8/3/2022

Assignment No 1 Semester 2nd Spring, 2022

Subject: Secondary Education

Course code: 8624

Programme: B. Ed (1.5 year)

Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Submitted to:

Submitted by:

Roll no:
Question No 1. Discuss the stages of Piaget’s theory and its
importance in Secondary Education (SSE).
 Who Was Jean Piaget in Psychology?
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who contributed greatly to the understanding of
children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky,
2017).
He was born in 1896 and originally trained as a biologist and philosopher. Although
he is well known for his work as a psychologist, he also published research on sparrows
and mollusks (Burman, 2012; Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).
Piaget’s contribution to psychology was mainly through his observations of children’s
cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Early in his career, Piaget scored
the IQ tests that Alfred Binet administered to children.
Piaget noticed that children of certain ages tended to give the same types of incorrect
answers. From these observations and follow-up interviews with children about these
mistakes, he developed a theory of how children’s cognitive processes developed (Waite-
Stupiansky, 2017).
One of the most important implications of his work is that children are not born with
the same cognitive processes as adults (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Instead, children’s
cognitive processes:
 Develop over time,
 Develop in response to their environment, and
 Are updated with exposure to new information.
Piaget also influenced psychology in other ways. For example, he emphasized other
methods of conducting research, such as the clinical method (Papalia & Feldman, 2011;
Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He relied upon the following research methods:
1. Naturalistic observation of play and conversation between children (including his
own)
2. Interviewing children
Additionally, he was the first psychologist to study ‘theory of mind’ in children
(Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Theory of mind is the understanding or basic sense that
each of us has our own consciousness and thoughts.
 Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory:
Cognitive Development TheoryPiaget argued that children’s cognitive development
occurs in stages (Papalia & Feldman, 2011).
Specifically, he posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to the
next, their behavior also changes, reflecting these cognitive developments.
The stages in his theory follow a specific order, and each subsequent stage only
occurs after the one before it.
These stages are:
(i) Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years old)

(ii) Preoperational stage (2–7 years old)

(iii) Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old)

(iv) Formal operational stage (11 years old through adulthood)

1. The Sensorimotor Stage:

The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During
this stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and
motor activities.
The sensorimotor stage comprises six substages, where children’s behavior moves
from being reflex driven to more abstract. Each substage is described briefly.
(I) Use of reflexes (0–2 months):
During this stage, children typically use their reflexes. They cannot consolidate
information from their sensory organs into a single, unified concept.

(II) Primary circular reactions (1–4 months):

Children start to consolidate information from different sensory organs. They start to
engage in behavior that satisfies the way their body feels or their needs. For example,
they repeat pleasurable behaviors, and they adapt their behavior to feed from different
objects. They turn to respond to sounds and sights in their environment.
(III) Secondary circular reactions (4–8 months):
Children’s behaviors become more intentional, and the types of behaviors that
they repeat expand to include those that result in interesting responses external to their
body. For example, they might push buttons on a toy. Children also start to take more
interest in their environment. They repeat behaviors that generate interesting responses.
(IV) Coordination of secondary schemes (8–12 months):
At this point, children’s behaviors become more goal oriented, and they can
combine different behaviors to achieve goals.
(V) Tertiary circular reactions (12–18 months):
Instead of performing the same actions, children try new behaviors and actions to achieve
different results. These behaviors are not spontaneous or by accident, but are purposeful.
Unlike primary and secondary reactions, children can combine more complicated
behaviors and even perform a behavior similarly but not the same to get the desired
result.
(VI) Mental combinations (18–24 months):
Children start to rely on mental abstractions to solve problems, use gestures and words to
communicate, and can pretend. Instead of relying on numerous attempts to solve
problems/puzzles, children can deliberate and carefully choose their actions.
2. The Preoperational Stage:
Preoperational StageAt the end of the sensorimotor stage, children start to use mental
abstractions.
At the age of two, children enter the preoperational stage, where their ability to use
mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people,
improves greatly.
Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and talking
about events that happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.
Other interesting cognitive advances occur during this phase. For example, children
understand causality. Children also understand identities, where items and people remain
the same even if they look different. For example, at some point during this stage, a
caregiver dressing up as Santa Claus might not be as convincing.
In this stage, children also learn more about categorization. They can classify items
based on similarities or differences. They also start to understand numbers and quantity
(e.g., concepts such as ‘more’ or ‘bigger’).
Although abstract thought advances quickly in the preoperational stage, other
cognitive processes develop more slowly.
For example:
 Children tend to consider their own viewpoint and perspective.
 Children fail to understand that two things can be the same, even if they appear
different (more about this in the next section on Conservation).
 Children struggle to take someone else’s point of view.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage:
The next phase is the concrete operational stage, which begins around the age of seven.
During this stage, children are more capable of solving problems because they can
consider numerous outcomes and perspectives. All of their cognitive abilities are better
developed in this stage.
 Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a
dimension, understand that categories have subcategories, and relate two objects
to each other through a third object.
 Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated
mathematical operations.
 Their spatial abilities are better. They are better at estimating time and distance.
They can read maps and describe how to navigate from one location to another.
Conservation:
During this stage, children understand the concept of conservation better and, as a
result, are better at solving conservation problems. Conservation refers to the idea that
things can be the same, even if they look different.
 An example would be a cup of water poured into two glasses. One glass is tall and
thin, while the other is short and wide. Recognizing that both glasses contain the same
amount of water shows an understanding of conservation.
Children in the preoperational stage struggle with problems of conservation. For
example, they struggle with tasks where the following is conserved even it appears
different:
 Number of items (e.g., two sets of 10 items arranged differently)
 The volume of liquid (e.g., the same volume of liquid in two differently shaped
glasses)
Children struggle with conservation because they can only focus on one dimension at
a time; this is known as centering. For example, with the volume of liquid, they can only
consider the shape of the glass, but not the shape of the glass and the volume of water.
They also do not yet understand reversibility. Irreversibility refers to a child’s
inability to reverse the steps of an action in their mind, returning an object to its previous
state. For example, pouring the water out of the glass back into the original cup would
demonstrate the volume of the water, but children in the preoperational stage cannot
understand this.
In contrast, children in the concrete operational stage can solve conservation
problems. This is because children now have the following cognitive abilities:
 They understand reversibility (i.e., items can be returned to original states).
 They can decenter (i.e., concentrate on multiple dimensions of items, rather than
just one).
 They better understand identity (i.e., an item remains the same even if it looks
different).
4. The Formal Operational Stage:
Formal Operational StageAt the age of 11, children enter the formal operational stage.
Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts
and are not limited to a current time, person, or situation.
They can think about hypothetical situations and various possibilities, like situations
that don’t exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and fantastical.
 During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which
allows them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger
children who haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage
can apply their reasoning skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic,
logical manner.

 Reference:

 Burman, J. T. (2012). Jean Piaget: Images of

a life and his factory. History of Psychology, 15(3), 283–288.
 DeVries, R., & Kamii, C. (1975). Why group games? A Piagetian perspective.
ERIC Clearinghouse.
 Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2011). A child’s world: Infancy through
adolescence (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Question No2. Write a note on the importance of National Bureau of

curriculum and Textbooks.
Curriculum and Instruction ensures that the organization focuses on the delivery of a
relevant, responsive, and effective basic education curriculum around which all other
strands and offices provide support.
 BUREAU OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:
 Develops and manages the national education policy framework on curriculum
development and management for the Department.
 Develops national curriculum standards for basic education.
  Designs and develops special curriculum programs appropriate for all types of
learners.
 Formulates policies and guidelines relevant to the management, contextualization
and localization of the curriculum.
Offices and divisions:
a. Office of the Director
b. Curriculum Standards Division
c. Special Curricular Programs Division
 BUREAU OF LEARNING DELIVERY:
 Develops and manages the national education policy framework on learning
management and delivery for all types of learners including those with special
needs.
 Develops standards for learning management and delivery systems that consider
diversity of learners and their contexts.
 Designs learning management and delivery models for different learning groups /
types of learners in accordance with the learning system where the learners are
engaged.
 Sets the policies and guidelines for co-curricular activities that are supportive of
the curricular programs.
 Develops and manages the training and development program for the teaching
personnel in coordination with the National Educators Academy of the
Philippines (NEAP).
Offices and divisions:
1. Office of the Director
2. Teaching and Learning Division
3. Student Inclusion Division
i. Madrasah Education Office:
 Focuses on the recipients of the Madrasah Education curricular and co-curricular
programs.
ii. Indigenous Peoples (IP) Education Office:
Focuses on the specific requirements to deliver basic education to indigenous people.
iii. Education for Learners with Special Needs Office (ELSNO):
Focuses on the specific requirements to deliver basic education to learners with special
needs.
 BUREAU OF EDUCATION ASSESSMENT:
 Develops and manages the national education policy for educational assessment
and quality assurance (QA).
 Establishes policies, standards and guidelines relevant to assessment and quality
assurance of curriculum and learning delivery processes.
 Links with international/national agencies for networking and benchmarking
relevant to educational assessment and education research.
 Advocates and promotes the use of assessment, QA and education research results
for policy recommendations, review and enhancement of the curriculum and other
related processes.
 Defines the focus, direction and framework of education research for the
Curriculum and Instruction Strand.
Offices and divisions:
1. Office of the Director
2. Education Assessment Division
3. Education Research Division
 BUREAU OF LEARNING RESOURCES:
 Develops and manages the national education policy framework on learning
resources development and management for the Department.
 Formulates policies, standards, and guidelines for the design, development,
evaluation, production, and utilization of learning resources across all levels of the
organization.
  Formulates policies, standards, and guidelines on the acquisition, allocation,
procurement, and equitable distribution of learning resources across all levels of
the organization.
 Conducts research and monitors and evaluates learning resource needs and use for
continuous improvement.
 Provides learning resources aligned to the curriculum and supportive of the various
curriculum programs and modes of delivery, including those for learners with
special needs.
 Establishes and maintains systems that promote and support access to quality
learning resources online and offline.
 Ensures the sustainable and efficient operation of the Center for Learning
Resources.
 Provides access to quality assured learning resources.
Offices and divisions:
1. Office of the Director
2. Learning Resources Production Division
3. Learning Resources Quality Assurance Division
 National Bureau of Text Books:
Currently education system in most of the countries is going through some kind of
curriculum reforms. There are several obvious reasons why curriculum reform is so often
at the core of education development Programmes today. One of the most important
reasons is that the Information age has brought technology to schools or at least to the
lives of the young and the old in our societies. What ever the reason behind all these
Curriculum reforms, the most affected part of this process is the textbook-The widely
used tool for curriculum interpretation and implementation.
Textbooks are one of the major teaching and learning resources used in Schools.
Development and production of textbooks is a continuous process which needs
continuous and rigorous research and development. Review and revision of textbooks
based on field-testing and research yield results leading to quality textbooks. Every
country including Pakistan has some Kind of mechanism to evaluate textbook.
Development and production of textbooks is a continuous process, which needs
continuous and rigorous research and development. Evaluation/ Review of textbooks
based on field-testing and research will yield results leading to quality textbooks. In
Pakistan, the Curriculum Wing (CW), Ministry of Education is the apex national
institution that formulates and Approves curricula for all subjects up to class XII. The
CW is empowered to Prescribe and withdraw textual materials for schools in Pakistan
(Government of Pakistan, 1976). Textbook evaluation is one of the key Responsibilities
of CW. Textbook development and evaluation has always been subject of debate in
Pakistan. There are a variety of reasons for this, but Non-availability of explicit criteria
for textbook evaluation is one of the main Concerns. To make the evaluation process
more effective, there is a need to Identify agreed upon indicators of a quality textbook.
Textbooks have an enormous influence on what is taught in Primary, elementary and
secondary classes and how it is taught. According To John (2001) “a majority of teachers
use textbooks as their principal Curriculum guide and source of lessons” (p.32).
Tyson (1997) found “those New and in-experienced teachers, or those who lack
adequate time for lesson Planning, may actually teach from the first page of the textbook
to the last, Skipping little or nothing” (p. 89). Sheldon (1988) believes textbooks are
Heavily utilized by teachers and he identified three main reasons for this: a) Developing
their own classroom materials is extremely difficult and an Arduous process for teachers;
b) teachers have limited time in which Developing new materials might not be possible;
and c) external pressure Which restricts many teachers in introducing their own
developed materials.
For the proper implementation of any school curriculum, textbooks become Part and
parcel of the education system. Especially, in developing countries, it has been a regular
practice to consider textbooks as the only source of teaching learning process to be
undertaken in schools. For most of the Teachers, a textbook is an authentic material to
present in the classroom, while for most students it has become a common practice to be
burdened with a bag packed with their prescribed textbooks on their way to school. In
Pakistan, “the textbook is the only available learning material in most Schools.
Additional materials like teaching aids, supplementary reading Materials and school
libraries are virtually non-existent” (Govt. of Pakistan, 2006, p. 2).
In most of the countries textbooks are written by experts with the Assistance of
publishers and these textbooks are evaluated by a government Agency. In Pakistan, role
of textbook development rests with the provincial or regional Textbook Boards, and
Private Publishers. These boards and Private publishers try to publish the textbooks
according to the guidelines provided in the national curriculum, given by the Curriculum
Wing of Ministry of Education. The role of textbook evaluation performed by the
Curriculum Wing is to ensure that textbooks are aligned with the curriculum Guidelines
provided to the boards and publishers.
To facilitate evaluation processes rubric are considered as a vehicle to ensure the
quality and objectivity in the process. The more specific a Rubric is to an indicator of a
quality textbook, the more useful it is the Evaluators and the publishers and/or writer. The
descriptors associated with the criteria should reference specific requirements of the
quality textbook and clearly describe the quality of work at each level on the rubric. The
Criteria used to evaluate the textbook should be shared as the guidelines are introduced to
help publishers begin with the end. Rubrics and models should also be referenced while
the textbook are being completed to help Publishers/authors revise their work. They
should also be used after the Textbook is complete, not only to evaluate the product, but
also to engage Publishers /authors in reflection on the work they have produced.
 Importance of National bureau of curriculum and textbooks:
The first formal exercise in curriculum development was undertaken as a result of the
Report of the Commission on National Education 1959. The Commission analyzed the
situation pertaining to curriculum development and reforms and made useful
commendations. Pursuant to the recommendations of the Commission the Ministry
appointed two Curriculum Committees for Primary and Secondary Education in 1960.
In the mid sixties the new concept of integrated and modernized science courses was
introduced. This effort was initially confined to science education but was later carried on
into other subject areas also. It was a significant contribution made by a group scientists
and curriculum specialists that they had succeeded in preparing the people mentally for
change. Curriculum development was never visualized as a distinct and specialized
function. The entire curriculum activity was done through committees which were
created for a specific purpose at a specific time and were dissolved as soon as the task
was over. No permanent committee network was set up to advice and evaluate the
curriculum development and implementation. It is in this context, that need to create the
National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks (NBCT) at Federal level was felt for
coordinating the activities of various committees and Centre. Similar organizations at
provincial level were also established. The existing Curriculum Wing of the Ministry of
Education is, in fact, a developed form of the National Bureau of Curriculum and
Textbooks.
After the promulgation of 1973 Constitution the Curriculum, Syllabi, Planning
Policy, Centers, of Excellence, Standards of Education and Islamic Education were
placed on the Concurrent Legislative List of the Federal Government. This was a
significant departure from the previous position when the education was an entirely
provincial subject.
Whenever it is intended to frame or revise a curriculum, the Curriculum Wing of the
Ministry of Education sends the proposals to the provincial curriculum bureau/centres.
These bureau/centres develop or revise the curriculum in the light of frame-work
provided by the Curriculum Wing of the Ministry of Education. In the provincial centres,
the revision or framing of curriculum is done by the committees. These committees
comprise subject specialists and persons equipped with pedagogical skills. The draft
curriculum is sent to the Curriculum Wing for their consideration and approval. In the
Curriculum Wing the draft curriculum on each subject received from provincial
bureau/centres is put up to the concerned National Review Committee. This committee is
usually constituted for each subject and comprises the nominees of the provincial
governments and subject specialists considered suitable for the purpose. The curriculum
finalized by the National Review Committee is then put up to the Federal Education
Secretary for approval. The approved curriculum is sent to the Provincial Textbook
Boards for production of textbooks.
The Curriculum Wing works in close collaboration with the provincial curriculum
bureau/centres, the education departments, the Textbook Boards, the Boards of
Intermediate and Secondary Education and other research organizations such as Institutes
of Education and Research in the provinces. In fact the Curriculum Centres in the
provinces are associated centres of the Curriculum Wing of the Federal Ministry of
Education. Curriculum Wing also works in close collaboration with other international
agencies. This wing is also an associated centre of the UNESCO’s Asian Programme of
Educational Innovation for Development (APEID), Bangkok. This facilitates the flow of
information not only between these two agencies but also with other foreign agencies
through UNESCO. This wing participates in curriculum development activities of other
countries tinder various bilateral educational and cultural agreements.

 Reference:

 http://www.studysols.pk/list-of-education-boards-in-pakistan/
 https://www.slideshare.net/minhaaj/pakistan-education-plan-1382055

Question No 3. Highlight the importance of Professional Development

and the role of the Technology and Innovation in Professional
Development.
 Professional development:
No matter what industry we work in, all of us are expected to continue learning about
our field and doing our jobs to the best of our abilities. The marketplace, the employees
you’re tasked with leading, and the customers you’ll interact with are always changing.
As the worldwide business landscape evolves, so does the importance of professional
development programs.
Engaging in professional development training ensures that both academic and
practical qualifications do not become outdated or obsolete; allowing individuals to
continually ‘up skill’ or ‘re-skill’ regardless of occupation, age or educational level.
 Well-crafted and delivered professional development ultimately delivers benefits to
the individual, their profession and the public. The process is usually an ongoing one,
since the ever-changing dynamics of the market constantly demand that employees keep
their knowledge base properly updated.
 Importance of Professional Development:
The importance of professional development is to:
1. Demonstrate an ability to self-improve
2. Keep qualifications up to date
3. Stay on top of the latest developments
4. Ensure your capabilities maintain the same standards of others in the same field.
5. Ensure you maintain and enhance the knowledge and skills you need to deliver a
professional service to your customers, clients and the community.
6. Up level a CV
Those who require professional registration, such as registered nurses and doctors, will
typically be required to undertake Continuing Professional Development, or CPD, as part
of the registration renewal process. An individual’s professional or regulatory body will
provide details on the standards that must be met, including how many hours of learning
must be undertaken, in what setting and how it must be recorded.
Often some form of professional development is mandated by codes of conduct or
codes of ethics, but is mostly a personal responsibility of professionals to keep their
knowledge and skills current.
 Different types of professional development:
Professional development is not always formal and linear, and a wide range of
activities and methodologies can contribute to your learning. This may include on the job
development, formal training and qualifications as well as informal and experiential
learning. Beyond this, professional development can refer to any different types of
relevant educational or training opportunities relevant to a professional’s work or career.
Remember it is not about the quantity of the activities but the quality of the
reflections linked to them. What you choose to do will ultimately depend on the areas that
you wish to develop. It is for you to recognize needs and opportunities both inside and
outside your workplace and to take advantage of developing your own professional
development programme.
The availability of a mixture of learning opportunities, including both formal and
informal professional development activities is imperative in today’s modern workplace
and can be broadly defined into three types:
1. Structured – Active learning:
Structured CPD adopts an interactive approach underpinned by participatory learning.
The method’s integral activities are training courses, workshops, conferences, seminars,
lectures, and e-learning courses. Structured professional development also covers career
orientated assessments and exams. Bear in mind, however, that the study and revision for
these exams are regarded as self-directed learning (see below).
2. Reflective – Passive Learning:
Reflective CPD is one-directional and passive, and there is no participant-based
interaction involved. Examples include reading relevant news articles, case studies, and
industry updates, as well as listening to podcasts. Some informal meetings fall into the
Reflective CPD bracket, so long as their learning objectives are specified in an
individual’s overall professional development plan.
3. Self-Directed – Unstructured Learning:
Self-directed learning constitutes all unsupervised professional development activities,
including reading articles and publications, either online or in print. Unstructured
learning material includes peer-reviewed books and studies, industry journals, trade
magazines, and industry-specific news feeds. Remember: Professional development
doesn’t just cover on-the-job training. It also includes any outside form of education or
learning which can help improve a professional’s skills and knowledge.
 Professional Development Facilitated Through Computing
Technologies:
Can technology assist us in the development of teacher knowledge? Absolutely. But
with the infusion of technology, we must carefully examine the kind of knowledge
produced, the ability of the technology to support best practices that facilitate learning,
and the associated costs. In the following sections, we have highlighted a few examples
of what the infusion of technology into teacher professional development may look like
and how each model meets the criteria set forth in this article.
 Face-to-Face Instruction With Technological Support:
Definition and examples. Face to face instruction, by its nature, implies that instructors
and students (teachers) are in the same place at the same time, engaged in the same
content. The length and nature of the interaction, as well as the use of technology to
support this instruction, can vary along a continuum. Contact time may move from one-
shot, short-term workshops, through a sequenced series of interactions across a school
year, to intensive and extended interaction in courses taken in isolation or that contribute
to graduate or certificate programs. Each of these formats currently exists and has been
examined for the strengths and limitations that they bring to the learning environment.
None of these formats dictate the nature of the content involved, the interaction of the
participants, or the role of technology.
Based on the familiar format, one might easily envision technology infusion that
supports more didactic views of instruction: delivery of instructor prepared lectures via
electronic slideshows, web-based access to written materials and resources, and Internet
searches for supporting literature or instructional approaches. Indeed, this type of
instruction could be described as an electronic replication of the lecture, where learners
may click on a link to open a page, but may not read or understand it. While at times
direct instruction has its place, it is not the vision of technological infusion that has the
most power to influence professional development.
The use of technology, however, does not have to be limited to these authority-based
modes of teaching. Computer tools can offer learner’s opportunities to construct
personally meaningful conceptions of teaching, as well as create products that reflect
those conceptions (Bruckman & Resnick, 1996). Effective professional development,
regardless of how it is delivered, needs to go beyond learning new materials and skills. It
must change classroom instruction in order to have an impact on student learning
(NSDC, 2001).
Professional development utilizing technology should involve learning content in
context and modeling pedagogically appropriate methods. This may include initial face-
to-face professional development to learn new software applications and to develop
shared understanding of goals for student learning. For example, a professional
development project in Clark County, Nevada, involves a group of fourth-grade teachers
convening to develop lesson plans for a new social studies unit. In order to accomplish
this task, teachers initially met face-to-face to learn how to participate in online
conferencing and to enhance their common understanding of the state’s social studies
standards in order to develop criteria for model lessons. The professional development
also included attention to the development of group norms for continued work, which
takes place through online conferencing.
In a scenario we have created that expands on this idea, we envision a graduate level
course in standards-based curriculum and instruction in which teachers examine their
own classroom instruction in light of desired learning outcomes. Using a problem-based
learning approach (Woods, 1985), “Ms. Cheng,” an elementary teacher in the course, is
challenged to define the learning outcomes that she has for her students and create a
curriculum framework that explicates and incorporates her goals. To organize her ideas,
Ms. Cheng uses Inspiration (2003), a software package used to create concept maps.
Working in a team with three other upper-level elementary teachers, Ms. Cheng
presents her concept map of learning outcomes, discusses how these outcomes are similar
and different from those that she is currently able to achieve, and describes potential
strategies to translate her desired outcomes into appropriate learning activities. The other
teachers in Ms. Cheng’s team help her examine the alignment of her stated goals and
proposed instructional strategies, commenting where they see correspondence and
challenging her to justify contradictions or to reexamine her thinking.
Following this refinement phase of the philosophy-to-teaching/learning alignment, Ms.
Cheng decides to create and implement a social studies unit about Nevada history. In this
unit, she wants students to work in small groups to examine the influence of
transportation technologies on settlement patterns in the west, determine the
characteristics of the individuals who had access to the various forms of transportation,
and to translate those understandings to the socio-economic, racial, cultural, and
linguistic traditions that exist across the state.
She uses technology first as a research mechanism to further her understandings about
transportation technologies and gathers resources for herself and her students. She
organizes this information into instructional goals and activities and through desktop
publishing and presentation software assembles the materials for review by her team and
for later use in her classroom with her students. Through combinations of electronic and
face-to-face interaction, Ms. Cheng shares her ideas with her team and continues to refine
her ideas.

 Reference:
 http://thecityschool.edu.pk/academics/technology-and-innovation/
Question No 4. Explain the importance of Evaluation and
Determination of Curriculum.
 Curriculum:
Curriculum, Word is derived from “Latin” language that means: A racecourse/A
prescribed course to follow /A series of courses to complete a program of Studies.
Most modern definition of curriculum shared in 1920 says that “Curriculum is a
process not a product”. Curriculum includes: topics, syllabus, list of subjects, course of
study, Content, method, and items of knowledge to be covered, time table, organization
of Teaching and learning. In short, the sum total of all the experiences a pupil undergoes
is called the curriculum.
Many scholars have given the definitions of curriculum, some of which are as follows:
 Bobbit (1924), “all the organized and unorganized educational experiences
students encounter”.
 Tyler (1957), “all that is planned and directed by teachers to achieve the
educational Goals”.
 Glatthorn (1987), “plans for guiding teaching and learning”.
English (1992), “a work plan that includes both content and strategies for teaching and
learning process.”
 Tanner & Tanner (1995), “the reconstruction of knowledge & Experience under
the guidance of school.”
Curriculum or curricula are used in educational contexts without qualification, specific
Examples, or additional explanation, it may be difficult to determine precisely what the
Terms are referring to mainly because they could be applied to either all or only some of
the component parts of a school’s academic program or courses.
 Curriculum Theory:
Curriculum theory and theorizing may be characterized as being a rather formative
Condition, for essentially there are no generally accepted and clear-cut criteria to
Distinguish curriculum theory and theorizing from other forms of writing in education.

Philosophies of education, according to Frankeman are either analytical or normative.

That is the reason, they are essentially attempting to describe, discriminate, and establish
Meanings for terms, or they are essentially sets of statements about what should or should
not be included in education and what should or should not be done during the
Educational process.
Curriculum theorists have found such neat categories difficult to parallel, since the
Concerns of curriculum at sometimes must be related to what is learned by persons. Thus,
Curriculum always has action implications with a broad directional concern for
outcomes. Under these circumstances, one is always involved in assumptions and implicit
Statements which could be classified at various times and places as ontological;
axiological, and epistemological. Concern for the nature of human “being,” value theory,
And the nature of knowledge are intricately interwoven in action contexts. But in many
Ways curriculum theorizing can be conveniently categorized as oriented toward
Statements about knowledge, statements about the curriculum realities, and statements
about valued activity.
 Curriculum Approaches:
Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in
planning, Implementing and evaluating the curriculum. Even textbook writers or
instructional Material producers have different curricular approaches. The following are
the five curriculum approaches:
4. Behavioral Approach:
This is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives are specified, contents and
Activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning outcomes
are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning. This approach started
with the idea of Frederick Taylor which is aimed to achieve efficiency. In education,
Behavioral approach begins with educational plans that start with the setting of goals or
Objectives. These are the important ingredients in curriculum implementation as
evaluating the learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The change of behavior
indicates the measure of the accomplishment.
5. Managerial Approach:
In this approach, the principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time
instructional Leader who is supposed to be the general manager. The general manager
sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and innovation, and
planning and Organizing curriculum and instruction. School administrators are less
concerned about the Content than about organization and implementation. They are less
concerned about Subject matter, methods and materials than improving the curriculum.
Curriculum Managers look at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the
resources and restructure the schools.
Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors are the following:
a. Help develop the school’s education goals
b. Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders
c. Design programs of study by grade levels
d. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar
e. Prepares curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area
f. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks
g. Observes teachers
h. Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum
i. Encourages curriculum innovation and change
j. Develops standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation
6. Systems Approach:
This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total school district or
School are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart
of the school represents a systems approach. It shows the line-staff relationships of
Personnel and how decisions are made. The following are of equal importance:
a) Administration
b) Counseling
c) Curriculum
d) Instruction
e) Evaluation

7. Humanistic Approach:
This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement.
It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum. It
considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of the
Individual is the prime consideration. The learner s at the center of the curriculum.
 Evaluation of the Curriculum:
Curriculum evaluation is a necessary and important aspect of any national education
System. It provides the basis for curriculum policy decisions, for feedback on continuous
Curriculum adjustments and processes of curriculum implementation. The fundamental
concerns of curriculum evaluation relate to:
• Effectiveness and efficiency of translating government education policy into
Educational practice.
• Status of curriculum contents and practices in the contexts of global, national and
local concerns.
• The achievement of the goals and aims of educational programs. A fundamental
measure of the success of any curriculum is the quality of student learning.
Knowing the extent to which students have achieved the outcomes specified in the
curriculum is fundamental to both improving teaching and evaluating the
curriculum.
 Evaluation:
The term “evaluation” generally applies to the process of making a value judgment.
In Education, the term “evaluation” is used in reference to operations associated with
Curricula, programs, interventions, methods of teaching and organizational factors.
Curriculum evaluation aims to examine the impact of implemented curriculum on student
(learning) achievement so that the official curriculum can be revised if necessary and to
Review teaching and learning processes in the classroom. Curriculum evaluation
Establishes:
 Specific strengths and weaknesses of a curriculum and its implementation
 Critical information for strategic changes and policy decisions
 Inputs needed for improved learning and teaching
 Indicators for monitoring
Curriculum evaluation may be an internal activity and process conducted by the
various Units within the education system for their own respective purposes. These units
may include national Ministries of Education, regional education authorities, institutional
Supervision and reporting systems, departments of education, schools and communities.
Curriculum evaluation may also be external or commissioned review processes. These
May be undertaken regularly by special committees or task forces on the curriculum, or
they may be research-based studies on the state and effectiveness of various aspects of
the curriculum and its implementation. These processes might examine, for example, the
Effectiveness of curriculum content, existing pedagogies and instructional approaches,
Teacher training and textbooks and instructional materials.
 Determination of Curriculum:
In Pakistan Curriculum development encompass the following aspects:
1. Curriculum objectives.
2. Development of scheme of studies.
3. Development of syllabus of each subject.
4. Development of textbook, instructional material.
5. Teacher training.
 6. Implementation
1. Developing Objectives:
Objectives are derived from
 National Level Seminars
 Recommendation of the National Education Policy
 Research studies
 Inter Board Committee of Chairmen
2. The studies scheme is based on three key factors:
 The national education policy
 Market demand
 Global issues
3. Development of syllabus: It is based on objectives and scheme of study. Subject
Specific syllabi is prepared in consultation with: > Subject expert > Psychologist >
Serving teacher
Syllabi must satisfy the following conditions:
 Based on the needs of learner.
 Content should be focused on attaining the objectives
4. Textbook Development > Establish a list of text book writers.
Provincial Text Book Boards (PTBB) are responsible for the development of the
Text-books according to the approved syllabi. How textbook is developed?
 Establish a list of text book writers.
 Invitations are sent to the writers to submit the material within the syllabus
Parameter.
 Selection is made on the basis of relevance of material.
 The selected material is transformed into a textbook.
5. Teacher Training:
 Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the Responsibility of the provincial
government.
 It is now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher’s guide.
 In some cases assistance in the training of the master’s trainers is provided to
Provincial government. Federal Government took the responsibility to determine
the curriculum text Boards, policy, planning and standards of education.
6. Implementation: The curricula designed is printed and sent to
universities/Institutions for its adoption/implementation after the approval of
the Authority.
 International Aspects of Curriculum Development:
In narrow view of Curriculum there is content and examination. Wider view of
Curriculum includes aims, learning methods and subject matter sequencing.
There is a sophisticated blend of:
 Educational Strategies
 Course content
 Learning outcomes
 Educational experiences
 Assessment
 Educational environment besides
 The individual students’ learning style
 Personal timetable and the program of work
In the time of information explosion, the curriculum planners must not only decide
what should be taught but also what can be eliminated from the curriculum, hence the
need is to define minimum essential knowledge and skills i.e. core knowledge and skills.
 Some Aspects of Curriculum Development in Pakistan:
The major issue of the Pakistan in 1947 was re-establishment of suitable education
Specimen. Federal government has brought a lot of changes in planning, policies,
Suggestions and reconstruction process of education. Some of these changes were
accepted and some others were rejected. Ministry of Education has been supervising the
Curriculum and the text books. This special wing of Ministry of Education is called
Curriculum Wing. There are bureaus and centers are following the instruction of
Curriculum wing in accordance with the succeeding forms.
Bureau of curriculum and text book, Moe The present curriculum wing of Ministry of
Education is the advance form of National Bureau of Curriculum and Text Book. The
purpose of this department is to evaluate and Coordinate the work of education in
different provinces. It also works for the equal Standard of curriculum in schools,
colleges and universities of all provinces. The first function of curriculum wing is to help
the government in construction and Implementation of National Policies regarding
planning of curriculum development, Education of teachers and its evaluation. The next
function of this wing is to give a hand in the activities of provincial bureau’s center. It
also arranges researches on various types of curriculum. This wing is also helpful for
guiding text books boards and authors in writing text books. This wing also keeps link
with national educational institutions as Well as international NGOs such as UNESCO,
IBE, UNICEF, ILO.
 Mechanism for Curriculum Development in Pakistan:
The curriculum wing of Ministry of Education exceeds a proposal to the provincial
Curriculum centers. These centers are bound to revise the curriculum in accordance with
Criteria given by the curriculum wing. Then subject committee including subject
Specialists are formed for the sake of consideration and revision of curriculum. The
newly prepared draft is sent to curriculum wing for approval. Then curriculum of all
subjects from all provincial centers is presented to national review committee. After
approving it, this committee put up their draft to Education Secretary for notification. The
approved Curriculum is provided to text book boards for the publication of text books.

 Reference:
  Curriculum evaluation and Student
assessment.http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/COPs/Pages_d
ocuments/Resource_Packs/TTCD/sitemap/Module_8/Module_8.htm

Question No 5. Explain the examination Promotion and Certification

System in the context of Pakistan.
 Examination:
The term “examination” is derived from the term “examen” which means the tongue
of a Balance, and it is ordinarily used to denote a systematic test of knowledge or skill,
which is carried out under the authority of some public body or conducted by the teacher
themselves (Wilbrink, 1997). It measures the students’ capabilities against a required
standard and Determines his skill of answering the questions under the conditions
imposed upon him by the examiner. Examinations tend to check whether the prescribed
objectives are obtained or Not. Whether the students has grasp full command over the
contents of education or not, whether the selected method of teaching is fully worked or
not. Thus the examination System remained an integral part of our teaching learning
process.
 Internal and External Examination:
At present different examination systems are used in our country to test the mental
ability of the students, to evaluate the work of students and to promote the students in
next Grades. But three systems of examinations are commonly used in our country i.e.
internal System of examination, external system of examination and combination of
internal and External system of examination. The examination which is conducted by the
educational Institutions themselves or examination which is conducted by the teachers
themselves, in Order to assess the progress and achievements of their students at different
stages in their Course is called internal examination. The examination which is conducted
by the External agencies or the examination which is conducted by outside authority,
having no direct relation with teaching of the examinee, sets questions and evaluates the
answers is Called external examination.
 Historical background of the examination system in Pakistan:
Pakistan is governed under the Islamic, Democratic, Federal Constitution of 1973 and
the Governance extends to four autonomous provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Khyber
Pukhtunkhwah and Baluchistan. Education in Pakistan is essentially a provincial affair;
however, certain educational functions are the responsibility of the Federation via the
Federal Ministry of Education. Examinations in Pakistan are a legacy of the past,
Inherited from the British system. Following the model of the University of London, an
External final examination, called matriculation was instituted at the end of the high
School stage in the 1880s (Shirazi, 2004). It was initially administered by the London
University. After the establishment of universities in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras in the
1857 the matriculation examination was conducted by these universities. Major features
of management and conduct of examinations replicated the University of London
Examination. Matriculation became a gateway to government service and an entrance to
Higher education with the promise of a lucrative job throughout life. Another factor
which Consolidated the hold of external examinations was the system of financial grants-
in-aid Which was first adopted for the institutions of primary, secondary and higher
education, Based on the principle of „payment by results‟ the amount of grant to be given
to an Institution depended upon its results in external examinations. The Indian
Education Commission (1882) observed that „the system makes examinations the main
object of the Thought of pupils and teachers alike‟. Thus the examination came to
dominate the curriculum and teaching process. It became the main objective of the
primary cum Secondary school education (GoP, 1971). The Hartog Committee (1929)
exposed the Myth of the middle (Grade VII) certificate and matriculation then set a
standard of Achievement. It rather served both an immediate qualification for service and
as a gate to Further education. The Committee further observed that the lure of
government service through matriculation was still potent. However various curriculum
reforms in the Pro-independence period failed to dislodge the hold of the external
examination. It still holds sway in full force in all the regional Boards of Intermediate and
Secondary Education (BISE) and in universities. Since a degree or certificate was a key
to a job and Further education, the pressure to get a degree somehow or the other
intensified. The Inadequacies of the pedagogy, lack of proper teachers, and poor
infrastructure all culminated in encouraging unfair means for getting the
certificate/degree (Nurullah and Naik, 1951).
 Post-independence (after 1947):
The function of the external examination and assessment did not change with
Independence and subsequent developments over the years have strengthened the hold of
Examinations and assessments in the education system of the country. Immediately after
Independence, the vacuum created by the departure of Hindus and the need for manning
The increasing number of administrative posts further reinforced the position of internal
And external examinations and the degree or certificate became the most sought-after
Document. In 1947 there was no Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education in the
Country. Later on in 1950 Karachi BISE was established and in 1954 the Lahore BISE
(Shirazi, 2004). By the late sixties, ten BISEs were conducting their examination
Assessments without trained personnel and other facilities (Shirazi, 2004). The Sharif
Commission (1959) introduced the internal examination and assessment system in
Schools but it did not impact positively on students‟ performance due to inadequate
Teachers‟ training in examination and assessment. The performance of the education
System can be measured by its examination results. Our public examination results
indicate that out of 100 students entering in year only 50% pass in the secondary
Examination. Out of this 40% pass the higher secondary examination, out of this
Exceptional group of survivors, only 5% manage to enter higher education, thus leaving
Behind 95% (GoP, 2007) According to the Ministry of Education during the years 1998-
2008 only 70% of school-going children enrolled in primary schools (male 85%/female
57%), 46% in middle schools (male 56%/female 35%). These figures show that less than
half of the students in primary schools are retained up to middle and secondary level.
Again a number of factors were involved such as a deficient teaching and learning
Process, the medium of instruction, transition from school to college level, and a poor
Examination and assessment system are blamed for this wastage (Khan, 2011).
Examinations in Pakistan involve high stakes because they open a gate to move to the
Next grade, profession and other permanent work. Success in examinations gets glorified
while failure is a stigma for life. All doors of opportunity are closed to failed candidates
and they become social Pariahs. Since passing examinations is a goal of the Pakistani
Education system rather than assessing knowledge, all instruction in the schools is geared
to that objective (Erfan, 2000). The system is therefore riddled with malpractices which,
Among others, include; leakage of question papers, impersonation (stand-in candidates),
external assistance, smuggling the unauthorized material, copying from a nearby
Candidate, intimidation, collusion, ghost centers, substitution of scripts and irregularities
Of supervisory staff by allotting more time to some students. In the context of widespread
Malpractices, it is not surprising that a review of 29 separate government and non-
Governmental reports and policy papers in Pakistan concluded that the public
Examination and assessment system „had become devoid of validity, reliability and
Credibility‟ (Erfan, 2000).
 Examination assessments:
Examination assessments are based on textbooks and they try to test the knowledge
part of the curriculum and to provide evidence of its success or failure. Although the
national Curriculum has to be followed throughout the country, the language of
instruction varies From province to province and so do the textbooks, which have been
produced in keeping With the geographical location and local environments of these
provinces. Keeping in Mind the curriculum, the government generally prescribes
textbooks for each class According to its demographic context. In practice, however,
there is little uniformity in the use of these books, especially in primary schools (Khan,
2011).
The secondary schools‟ curriculum puts the focus on three subject areas, a) science,
Having seven compulsory subjects and one elective subject from a total of 39 elective
Subjects, b) humanities, containing six compulsory subjects and two elective subjects
From a list of 46 subjects, c) technical, comprising six compulsory subjects and two
Elective subjects from the list of 37 elective subjects. This plethora of options creates
Problems for students in selecting a relevant and interesting curriculum. UNESCO
(2004) found that the curriculum in Pakistan is gender-biased and residentially biased and
has more representation from males and urban residents. Additionally, students in
Pakistan find the curriculum boring. It has been recognized that the curriculum in
Pakistan does not presently cater for the diverse conditions in the education sector itself
(multi-grade groups), as well as the variations within the geographical breadth of the
Country (GoP, 2009).
 Examination Promotion and Certification:
Public examinations are conducted in many countries of the world and have been
Considered to play a significant role in determining what goes on in the classroom in
Terms of ‘what’ and ‘how’ teachers teach and students learn, and can have an impact on
Both teaching and learning.
In Pakistan the first public examinations are held at class IX and X levels which are
Called Secondary School Certificate Exams (SSCE) and then at grade XI and XII called
Higher Secondary School Certificate Exams (HSCE). Boards of Intermediate and
Secondary Education conduct these examinations. Students of public, most private,
NGOs and community based schools sit for these exams. There also exist a different
System of public examination at parallel grade levels run by Cambridge International
Examinations (CIE) and Edexcel International London Examinations for O’ Level
(Ordinary level) and A’ Level (Advanced level). Some private elite schools follow this
System only. Yet other private schools go for both the systems and select ‘bright’
students whose parents can afford to pay for Cambridge system, whereas, others are
asked to go For Metric system. Both systems are poles apart in terms of syllabi, choices
of subjects from any discipline, conduct of exams, style and type of papers, reliability and
credibility (Naqvi, 2002).
The purpose of public examinations conducted by these Boards is clearly that of
Promotion, selection and certification and indicates the extent to which learners have
covered a prescribed syllabus. For stakeholders at schools it is to pass them with good
Grades and to bring good name to school. For some schools, teachers and students,
passing examination with highest positions become a question of prestige and yet some
other may want to get through them by any means. Implicit are accountability purposes
On part of school administration especially in non public schools and teachers are
Rewarded or otherwise depending on the level of achievements. One cannot agree more
With Gipps (1996) who points out, ‘Assessment carried out for these purposes is likely
to be more superficial and needs to be more ‘objective’ or reliable …’ (p.251). These
exams are sole determinants of students’ future career in pursuing further or higher
education or Getting into the job market.
 Weaknesses:
The crucial role in determining the impact of pedagogy, public examinations and
Assessment in Pakistan have more demerits than merits (Rehmani, 2003). Moreover,
Modern assessment techniques are not being used to measure students‟ achievements and
hence dependency on traditional learning processes yields a low quality of education in
the country (Christie and Khushk, 2004).
Examination questions are repeated at least every three to five years and hence
questions can be predicted. There are „model papers‟, or „guess paper guides‟ available
in the Market with readymade answers based on the question papers of the previous five
years. Teachers and students tend to rely on such guides and students commit their
content to Memory. Assessment questions in the papers contain only a combination of
objective and Subjective types of questions. Regurgitation seems to be the only key for
students to pass the examinations rather than creative thinking and independent analyses.
The irony is that those students who can reproduce better score higher marks.
 Assessment in Schools in Pakistan:
According to Murray Print (1989) “Assessment involves the interpretation of
measurement data. It makes sense of the data Collected on student performance”

The examination and assessment system in schools in Pakistan that is applicable from
Primary through to secondary education (Year X). It begins with a brief background of
The Pakistani examination system established by its colonial masters; it then describes
the present education system with special reference to the assessment process of students.
An overview of the curriculum development and curriculum reforms in the country
expands our understanding of the moribund assessment system in state schools the
assessment System in primary and secondary education and to assess the present
rectification Measures being put in place by the education authorities.
 Conclusion:
 To sum up examination can be the index of ability if they are conducted in the words
of Burke on the principles of ‘restraint and discipline’. As far as so long the present
system of education continues, the present system of examination is inevitable. Any
change in one involves the change in other. This is the real point. So the change should
come from the top. The exams will always horrify the students but if conducted in a right
manner they can produce a talented generation of such people who could lift their heads
with Pride that they are no cheats and know what their degrees symbolize.

 Reference:

 http://www.hrmars.com/admin/pics/1134.pdf
 http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/ier/previous_pdf/1-Paper_textbooks
%5B1%5D.pdf
 http://www.nwu.ac.za/sites/www.nwu.ac.za/files/files/p-saeduc/
New_Folder_1/6_Assessment%20in%20schools%20in
%20Pakistan.pdfnespap.unescobkk.org/assessment-in-schools-in-Pakistan/