Language learning strategies and study skills

(DT 1133)

TOPIC 5
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING &
TEACHING
Week 5
MISS SHASUMITHA
 LEARNING OUTCOME

After studying this unit you should be able to:

• Explain the humanistic psychology in language learning

and the theories in it
• Discuss the individual differences among learners
• State the two factors affecting individual differences
 Humanistic Psychology in Language
Learning

About Humanistic

• Humanistic, humanism and humanist are terms in psychology

relating to an approach which studies the whole person, and the
uniqueness of each individual.
• Humanistic is a belief system that began in the 1960s.
• In this theory, each individual is unique and that all individuals have
a desire to grow in a positive way.
• A main purpose of humanism is the development of people who
become self-actualized.
• Learning is student centered and very personalized according to
each individual.
Principles of humanistic approach

• Development of human values

• Growth in self-awareness and n the understanding of

others

• Sensitivity to human feelings and emotions

• Active student involvement in learning and in the way

learning takes place

Figures in Humanistic Models of Learning

1. Abraham Maslow

2. Carl Rogers

3. Erik Erikson
 Abraham Maslow

• He has been considered the Father of Humanistic Psychology.

• an American psychologist who was best known for creating
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a theory of self-actualization.
• Maslow's theory is based on the notion that experience is the
primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior.
• He placed emphasis on choice, creativity, values, self-realization, all
distinctively human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and
subjectivity were more important than objectivity.
• He believed that development of human potential, dignity and worth
are ultimate concerns.
• Maslow developed his Hierarchy of needs to describe the pattern that
human motivations generally move through.
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a
pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the
bottom, and the need for self actualization at the top.
• The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain
what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem,
friendship and love, security, and physical needs.
• Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be
met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon)
the secondary or higher level needs.
1. Psychological needs
• For the most part, physiological needs are obvious — they are the literal requirements for human survival. If
these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function.
• Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for food, water, sleep
and warmth.
2. Safety needs
• In the absence of physical safety -- due to war, natural disaster, or, in cases of family violence, childhood abuse,
etc. – people (re-experience ) post-traumatic disorder and trans-generational trauma transfer.
• In the absence of economic safety -- due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities - these safety needs
manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the
individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations,
and the like.
• Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the needs for safety and security, which
out of danger, involving environmental security especially during emergencies saving money, securing a job,
and taking out an insurance policy
3. Love and belonging
• The need is especially strong in childhood and can over-ride the need for safety
as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents.
• Deficiencies with respect to this aspect of Maslow's hierarchy - due to
hospitalization, neglect, etc. - can impact individual's ability to form and maintain
emotionally significant relationships in general, such as: - Friendship
- Intimacy
- Family
• Once physiological and safety needs are adequately met, belongingness (love)
needs become important.
- having intimate relationships with others,
- belonging to groups
- having close friends and acquaintances
4. Esteem
• All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and
self-respect. Esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and
valued by others.
• Further up the pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of
accomplishment take priority. These needs manifest themselves in high
achievement independence competent work recognition from others.
5. Self-actualization
• “What a man can be, he must be.” This forms the basis of the perceived need
for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential
is and realizing that potential.
• Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, a process of growing
and developing as a person to achieve individual potential the need to become
everything that one is capable of becoming.
• From Maslow's perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic. The
purpose of learning is to bring about self- actualization, and the
goals of educators should include this process. Learning
contributes to psychological health.
• Maslow proposed other goals of learning, including discovery of
one's vocation or destiny; knowledge of values; realization of
life as precious, acquisition of peak experiences, sense of
accomplishment, satisfaction of psychological needs,
awareness of beauty and wonder in life, impulse control,
developing choice, and grappling with the critical existential
problems of life.
 Carl Rogers

• Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic

psychologist agreed with most of what Maslow
believed, but added that for a person to "grow", they
need an environment that provides them with
genuineness (openness and self- disclosure),
acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive
regard), and empathy (being listened to and
understood).
Self-Actualization

• Rogers followed very similar to the belief’s of Maslow

• Believed that individuals could grow

• In order to grow, the environment needs to provide

genuineness, acceptance, and empathy

• Need to achieve goals, wishes, and desires in life in

order to achieve self-actualization

The Fully Functioning Person

• Once a person was able to self-actualize, Rogers would refer to

them as a fully functioning person

• There are five characteristics of a fully functioning person:

- Open to experience

- Existential living

- Trust feelings

- Creativity

- Fulfilled Life
 Person centered theory

✔ Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative

feelings are not denied, but worked through
✔ Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding
prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present,
not always looking back to the past or forward to the future
✔ Trust feelings: feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted.
People’s own decisions are the right ones and we should trust ourselves to make the
right choices.
✔ Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of a person’s life. Person
does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and
seek new experiences.
✔ Fulfilled life: person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.
Theory of Personality

• Defined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.”

• The self is our inner personality

• Influenced by experiences throughout life

• Self-concept is influenced by childhood experiences and the evaluation of others

• Self-concept has three components:

- Self Worth

- Self-image

- Ideal Self
Self Worth

• Also known as self esteem

• What we think about ourselves

• Rogers believes that self-worth develops in early childhood

• Self Worth is influenced by the interactions with our parents

Self-Image

• How we see ourselves

• Important to good psychological health

• Includes the influence of our body image on our inner

personality

• Effects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves in the

world
Ideal Self

• The person we would like to be

• Consists of our goals and ambitions in life

• Forever changing
Congruence VS. Incongruence Congruence

Incongruence
Congruence
When a person’s ideal self is not
When a person’s ideal self is
consistent with what happens in
consistent to their actual experiences
their life

Self
Ideal self Self Ideal self
worth
worth
Self
image
Self
image
 Erik Erikson

• Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the

best-known theories of personality in psychology.
• He believes that personality develops in a series of stages.
• He assumes that crisis occurs at each stage of development and they are
of the psychosocial nature.
• Successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality and
acquisition of basic virtues.
• Failure to complete the stage successfully can lead to inhibition in
completion of other stage and an unhealthy personality.
• Erikson believed that personality emerges from an inner and outer
conflicts.
• The crises arise at each of the eight stages of life.
• The main elements behind his theory is the identity of ones ego.
 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial Stages
• Stage 1- Trust vs. Mistrust
• Stage 2- Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
• Stage 3- Initiative vs. Guilt
• Stage 4- Industry vs. Inferiority
• Stage 5- Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Stage 6- Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Stage 7- Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Stage 8- Integrity vs. Despair
 Trust vs. Mistrust

• Occurs in infancy. (birth- 18 months).

• Babies must learn to trust there parents care and
affection.
• If the infant receives care which is reliable and
consistent then a sense of trust is available
• If not done the babies could develop a distrust and view
the world as inconsistent and unpredictable.
• Success in this stage will lead to a virtue of hope.
• Important Event - Feeding
 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• Occurs in the toddler age (18 months-3 years).

• Child learns to feed themselves and do things on there
own.
• Child needs to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of self-confidence.
• If parents fail to reinforce child’s efforts to master basic
motor and cognitive skills at this age, s/he may begin to
feel shame and s/he will lack self-confidence in future.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
• Important event - Toilet training
 Initiative vs. Guilt

• Preschool age (3-5 years old).

• Children make friends, plan activities allowing them to
develop a sense of initiative and developing their
abilities to lead others.
• If the children are criticized or controlled they make
become followers and develop a sense of guilt and may
feel like a nuisance to others.
• Success in this stage will lead to a virtue of purpose.
• Important event - Exploration
 Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority

• School age (5-11 years of age).

• In this stage and are learning to read, write, do sums etc.
• Learn to follow the rules imposed by schools or home.
• Children's have to cope with new social and academic demands
• The child’s peer group creates a significant source of the child’s self
esteem.
• If they are encouraged for their initiative they feel industrious and
competent to achieve their goals.
• If the opposite happens, they begin to feel inferior and doubt their own
abilities and not reach their potential.
• Success in this stage will lead to competence.
• Important event - School
 Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Adolescence (11-18 years of age).

• Acquire a sense of identity.
• Children begin to look at future in terms of career, relationships,
family etc. the adolescent re-examines their identity to figure
out what their who he/she is.
• He says that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their
body till until they can adapt the changes.
• Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about
themselves or their place in society.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
fidelity(faithfulness in a relationship).
• Important event – Social relationships
 Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Young adulthood (18-40 years of age).

• In this stage, we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others.
• Successful completion in this stage can lead to a
comfortable relationship, a sense of commitment, safety
and care etc.
• Avoiding this can lead to isolation, loneliness and
sometimes depression.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
• Important event - Relationships
 Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Middle adulthood (40-65 years of age).

• We establish a career, develop relationships, begin families
etc.
• We give back to society by raising our children, being
productive at work, and becoming involved in community
service etc.
• Making use of time and having a concern with helping
others and guiding the next generation.
• Or it can become self-centered, and stagnant.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
• Important event - Work and parenthood
 Integrity vs. Despair

• Late adulthood (60-and up).

• This is where we become senior citizens and we tend
to slow down our productivity and explore life as a
retired person.
• If we see our life as productive, successful we are able
to develop integrity.
• If we see our lives unhappy and are dissatisfied with
the goals we have achieved, we develop despair,
hopelessness and can become depressed.
• Success in this stage leads to the virtue wisdom.
• Important event - Reflection on life
 Individual Differences Among Learners

• Individual differences are the variations from one person to another on

variables such as self-esteem, rate of cognitive development or degree of
agreeableness.
• We, in spite of belonging to a common species known as human beings,
have our own individuality which contributes towards the variation and
differences found in us.
• No two individuals can be exactly alike in their resulting development and
adjustments. The unique characteristics and traits emerges as children pass
from one stage to another.
• It is these differences that are entitled as “individual differences” in the
languages of sociology and psychology.
• Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s language, cultural,
and social behaviour are taken into account.
Definition of individual difference

• Individual differences stand for the variations or

deviations among individuals in regard to a single
characteristic or a number of characteristics
-Carter B. Good
• Individual differences stand for “those differences which
in their totality, distinguish one individual from another.
Types or varieties of individual
differences

Physical or
physiological
differences

Psychological
differences
1. Physical differences
• Physical differences among individuals related to the differences created
an account of the differences in terms of physical makeup of our bodies.
• Individual differ in height, weight, colour of skin, colour of eyes and hair,
size of hands and heads, arms, feet, mouth and nose, length of waistline,
structure and functioning of internal organs, facial expression, mannerisms
of speech and walk, and other such native or acquired physical
characteristics.
2. Mental differences
• People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like reasoning and
thinking, power of imagination, creative expression, concentration etc.
• On the basis of these differences they are usually classified as idiot,
imbecile, moron, border line, normal, very superior and genius
3. Difference in motor ability
• There exist wide differences in motor abilities such as
reacting time, speed of action, steadiness, rate of muscular
moment, manual dexterity and resistance to fatigue etc.

4. Difference in achievement
• Differences exist in achievement and in knowledge even
among individuals who have almost the same amount of
intelligence and have been subjected to equal amount of
schooling and experience.
5. Emotional differences
• In some individuals, positive emotions like love, affection and
amusement and the like are prominent whereas, in some negative
emotions are more powerful.
• Individuals also differ in the manner they express their emotions.
Some are emotionally stable and mature, while others are
emotionally unstable and immature
6. Differences in interest and aptitude
• Variations occur among the individuals in relation to the specific
tastes and interests.
• In a similar way, people are found to have different aptitudes.
Some have mechanical aptitude, while the others have scholastic,
musical or artistic aptitudes.
7. Differences in self-concept
• Self concept reflects the images, considerations or judgement about
one’s abilities and limitations usually held by an individual not only
projecting himself before others but also for estimating his self in his
own eyes.
• Students must be made to form proper and real concept about their
self so that they may be helped in their progress and development by
maximizing their potentials after getting rid of evils and negative
things detrimental to progress.
8. Learning differences
• Some learn more easily and are able to make use of their learning
more comfortably than others.
• For some, one method of learning or memorization is more suitable,
while for others, a different method suits
 9. Differences in study habits

10. Differences in social and moral development

• Some are found to be adjusted properly in the social situations and
lead a happy social life while others are socially handicapped,
unsocial or antisocial.
• Similarly, people are found to differ in respect of ethical and moral
sense.
 Factors affecting individual differences

1. Heredity
• What occurs naturally as a function of the genes.
• people belong to different hereditary endowments and
characteristics. The hereditary decides the path of the progress and
development of an individual.
2. Environment
• What is learned and communicated in different cultures or other
social groups includes family, socio-economic status, culture,
previous knowledge, experience and gender differences.
• The environment is every thing that affects the individual except his
genes. It covers all the outside factors that act on the individual,
since he begins life.