of this crop followed by Columbia and India. 4% of the world’s coffee is
produced by India. Indian coffee is known for its quality in the world.
Answer the following questions:
• Name the fibre crops and classify the climatic conditions require for their growth.
Agricultural Development
The efforts taken to increase agricultural production and meet the growing demand of an increasing
population is called agricultural development. This can be brought about by the use of scientific inputs in
agriculture such as improving irrigation facilities, use of fertilizers and high yielding verities of seeds.
Mechanization of agriculture (Use of machines like tractors, seed drillers, weeds, sprayers, harvesters etc) is
also another aspect of agriculture development. Agricultural development strives to increase food security.
Developing countries with large populations usually practice intensive agriculture. This is because the crops
are grown mostly for subsistence, or fragmented, small land holdings.
Farmers in developed countries like USA, Canada and Australia usually possess large land holding which
are suitable for commercial agriculture.

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 Agricultural Practices In a Developed And a Developing Country. A Comparative
Study
Agricultural practices in a developed and a developing country. A comparative study
A farm in a developed country (USA) A farm in developing country (India)
1) The size of the land holding is large, about 250 The size of the landholding is small; 1/3rd of the
hectares. landholdings are less than half a hectare and on an
average they are 1.5 hectares. This is because of
fragmentation of land due to inheritance laws.

2) Extensive agriculture is practised and single Intensive or subsistence agriculture is followed to

cropping is carried out on a large scale. get maximum output from a small plot of land.
Efforts are made to consolidate land holdings
through chakandi and cooperative farming.

3) Farms are mechanized with tractors and Farmers are too poor to make use of machines.
combine harvesters. Most of the work carried Mostly, they may get together and hire tractors.
out by machines. Manual labour is utilized are a regular feature in
these regions.

4) Dry of irrigated farming is practiced. Agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoons.

Floods or droughts are a regular feature in these
regions.

5) HYV seeds, insecticides, pesticides are used
extensively. Farmers are aware of the latest
‘know how’. Only 3% population depends on
agriculture in the USA but can cultivate
extensively with machines. Agriculture is run
like a business.
6) Mixed farming is practiced. Livestock are reared
and their produce supplements the farming
income.
Limited use is made of improved seeds, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides. Farmers lack awareness,
they are poor and till the soil themselves or with the
help of their animals and family members.
Land is generally used only for crop cultivation.
Farmers can barely afford to keep animals for
ploughing or transportation of the produce.

7) Farmers are educated, aware and have expertise Most of the farmers are illiterate and at the mercy of
in farming. They test soil samples, soil ability the moneylender. They are being educated through a
and water availability. They study the market district/block level advisor. Tenancy farming is
trends to determine the kind of crops they want
practised. As a result, the inputs are limited.
to grow. In case of a storm they can harvest
thousands of acres within five to six hours.
Farmers try to cut costs and reduce expenses for
better income.
8) Excellent storage facilities are available at farms Storage facilities are lacking. A lot of the produce is
and grain in stored in silos. There is automated lost because of rats or fungal attacks in the rainy
grain storage facility and well tied up systems season. All farmers do not access the available
for dispatch of produce to market agencies.
storage facilities provided by the government.

9) Yields of crops are generally low. Overall Yields of crops are low but yield per worker is high
production is high because of large size land because land holdings are small.
holdings.

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