CORROSION

HANDBOOK
06/2021
FOREWORD

Corrosion is a ubiquitous natural process. Most of us, at some point in our

everyday lives, become familiar with the effect that corrosion has on rusted steel
parts. Corrosion has a huge economic impact. About a fifth of the world’s annual
steel production simply goes towards replacing parts damaged by corrosion.
Even though it may involve higher up-front cost, correct and efficient corrosion
protection at source helps save money and resources in the long run. For
­fastening systems, it’s even more critical because safety is key. Failure due to
corrosion may have dramatic consequences.

The goal of this handbook is to raise your general awareness of what corrosion is
all about. It provides you with essential information on corrosion and the behavior
of the materials used to protect our products from it.

Hilti conducts comprehensive laboratory and field-based tests to assess the

corrosion resistance of its products. Some long-term tests started in the 1980s
and are still running today. Thanks to in-house research and close collaboration
with renowned universities and laboratories, Hilti is in a position to help offer the
right ­solutions with the most suitable corrosion protection for a wide variety of
environmental conditions.

Nevertheless, the choice of the material or the corrosion protection method for a
specific application remains the responsibility of the user. Your local Hilti contact
will be pleased to provide further assistance. He or she will also be able to obtain
support at any time from the specialists in our Corporate Research & Technology
department, allowing you to take advantage of the wealth of in-depth know-how
we have available.

2 06/21
CONTENTS
4 1 Basics of corrosion
4 1.1 What is corrosion?
6 1.2 Forms of corrosion
6 1.2.1 Uniform corrosion / shallow pitting corrosion
7 1.2.2 Pitting corrosion
8 1.2.3 Crevice corrosion
9 1.2.4 Environmentally induced cracking
11 1.2.5 Intercrystalline (intergranular) corrosion
12 1.2.6 Galvanic (contact) corrosion

13 2 Hilti corrosion performance assessment and product

qualification methods
13 2.1 Purpose of corrosion testing
14 2.2 Lab facilities/tests
17 2.3 Outdoor field tests

19 3 Hilti corrosion protection solutions

20 3.1 Corrosion and corrosion protection of carbon steel
22 3.2 Corrosion behavior of stainless steel
26 3.3 Prevention of galvanic corrosion

28 4 How to assess corrosion in a specific environment and

application
28 4.1 Factors influencing atmospheric corrosion
30 4.2 Assessment of corrosivity for zinc and ZM coated products
32 4.3 Assessment of corrosivity for stainless steel products

34 5 How to select a suitable fastener and installation system

37 5.1 Selecting the right corrosion protection for anchors, power-driven
fasteners and screws
38 5.2 Selecting the right installation system

39 6 Bibliography

40 7 Disclaimer

06/21 3
1 BASICS OF CORROSION

1.1 What is corrosion?

Corrosion is the physicochemical interaction between a metal and its environment,

which results in changes in the metal’s properties and may lead to significant
functional impairment of the metal, the environment, or the technical system of
which they form a part (see ISO 8044:2010).

We only talk about corrosion when there is a change in the metal’s or system’s
properties that may lead to an undesirable outcome. This can range from simple
cosmetic damage to complete failure of technical systems potentially causing
great economic damage and even present a hazard to people.

The commonly used metals in construction and engineering like steel, aluminum
and zinc have a tendency to return to its original state as found in nature. For this
reason, corrosion can be regarded as metal-winning in reverse. Fig. 1 shows how
this looks like when iron is extracted from iron ore.

metal winning
requires energy

Fe 2 O 3 2 Fe + ³⁄₂ O 2

unrefined, natural state refined, metallic state

corrosion reaction
(stable) (unstable)

Fig 1: Chemical reactions of iron during corrosion and the metal-winning process.

Types of corrosion reactions

By far the most common type of the corrosion reaction is electrochemical
in nature. Such reactions imply a transfer of electrons from the metal via an
environment that can conduct ions, such as a water film on its surface.
In rarer cases corrosion reactions can also be purely chemical, as the reaction of
a metal surface with hot gases or liquid salts.
The overall electrochemical corrosion reaction can be separated into two partial
reactions:
• Metal dissolution, also known as oxidation or anodic reaction
Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e-
• Reduction or cathodic reaction
In neutral environment and with a sufficient supply of oxygen the cathodic
reaction is as follows:
O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e- → 4 OH-

This is the most important cathodic reaction we must consider when corroding
our parts in common environmental conditions (also called atmospheric
corrosion).
In acidic environment and with the lack of oxygen following reaction may occur:
2H+ + 2e- → H2

Even if this reaction, as a partial reaction of corrosion, occurs much less

frequently in atmospheric environments compared to the oxygen reduction, it
must nevertheless be taken into account, since the formation of hydrogen here
can lead to embrittlement of the metals concerned (see chapter on forms of
corrosion).

4 06/21
These two partial reactions can take place on the metal surface in a fairly even
distribution leading to uniform attack (see section 1.2.1). Alternatively, they can
occur locally and separately, leading to localized forms of corrosion such as
pitting corrosion.

The mechanism and the electrochemical nature of the corrosion reaction define
the necessary requirements for atmospheric corrosion to take place:
• a conducting metal
• an electrolyte (a thin, even invisible moisture film on the surface is already
sufficient)
• oxygen for the cathodic reaction

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Fig. 2: Requirements for an atmos­pheric corrosion reaction.

2+ )H
 2+
The illustration in Fig. 2 shows the basic corrosion mechanism of iron under a 2 2
drop of water. Both metal dissolution and oxygen reduction reactions take place
with slight separation on the surface, while their products (Fe-ions and OH-ions) H H H H
react in the water drop to form iron oxide (red rust).

In general, the same scheme applies to other metals such as zinc or aluminum,
but with slightly different chemical reactions in the electrolyte.
Fig. 3: Corrosion of iron under a drop
With the simple model of the corrosion reaction, as seen in Fig. 3, we are able of water, showing metal dissolution,
to explain many forms of corrosion and also to put measures in place to help oxygen reduction and the formation of
mitigate it. By mitigating these partial reactions, the overall corrosion rate is also rust.
reduced.

06/21 5
1.2 Forms of corrosion

1.2.1 Uniform corrosion / shallow pitting corrosion

Uniform corrosion removes a metal’s surface almost evenly.

The partial reactions (metal dissolution and oxygen reduction) are statistically
distributed over the surface, leading to a largely homogenous dissolution of the
metal and uniform formation of corrosion products (e.g. red rust on steel).
The extent of this form of corrosion can usually be well estimated on the basis
of previous experience. The rate of corrosion is usually given in micrometers
per year (µm/a). Using these average values, it is possible to estimate the life
expectancy of a component, and thus to enhance its life expectancy by increasing
its thickness. Unprotected carbon steel and zinc-coated steel are materials, which
typically show uniform or shallow pitting corrosion in outdoor environments.

In reality, truly homogenous corrosion attack is unlikely to take place. There are
always areas, especially on complex metal parts, which will corrode faster than
others – leading to a more or less rough surface with an irregular covering of
corrosion products (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4: Corrosion of steel components.

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6 06/21
1.2.2 Pitting corrosion

Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion that leads to the creation of small
holes or “pits” in the metal (see Fig. 5). This form of corrosion is mainly found
on passive metals. Passive metals and alloys, such as aluminum, titanium and
stainless steel owe their corrosion resistance to a thin oxide layer of only a few
nanometers on their surface. The corrosion process starts with a local break-
down of the passive layer. Local corrosive attack can be initiated on stainless
steels, for example, by chloride ions.

&,
Fig. 6 shows the most significant phases of this corrosion phenomenon on
stainless steel. Pitting corrosion can be quite problematic. Whereas uniform
corrosion can be seen clearly on the surface, pitting corrosion often appears
only as small pinholes. The amount of material removed below the pinholes is
generally unknown as hidden cavities may form, making this type of corrosion
more difficult to detect and predict. Technically, there is no reasonable way
to control pitting corrosion so it must be excluded from the outset via design
considerations and use of the right materials, engineering and quality control.

In addition, pitting corrosion can often be the starting point for more severe
forms of corrosion such as stress corrosion cracking
2 (see section2“Stress Fig. 5: Example of pitting corrosion on
corrosion cracking (SCC)” on page 10). a stainless steel product.
2+ 2+

&, &,
)H๦)HH

a. Stainless steel with passivated b. Local breakdown of passivation due

surface. to attack of chloride ion.

2 2 2 2
2+ 2+ 2 2+ 2 2+
&, 2+ 2+
&,
)H๦)HH
)H๦
)H๦ )H
)H

H 
H

c. Start of corrosion on the active d. Anodic dissolution of iron in the pit,

(not passive) part of the surface. oxygen reduction takes place
outside.
Fig. 6: Phases of pitting corrosion on stainless steel.
2
2 2
2
 
2+
2+ 2+
2+
2 2
&, 2+ 2+
)H๦)HH
&,
)H๦)HH

)H๦)HH

2 2
2+ 2+

06/21 &, 7
1.2.3 Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion refers to corrosion occurring in cracks or crevices formed

between two surfaces (made from the same metal, different metals or even
a metal and a non-metal). This type of corrosion is initiated by the restricted
entrance of oxygen from the air. The access of oxygen into the crevice area is
hindered, whereby the cathodic partial reaction (see 1.1) preferably takes place
only outside the crevice. The crevice area itself becomes the anode, and thus the
preferred region for metal dissolution. (see Fig. 7).
It may also occur under washers or gaskets, when the entry of water underneath
is not prevented (see Fig. 7).
There are lower and upper limits to the size of a crevice in which corrosion
may be induced. If the crevice is too tight, no electrolyte for corrosion will be
introduced. If the crevice is too wide to reduce oxygen entrance, the aeration cell
and consequently different concentrations of oxygen cannot develop. However,
the critical crevice width depends on several factors such as the type of metals
involved, the corroding environment and the wet/dry cycles.

Oxygen rich

Oxygen starved

Oxygen starved 0RUHQREOH /HVVQREOH

Fig. 7: Possible areas for crevice corrosion in a fastening structure.

8 06/21
1.2.4 Environmentally induced cracking

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a combined mechanical and electrochemical
corrosion process that results in cracking of certain materials. It can lead to
unexpected sudden brittle failure of normally ductile metals subjected to stress
levels well below their yield strength. The stress in a material can be either
applied (external) or residual (internal) and sufficient to initiate an attack of stress
corrosion cracking.

Stress corrosion cracking is not simply an overlapping of corrosion and

mechanical stresses. Instead, it is an autocatalytic, self-accelerating process
leading to high metal dissolution rates (anodic reaction). Initially, a small pit is
formed and develops into a crack due to applied or residual stress in the material.
The crack formation opens up a new active (non-passive) metal surface, which
again will corrode very easily. This leads to further crack propagation and once
more to the exposure of new highly active metal surfaces in the crack. Metal
dissolution in the crack will advance rapidly until mechanical failure occurs.

SCC is a highly specific form of corrosion that occurs only when the following
three different requirements are fulfilled at the same time (see Fig. 9)
• Material (e.g. generally alloyed metals)
• Stresses (applied or residual)
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• Corrosive Environment

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Fig. 8: SCC of a bracket made of the

material 1.4301 (A2, 304) after approx.
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4 years of use in an indoor swimming
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pool.

Fig. 9: Factors required for the occurrence of stress corrosion cracking.

It is well known that certain grades of austenitic stainless steel can suffer stress
corrosion cracking in harsh environments such as indoor swimming pools. In
most of these cases, corrosion is initiated by chlorides attacking the passive layer.

06/21 9
Hydrogen-assisted cracking
Hydrogen-assisted cracking is caused by the diffusion of hydrogen atoms into the
metal. The presence of hydrogen in the lattice weakens the mechanical integrity
of the metal and leads to crack growth and brittle fracture at stress levels below
the yield strength. Like stress corrosion cracking, it can lead to sudden failure of
metal parts without any detectable warning signs.
In common applications, hydrogen damage is usually only relevant for high-
strength hardened steels.

As with SCC, three different conditions must be present at the same time
(see Fig. 10)
• Material (e.g. high strength, hardened steels)
• Stresses (applied or residual)
• Hydrogen source

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Fig. 10: Factors required for the occurrence of hydrogen-assisted cracking.

The source of hydrogen can be a production process such as steel making,

pickling and electrogalvanizing (primary hydrogen-assisted cracking). A
secondary source can be the hydrogen formed during a corrosion process
occuring in-use, which then diffuses into the material (secondary hydrogen-
assisted cracking). During the corrosion process, hydrogen is formed and diffuses
into the material. This hydrogen intake leads to a decrease in the toughness or
ductility of a metal.

10 06/21
1.2.5 Intercrystalline (intergranular) corrosion

Intercrystalline corrosion is a special form of localized corrosion, where the

corrosive attack takes place in a relatively narrow path, preferentially along the
grain boundaries in the metal structure. The most common effect of this form of
corrosion is a rapid mechanical disintegration of the material (loss of ductility).
Usually it can be prevented by using the right material and production process.

A well-known example relevant to the construction industry is the sensitization of

stainless steel. When certain grades of this material are kept within a temperature
range of 500 °C to 800 °C for a considerable time, such as during a welding
process, chromium-rich carbides are formed, resulting in chromium depletion at
the grain boundaries. Consequently, the grain boundaries possess a lower degree
of corrosion resistance than the residual material, leading to localized corrosive 0RUHQREOH /HVVQREOH
attack (see Fig. 11).

Fig. 11: Scanning electron micrograph

image of a selective attack Welded
zone of a 1.4401, (A4, 316) material.

06/21 11
1.2.6 Galvanic (contact) corrosion

Galvanic corrosion refers to damage caused by two dissimilar metals having

an electrically conducting connection while being in contact with a common
corrosive electrolyte (e.g.: humidity in the air). In the electrochemical model of 0RUHQREOH /HVVQREOH
corrosion, one of the two partial reactions (anodic metal dissolution and cathodic
oxygen reduction) takes place almost exclusively on one metal.

Generally, the less noble metal will be dissolved (anodic metal dissolution),
whereas the more noble part is not attacked by corrosion (it serves only as the
cathode for oxygen reduction). Where galvanic corrosion takes place, the rate
of corrosion of the less noble metal is higher than it would be in a free corroding
environment without contact to another metal.

Using thermodynamic data and taking into account common experience gained
in typical applications, it is possible to predict which material combinations will
be affected by galvanic corrosion (see 3.3). A positive application of the galvanic
corrosion phenomenon is the way in which zinc or zinc alloys such as Zinc
Magnesium (here on referred to as ZM) protect carbon steels and low-alloyed
steels. Zinc or zinc alloys such as ZM are the less noble metals which actively
protect steel by being corroded themselves (see Fig. 12).

Fig. 12: This is a typical case of contact corrosion. A zinc-plated carbon steel
(washer) and stainless steel (screw and part) were used together. The surface area
of the more noble metal – the stainless steel – is larger, causing strong corrosion
of the washer.

12 06/21
2 HILTI CORROSION PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT AND PRODUCT
QUALIFICATION METHODS

Hilti conducts comprehensive laboratory and field corrosion tests to assess the
corrosion protection of its products. Thanks to in-house research Hilti has a
wide variety of tested corrosion protection solutions for different environmental
conditions.

Many methods for testing corrosion resistance are specific to particular materials
and are based on conditions prevailing in certain environments. A large number
of factors affect corrosion behavior. Hence there is not a unique and universal
corrosion test covering all aspects of materials in use. The most reliable indicator
of corrosion behavior is service history, but this information is not always available
exactly as needed. Corrosion protection of our fasteners is also tested by
installing the items on steel or in concrete to simulate potential damage during the
installation process.
Corrosion tests can be a suitable method for assessing new products and to
compare them with known corrosion protection systems. However, such tests
alone are not sufficient to qualify a product for a certain application as the
corrosivity of the environment can differ greatly from one project to another. In
the end, it is the responsibility of the user to choose the right corrosion protection
based on detailed
information about the application, long-term experience and fundamental
knowledge of the subject.

2.1 Purpose of corrosion testing

Accelerated corrosion lab tests are state-of-the-art when it comes to evaluating

the performance of materials. This is because they represent standardized and
reproducible conditions and allow an assessment to be made after a short period
of testing (days to weeks). One major use of this type of test is in the quality
control of corrosion protection coatings. In order to pass quality control, products
must meet the required performance standards (e.g. two days without showing
red rust). Moreover, these types of tests are very useful in product development
activities, where screening and classifying new coatings and materials for new
products is crucial.

06/21 13
 2.2 Lab facilities/tests

At our in-house research facilities, Hilti performs the most relevant lab corrosion
tests available for our products (see Fig. 13).

Neutral salt spray test: EN ISO 9227, ASTM B117

The salt spray test is one of the oldest and most widely used accelerated
corrosion tests. The samples are exposed permanently to a saline fog made
from a five percent sodium chloride solution. The salt spray test is not directly
representative of corrosion protection in real atmospheres because of the high
chloride concentration and lack of dry periods. However, it is a practical test
primarily used for process qualification and quality acceptance. Hilti uses the Fig. 13: Picture from our corrosion
salt spray test to check the homogeneity of zinc coatings on fasteners as quality lab with various corrosion testing
control in production (see Fig. 15 and Fig. 14). chambers.
Zn alloy coatings like ZM and ZnNi coatings show a significantly better
performance in the neutral salt spray test.


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Fig. 14: Electrogalvanized screws with
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WHFKQRORJLHV around 5 µm zinc coating after 48 h (up)
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and 96 h (down) in the salt spray test.
Fig. 15: Typical time until the first appearance of red rust (corrosion of the steel
substrate) in the salt spray for zinc and Zinc magnesium (ZM) coated products
with varying coating thickness.

14 06/21
Cyclic corrosion test: EN ISO 16701 K
7 
In the cyclic corrosion test EN ISO 16701, temperature and relative humidity are ƒ&

varied to simulate typical wet/dry cycles like those taking place in natural outdoor

environments. Additionally, the samples are sprinkled with a dilute sodium
U+ 
chloride solution (1%) twice a week to induce corrosion. While still not directly 
representative of most real atmospheres, due to the wet/dry cycles as well as the 

lower chloride concentration, this test is much better suited to triggering natural 

corrosion processes than the simple salt spray test. However, it requires longer 

test times (several weeks) (see Fig. 16 and Fig. 17). 



7LPH

Fig. 16: Daily temperature and humidity

cycle of the ISO 16701 cyclic corrosion
test: twice a week, a 1 % NaCl solution
is sprayed onto the samples for 3 × 15
minutes.

1 cm

Fig. 17: Zinc-coated steel (hot-dip galvanized, HDG) after one year in a tropical
coastal climate (left) and after 12 weeks in the ISO 16701 cyclic corrosion test
(right). Similar corrosion behavior was observed in the field test and cyclic
corrosion test.

Cyclic corrosion test with exposure to UV radiation: ISO 20340, similar to

ASTM D5894
This test additionally exposes the samples to high-energy ultraviolet radiation. It
is combined with water condensation, as well as chloride exposure and a freezing
period (see Fig. 18). Organic polymers such as paints and varnishes can show
degradation when exposed to sun light. This test is therefore mainly used for
products with organic coatings (see Fig. 19). Apart from corrosion testing, it is
also used to check the ageing effect on UV-sensitive products such as plastic
parts.

Fig. 19: Connector part with multilayer

'D\ 'D\ 'D\ 'D\ 'D\ 'D\ 'D\
coating (organic flake topcoat) after ten
/RZWHPS weeks in the ISO 20340 test with UV
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“ƒ& radiation.

Fig. 18: Cyclic corrosion test procedure in combination with exposure to UV

radiation, salt spray and freezing cycle according to ISO 20340.

06/21 15
Humidity test: EN ISO 6270/ ASTM D2247, and with sulfur dioxide (EN ISO
6988, ASTM G87)
In the humidity test, samples are exposed to an atmosphere with 100 % relative
humidity. This test can be combined with the addition of a certain amount of
sulfur dioxide gas. This creates a highly corrosive and acidic environment that
simulates the effect of heavy industrial pollution (see Fig. 20).

Electrochemistry Fig. 20: Screws with highly corrosion-

The electrochemical nature of the corrosion process make electrochemical resistant multilayer coating after 15
techniques useful for the investigation of corrosion reactions of certain materials. cycles of the sulfur dioxide corrosion
Besides the accelerated corrosion tests, our lab is equipped with electrochemical test (showing no corrosion).
testing equipment (potentiostat) which is mainly used for the examination of
pitting corrosion and the repassivation behavior of stainless steel.

Metallographic laboratory
Accelerated corrosion tests, as well as field exposure tests always have to be
supported by various analytical methods for proper interpretation of the results.
In the metallo­graphy lab we use a state-of-the-art scanning electron microscope
(SEM) plus elemental analysis for deeper investigation of our products (see Fig.
21, Fig. 22 and Fig. 23).

Fig. 21: Scanning electron microscope

(SEM).
corrosion products

orignal coating

steel

Fig. 23: Metallographic laboratory

equipment (grinding and polishing).

Fig. 22: Metallographic cross section in the scanning electron microscope of a

ZM coating after three years exposure in a coastal climate. The stable corrosion
products help protect the layer from further attack.

16 06/21
2.3 Outdoor field tests

Corrosion protection of products can be assessed most accurately by exposure

tests of specimens and products in real atmospheric environmental conditions.
For this purpose, Hilti conducts multiple ongoing outdoor field tests for
its products at various sites all over the world, in conditions ranging from
cold temperate to tropical, and from coastal to industrial and even offshore
atmospheres (see Fig. 24).

Cold climate, coastal Cold climate, coastal Industrial, steelworks

Sweden
Germany
France
Austria

Mexico China

Tropical, coastal Moderate climate, coastal Tropical, coastal

Fig. 24: Map showing the various field test locations for Hilti products

Hilti has operated the site near Le Havre on the Atlantic coast in France since the

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1980s. Here we not only test the corrosion behavior of our fastening products,
but also their long-term functionality. The fastening elements, especially anchors, 

are set in concrete. After certain periods of time, the remaining load values are 

measured in pull-out tests (see Fig. 25). 






        
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Fig. 25: Typical force-displacement

measurement result for an installed
anchor after 16 years of exposure in the
coastal environment.

06/21 17
From the beginning of the 1980s until 2005 Hilti also carried out extensive studies
on the corrosion behavior of various materials in road tunnels in the Alpine region.
Our long-term observations have given us the ability to improve the performance
of our products in these highly corrosive surroundings and thus supply our
customers with more effective fastening systems for use in these environmental
conditions. The high-alloyed stainless steel grade 1.4529 (HCR) has proven to be
the one material that shows little to no signs of corrosion. The results of these
studies have also influenced standards and codes of practice for products and
fasteners made of stainless steel used for tunnel applications (see Fig. 26).

Our fasteners and installation products are not the only products that are Fig. 26: Road tunnels present a very
thoroughly tested. Hilti’s power tools also undergo many functionality tests, corrosive environment (de-icing salt
combined with typical corrosion conditions. This leads to high performance even and exhaust fumes from traffic).
in tough environments (see Fig. 27).

Fig. 27: Fastening tools in a humidity chamber.

18 06/21
3 HILTI CORROSION PROTECTION
SOLUTIONS
The corrosion protection solutions applied to Hilti products, their typical corrosion
behavior and their suitability for certain applications are described in this section.

Classification of corrosion protection measures

Corrosion protection
measures

Preventing corrosion Protecting the material

Use of corrosion
Coatings on steel
resistant materials

Stainless steel Metallic Organic Inorganic

Zinc
Painting Phosphating
coating

The table below provides an overview of the corrosion protection coatings applied
to Hilti products.

Hilti corrosion protection solution for Coating thickness Product examples

carbon steel
Phosphating Screws
Electro-galvanizing Zn and ZnNi From 5 to 20 μm Nails, anchors, screws
Hot-dip galvanizing From 35 to 100 μm Installation channels
Hot dip galvanizing with Zn and ZM From 20 to 40 μm Stud anchors,
installation channels
Sherardizing/Thermal diffusion Up to 45 μm Anchors
Multilayer (Zn plus additional organic Anchors and installation
coating – painting) parts

Table 1: Corrosion protection coatings applied to Hilti products

06/21 19
3.1 Corrosion and corrosion protection of carbon steel

The unalloyed steel (i.e. mild steel or carbon steel) from which the majority of
our fastening and installation products are manufactured requires corrosion
protection. In most environments, the corrosion rate of carbon steel (typically
around 20 µm/a in a rural outdoor atmosphere and rising to more than 100 µm/a
in coastal environments) is usually too high for a satisfactory outdoor application.
The product design does not generally account for a material loss. Hilti therefore
offers a wide range of suitable, cost-efficient corrosion protection solutions for
carbon steel products.

In alkaline surroundings like when covered by concrete, however, iron and steel
usually remain stable. This explains why, for example, reinforcing bars made of
carbon steel are already very well protected against corrosion in the alkaline
environment of the surrounding concrete.

Phosphating
Steel is dipped into an acidic solution containing metal (Zn, Fe)
phosphate salts. The solution reacts with the steel surface forming 5 μm
Process description a micro-crystalline layer of phosphates on the surface (see
Fig. 28). This results in a rough surface with excellent oil-retaining
properties. Fig. 28: Phosphate crystals on a steel
Oil applied for corrosion protection is intended to stay long surface at 3000X magnification in the
Corrosion behavior and further
enough on the surface in order to provide protection during scanning electron microscope.
normal transport and deliver slightly increased general corrosion
information
protection. Such products can be used only in dry indoor
environments. Hilti uses phosphatizing on drywall screws.

Zinc and Zn alloy coatings

Zinc is an excellent choice for the corrosion protection of carbon steel. Several
suitable processes are available for the application of zinc coatings on steel parts
ranging from small screws to channels of several meters in length.

The corrosion rate of zinc is more than ten times lower than that of steel, ranging
at around 0.5 to 1 µm/a in rural/urban atmospheres and rising to up to around
5 µm/a in coastal environments. Zinc alloy coatings such as electroplated ZnNi
or continuously hot dip galvanized ZM have a significantly reduced corrosion
rate, which in most applications is only about half that of zinc. Fig. 29 provides
an overview of the typical service life of zinc-coated steel and ZM coated steel
under various conditions. The low corrosion rates are the result of the formation of
stable layers of corrosion products containing carbonates (from CO2 in the air) and
chlorides (if they are present in the atmosphere). Conditions where the formation of
such insoluble corrosion products is not possible will lead to much higher corrosion
rates and hence will limit the suitability of zinc as a protective coating. These
include permanently wet conditions or exposure to high concentrations of industrial
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide. In these environments, soluble corrosion products
are formed preferentially and they can be washed off by rainfall.

In addition to decreased corrosion rates, zinc also provides cathodic or sacrificial

protection to the underlying steel. Where scratching, chipping or any other
damage to the zinc coating exposes the steel, a special form of galvanic corrosion
takes place (see section 1.2.6). Zinc, being a less noble metal than steel, corrodes
preferentially, thereby helping to keep the exposed steel surface protected.

Zinc coatings are consumed quite homogenously during atmospheric corrosion.

Accordingly, in a given application, doubling of the coating thickness usually also
doubles the time until the zinc is consumed and red rust on the steel substrate
occurs. Zinc is not stable in alkaline environments and is readily attacked in
solutions with a pH-value of 10 or higher. Likewise, on the jobsite, the spilling
of aggressive construction materials on zinc products, e.g. cement or fresh
concrete, should be avoided.

20 06/21
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Fig. 29: Typical service life of Zn and ZM coated steel in various environments.

Electrogalvanizing
Electrical current is passed through an aqueous solution containing
zinc ions leading to the deposition of zinc metal on the steel
substrate. Prior to this step, the parts usually undergo a cleaning
Process description
and pickling process and subsequent passivation after the
deposition of zinc. It is an excellent way to protect small threaded
parts due to the formation of homogeneous and dense coatings.
Coating thickness It can vary from 5 to 15 µm.
Due to the limitations of the achievable coating thickness, Zn
electroplated parts without further corrosion protection should only
be used in dry indoor conditions. Using electroplating, it is also
Corrosion behavior and further possible to deposit Zn alloys such as ZnNi coatings.
information Electrogalvanizing can lead to hydrogen uptake. Hilti’s high-
strength fasteners such as nails for direct fastening are therefore
baked after electroplating (kept at temperatures of around 180 °C
for 24 h) to remove hydrogen.
Hot-dip galvanizing
During this process, steel parts are dipped into a bath of molten Zn-phase
zinc. Large parts with a size of several meters can be coated using
Process description this technique. Small parts like bolts and anchors are centrifuged ZnFe-phase
after hot-dip galvanizing in order to remove excess zinc from the
threads.
The typical thickness is between 35 and 100 µm, depending on
Coating thickness the material thickness and the steel composition. The duration of
dipping is usually several minutes. steel
The molten zinc reacts with the steel substrate forming a ZnFe alloy
layer with a thinner pure Zn layer on top (see Fig. 30).
Corrosion products of hot-dip galvanizing may look brownish due
Corrosion behavior and further
to Fe in the zinc coating. This, however, is not necessarily a sign
information
of corrosion of the steel substrate (see Fig. 31). HDG is applicable
for some outdoor environments, depending on the thickness of the Fig. 30: Micrograph of hot-dip
zinc coating and the exposure conditions galvanized steel.
Continuous hot-dip galvanizing / Sendzimir galvanizing
During this process, sheet metal from coils is drawn continuously
through a bath of molten zinc after the surface has been cleaned
and it has been subjected to a special annealing (heat treatment)
Process description process. The zinc bath contains small amounts of Al. The Al reacts
with the steel surface to create an inhibition layer with a thickness
of a few nanometers, which inhibits the formation of ZnFe phases.
The coating consists mainly of pure zinc.
Fig. 31: Brown staining on a hot-dip
It can vary from 10 to 70 µm on both sides and it is controlled by
Coating thickness
removing excess zinc with a jet of air. galvanized channel after 200 h in the
Apart from pure Zn, also coatings consisting of Zn alloys such
salt spray test. No corrosion of the
as ZM can be produced by continuous dip galvanizing. Typical steel yet.
Corrosion behavior and further
coatings have around 2–4 % of Al and Mg and show increased
information
corrosion protection, which is around two times higher than that of
a Zn coating with the same coating weight.

06/21 21
Sherardizing / thermal diffusion
Process description
Coating thickness
Other features
Sherardizing is a method of zinc coating utilizing a thermal diffusion
process. The steel parts are placed in a drum containing Zn
powder and then heated to temperatures above 320 °C. The Zinc
is not liquid, and the coating forms by thermal diffusion of the Zn
powder into the steel parts.
The achievable coating thickness ranges up to 45 µm.
These coatings consist mainly of a ZnFe alloy which offers very
good protection against corrosion that can be compared with hot-
dip galvanizing at the same thickness. Even on complex threaded
parts, this process produces tough and uniform coatings.

Multilayer coatings / duplex-coated carbon steel

When the corrosion protection provided by the metallic coating is not sufficient,
the parts can be further protected by additional coatings, mainly organic paint
with or without metallic flakes.

An example of this is the multilayer coating on fasteners consisting of an

electroplated Zn alloy coating with an additional organic top coat (see Fig. 32).

Top coat for chemical resistance

Zn-alloy electroplating for cathodic protection

Hardened carbon steel

Fig. 32: Illustration of multilayer coating

on fasteners and connectors.

3.2 Corrosion behavior of stainless steel

Steel alloyed with at least 10 % chromium is called stainless steel. The addition
of chromium causes the formation of a stable, very thin (few nanometers) oxide
layer (passivation layer) on the surface. Stainless steel therefore does not readily
corrode or stain when in contact with water like carbon steel does.

However, under some circumstances, the passivation layer can break down
causing local attack such as pitting corrosion (see 1.2.2). Pitting corrosion, as the
predominant form of corrosion of stainless steel, does not allow lifetime prediction
as is possible with zinc coatings. In general, for a given application, a grade of
stainless steel which is stable and does not show any corrosion in the given
environment has to be selected.

The resistance of stainless steels against pitting corrosion can be roughly

estimated by the PREN (pitting resistance equivalent number). The PREN is
based on the chemical composition of steel, taking into account the amount of
chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. In literature, various equations for this
calculation are given. The most common equations are:

PREN = %Cr + 3.3 x %Mo

(for stainless steels Mo < 3%)

PREN = %Cr + 3.3 x %Mo + 30 x %N

(for stainless steels Mo ≥ 3%)
22 06/21
Another severe form of corrosion relevant for stainless steel is stress corrosion
cracking. Austenitic stainless steel can be prone to this form of corrosion under
specific highly aggressive environments such as in indoor swimming pools. In
such cases, highly corrosion-resistant grades of stainless steel must be used for
some applications, e.g. grades with a molybdenum content of more than 6 %.

You will find more information about selecting stainless steel grades in section 4.

Stainless steel grades

There are various grades of stainless steel with different levels of stability. The
most common grade is alloyed with around 18 % Cr and 10 % Ni (see Fig. 33).
Increasing or reducing the amount of specific elements in the steel changes its
corrosion properties, its mechanical properties or some processing properties
such as weldability. If the nickel content is significantly reduced the alloy phase
will no longer be purely austenitic, but will then combine austenitic and ferritic
phases (duplex stainless steel). Additionally to these grades, there are the
martensitc stainless steel grades.

Stainless steel designations

The illustration in Fig. 33 shows the three most common forms of stainless steel
grade designations:

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stainless steel grades. The Roman numbers indicate the corrosion resistance
class (see also 4.3)

06/21 23
MATERIAL NUMBER

Description
The system of numbering materials in accordance with EN 10088-1:2014 is used
in several countries. Each number has five digits, such as 1. 4404

The first digit 1 means steel, the second and third digits 44 mean chemically
resistant steels with Mo, and without Nb or Ti. In addition to designation 44, the
following designations for stainless steel exist:

“41” = with Mo, without Nb and Ti, Ni < 2,5 %

“43” = without Mo, Nb and Ti, Ni ≥ 2,5 %
“44” = with Mo, without Nb and Ti, Ni ≥ 2,5 %
“45” = with additional elements

The last two digits 04 designate the exact alloy.

AISI DESIGNATION (E.G. 316)

Description
The designation system of the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) is used
worldwide. It consists of a number to which one of several letters may be added
depending on the composition.

200 – designates an austenitic steel containing chromium, nickel and manganese

300 – designates an austenitic steel containing chromium, nickel
400 – designates ferritic and martensitic chromium steels

The additional letters (some shown below) indicate the following:

L = low carbon Ti = titanium

The newly-developed duplex stainless steel grades have a four-digit designation

(e.g. 2205 for the 1.4462)

SHORT NAME DESIGNATION

Description

X 2 Cr Ni Mo 17 12 2

X = High-alloy steel
2 = Carbon content in 1 / 100 %, in this case: C= 0.02 %
Cr = Chromium, in this case: 17 %
Ni = Nickel, in this case: 12 %
Mo = Molybdenum, 2 %

This steel grade in the given examples corresponds to the AISI type 316 L and the
DIN material no. 1.4404.

24 06/21
TERMS V2A AND V4A – DESIGNATION ACCORDING TO
EN ISO 3506-1:2009

Description
The terms V2A and V4A date back more than 100 years and have their origin
in the designation of the first trial productions of stainless steel. The V stands
for “Versuch”, which is German for “test or trial”, and the A for “austenite”.
V2A denotes a Cr/Ni alloy and V4A a CrNiMo alloy. The terms are still used as
synonyms for stainless steel in some countries.

The EN ISO 3506-1:2009 standard (mechanical properties of corrosion-resistant

stainless steel fasteners, bolts, screws and studs) uses designations ranging
from A1 to A5 for austenitic stainless steel. This range is based on the alloy
composition and does not fully reflect corrosion behavior. For example, the grade
1.4401 is in the A4 group and 1.4571 is in the A5 group. However, both stainless
steel alloys exhibit practically the same corrosion resistance.

Often the terms A2 and A4 are used to talk about a group of stainless steel grades
with certain corrosion resistance. However, this is not completely accurate, since
specific information about the alloy composition and thus also some properties
such as weldability cannot be deduced from these terms.

06/21 25
3.3 Prevention of galvanic corrosion

Galvanic corrosion (described in section 1.2.6) can be avoided by the right choice
of material combinations. This, however, is not always possible and sometimes
other measures have to be considered. One example is galvanic separation of the
different materials, as shown in Fig. 34.

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Fig. 34: Conditions for metal combinations without risk of galvanic corrosion.

To minimize galvanic corrosion, the difference in free corrosion potential between

the materials should be as low as possible, and/or the surface ratio of less noble
metal to nobler metal should be very high. The free corrosion potential depends
on the standard potential, a given thermodynamic value for each metal and the
corrosive environment.

Fig. 35 shows the free corrosion potential of various materials when immersed in
seawater. The higher the potential, the nobler is the metal. Contact with a metal
of a lower potential leads to galvanic corrosion of that less noble metal. The
differences in corrosion potentials between Zn and ZM are small enough not to
cause any contact corrosion issues.

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26 06/21
As a general rule of thumb, a fastener should always be made of the same or a
more noble metal than the part to be fastened, since it typically has the smaller
surface area, and failure of the fastener is usually critical.

Table 2 shows the impact of galvanic corrosion under atmospheric outdoor

conditions for various material combinations.

Fastener (small area)

Fastened part Electro­ Duplex-coated Hot-dip

Stainless steel
(large area) galvanized carbon steel galvanized

Electrogalvanized

Hot dip galvanizing

Zn and ZM

Aluminum

Structural
or cast steel

Stainless steel
(CrNi or CrNiMo)

Tin

Copper

Brass

Table 2: Impact on lifetime of the fastener by galvanic (contact) corrosion

 No impact on lifetime

 Moderate impact on lifetime, technically acceptable in many cases
 Strong impact on lifetime

In environments, that are considered non- or very low corrosive (i.e. dry indoor
applications), contact corrosion can generally be neglected and usually there are
little to no susceptible material combinations. In most outdoor applications with
combinations of materials one has always to consider the general guidelines and
limitations for certain materials. For example, even if the accelerating galvanic
effect can be neglected, as in the combination of Zn electroplated parts with
aluminum, in general the service life of such parts is quite short due to their low
coating thickness.

In the selection tables shown in section 5, galvanic corrosion is taken into

account by providing two different rows for the fastened part (divided into “steel”,
“aluminium” and “stainless steel”).

06/21 27
4 HOW TO ASSESS CORROSION IN
A SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT AND
APPLICATION

The following section describes ways to help determine the corrosivity of certain
environments. The parameters influencing the corrosion can only be checked by
specialists working locally on a specific project. Accordingly, the final decision
regarding the chosen material and products is the responsibility of the user and/
or specifier. While Hilti personnel can provide you with the necessary basic
information about our products, it is not possible for them to carry out a fully
comprehensive check of the expected corrosivity of the intended application.

4.1 Factors influencing atmospheric corrosion

Under specific circumstances, the corrosivity and, respectively, the corrosion

rates of zinc and steel products can be estimated when typical atmospheric
parameters are known for a certain application (see Fig. 36).

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28 06/21
The important variables for atmospheric corrosion are:

Temperature
General influence An increase in temperature leads to an increase in the rate of chemical
reaction and therefore also an increase in the corrosion rate. This is
especially true at constant relative humidity levels.

Additional information On the other hand, increasing temperature facilitates the drying of wet
surfaces and can slow down corrosion rates. At temperatures below
freezing point corrosion is negligible. The influence of the temperature on
corrosion can therefore go in both directions.

Examples For similar environments such as maritime regions, which usually

show high humidity levels, an increase in the average temperature also
accelerates the corrosion rate. As a result, coastal and offshore areas in
tropical climates result in much higher corrosivity than similar zones in
colder regions.

Humidity
General influence Atmospheric corrosion only takes place when a moisture film is present
on the metal surface. In the absence of humidity, most contaminants
would have little or no corrosive effect. The period in which a moisture
film is present is also called time of wetness. As a commonly used rule
of thumb according to the ISO 9223:1998 standard, the time of wetness
is defined as the periods in which the relative humidity exceeds 80 %.
This is only a rough estimation since the formation of a moisture film
on the surface also depends on the presence of hygroscopic salts
(e.g. corrosion products or salt deposits). Condensation in maritime
environments with chlorides will therefore take place at lower levels of
relative humidity. Calculation of corrosion rates according to the latest
ISO 9223:2012 standard takes into account only the mean relative
humidity measured in one year (see 5.1).
Additional information Water in the form of rain does not always increase corrosivity. It may
even have a beneficial effect by washing away chlorides and pollutants.
However, in usually dry and mildly corrosive environments, rainwater can
provide the moisture necessary to trigger a corrosion reaction.
Examples In rural/urban atmospheres, sheltered parts usually show less corrosion
than the ones exposed to rain. On the other hand, the lack of the washing
effect of the rain in coastal areas often leads to stronger corrosion.

Chlorides
General influence Atmospheric salinity distinctly increases corrosion rates.
Chlorides have multiple detrimental effects on the corrosion of metals. In
particular these are:
• Decrease in the saturation humidity: the presence of salts facilitates
condensation at lower relative humidity values. This leads to longer
periods with wet metal surfaces
• Formation of soluble corrosion products: the dissolved metal ions
form metal chlorides, which usually do not provide enough protection
from further corrosion.
• Destruction of passive films: chlorides attack the oxide films formed
on passive metals such as stainless steel and aluminum
Additional information The corrosion behavior of a particular metal in atmospheres containing
chloride strongly depends on its ability to form stable and insoluble
corrosion products together with the chlorides present. For example, this
is the case with zinc, which explains the much lower corrosion rate of
zinc compared to steel.
Examples In maritime atmospheres the main source of chlorides is the seawater.
It contains mainly sodium chloride (more than 90 % of the salt),
accompanied by calcium and magnesium chlorides. The main source
of anthropogenic chlorides is the use of de-icing salts on roads during
winter time.

06/21 29
Sulfur dioxide
General influence
Additional information
Examples
Of all the atmospheric contaminants originating from industrial processes
such as fuel combustion and metal smelting, sulfur dioxide is the most
important one in terms of concentration and its effect on corrosion
rates. Sulfur dioxide gas in the atmosphere acidifies the electrolyte on
the surface and leads to the formation of soluble corrosion products.
Corrosion rates are thus increased on many metals, e.g. zinc, steel,
aluminum and stainless steel.
Sulfur dioxide emissions are on the decline in large parts of the
industrialized world and have reached insignificant levels in many urban
and even industrial areas (below 10 µg/m3 or even lower). However,
heavily polluted hot spots around the world still exist, where an increase
in corrosion due to SO2 has to be considered when it comes to material
selection.
The ISO 9223:2012 standard classes atmospheres with SO2
concentrations of over 50 µg/m3 (yearly average) as strongly
contaminated environments.

4.2 Assessment of corrosivity for zinc and ZM coated

products

The following section describes a way of helping to assess and estimating the
expected corrosion in a given environment for zinc-coated and ZM coated
products. It has to be noted that this only applies to pure atmospheric corrosion
where the item is fully exposed to the weather. Applications where, for example,
the item is in contact with soil, immersed in sea water or positioned in the splash
zone are excluded, as are additional effects resulting from galvanic corrosion,
erosion or exposure to chemical substances.

Estimation of the corrosivity of the application can be carried out in two different
ways according to the ISO 9223:2012 standard (see Fig. 37).

1. Corrosivity estimation using the classification of ISO 9223:1998 or the dose-­

response function given in the new version of this standard (ISO 9224:2012).
2. By conducting one-year exposure tests of the material/product to be used and
measuring the corrosion rate.

For most projects it is not feasible to conduct one-year exposure tests and
therefore estimation becomes the most frequently used approach. For the
estimation approach, the main climatic and environmental parameters previously
described are required as input. These are, in particular, the mean temperature,
mean relative humidity, chloride deposition and SO2 concentration.

Fig. 37: Methods for assessment of

atmospheric corrosivity.

Atmospheric
environment

1 2

Data on atmospheric
parameters Exposure tests
(humidity, SO2 etc.)

Algorithms
(e.g. ISO 9223)

Data evaluation Corrosion measurements

Corrosion classification

30 06/21
The outcome of this approach is an estimated rate of corrosion of zinc or steel in
a given environment. The resulting corrosion rates define the prevalent corrosivity
category (C-class, see table 3).

As stated in the standard, the possible deviation using environmental data and the
dose-response function may be up to 50 %. It must be noted that the results are
only valid for macroclimatic and fully exposed (unsheltered) conditions. Moreover,
factors such as accumulation of corrosive substances or galvanic corrosion,
which can have a significant effect on the corrosion rate, are not taken into
account in this approach. Nevertheless, as long as these other potential sources
of corrosion are not present, the results of this calculation are usually accurate
enough to allow selection of the right material.

Corrosion is a natural process influenced by varying environmental factors which

cannot be foreseen for the entire designed lifetime. A conservative approach is
therefore always advised when it comes to the use of fastening and installation
products.

Corrosivity Corrosion Typical environments

category C level
Indoor
C1 Very low Heated spaces with low relative humidity and insignificant
pollution, e.g. offices, schools, museums.
C2 Low Unheated spaces with varying temperature and humidity.
Low frequency of condensation and low pollution, e.g.
storage, sports halls.
C3 Medium Spaces with moderate frequency of condensation and
moderate pollution from production processes, e.g. food-
processing plants, laundries, breweries, dairies.
C4 High Spaces with high frequency of condensation and high
pollution from production processes, e.g. industrial
processing plants, swimming pools.
C5 Very high Spaces with very high frequency of condensation and/or
with high pollution from production processes, e.g. mines,
caverns for industrial purposes, unventilated sheds in
subtropical and tropical zones.
CX Extreme Spaces with almost permanent condensation or extensive
periods of exposure to extreme humidity effects and/
or with high pollution from production processes,
e.g. unventilated sheds in humid tropical zones with
penetration of outdoor pollution including airborne
chlorides and corrosion-stimulating particulate matter.
Outdoor
Dry or cold zone, atmospheric environment with very low
pollution and time of wetness, e.g. certain deserts, Central
Arctic / Antarctica.
Temperate zone, atmospheric environment with low
pollution (SO2 < 5 µg/m3), e.g. rural areas, small towns.
Dry or cold zone, atmospheric environment with short time
of wetness, e.g. deserts, subarctic area.
Temperate zone, atmospheric environment with medium
pollution (SO2: 5 µg/m3 to 30 µg/m3) or some effect of
chlorides, e.g. urban areas, coastal areas with low
deposition of chlorides.
Subtropical and tropical zone, atmosphere with low
pollution.
Temperate zone, atmospheric environment with high
pollution (SO2: 30 µg/m3 to 90 µg/m3) or substantial effect
of chlorides, e.g. polluted urban areas, industrial areas,
coastal areas without salt water spray, or exposure to
strong effect of de-icing salts.
Subtropical and tropical zone, atmosphere with medium
pollution.
Temperate and subtropical zone, atmospheric
environment with very high pollution (SO2: 90 µg/m3 to
250 µg/m3) and/or significant effect of chlorides, e.g.
industrial areas, coastal areas, sheltered positions on
coastline.
Subtropical and tropical zone (very high time of wetness),
atmospheric environment with very high SO2 pollution
(higher than 250 µg/m3) including accompanying and
production factors and/or strong effect of chlorides, e.g.
extreme industrial areas, coastal and offshore areas,
occasional contact with salt spray.

Table 3: Corrosivity categories and description of typical environments as stated in the ISO 9223 standard

This table gives a description of possible environments with respect to the

corrosion class. Although it can be used to estimate the corrosion class of the
application, one has to keep in mind that strictly following the standard means
that the corrosion class has to be determined by measurement of the corrosion
rate or the most important environmental parameters. Furthermore, the table only
takes typical atmospheric conditions into account.

The corrosion rates for steel, zinc, aluminum and copper with respect to the
corrosivity classes can be found in the ISO 9223 standard.

06/21 31
Zn-alloy coatings like ZM have significantly reduced corrosion rates in atmospheric
applications. For lifetime estimation of such coatings the DIN 55634 provides a
useful selection table for general guidance. It is based on the technically sound
assumption that ZM coatings have half the corrosion rate compared to pure Zn
coatings.

Timespan until start of red rust (per exposure class)*

Coating Thickness C2 C3 C4 C5-I C5-M
(μm) L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H
Z140 10 x x

Zinc Z275 20 x x x

Z600 42 x x x x x x x x x x

ZM140 11 x x x x

ZM ZM275 21 x x x x x x x

ZM310 24 x x x x x x x x

* L = 2–5 years  M = 5–15 years  H = ˃ 15 years

Table 4: Expected service life of Zn and ZM coatings

4.3 Assessment of corrosivity for stainless steel

products

Strictly speaking, the corrosivity categories (C-classes) according to the ISO 9223
standard are applicable only to zinc, carbon steel, aluminum and copper. The
different corrosion mechanism of stainless steel makes it necessary to work with
a system of classification different to that used for zinc. Stainless steel is generally
stable against humidity and water when no corrosive contaminants are present. The
breakdown of the passive layer by substances like chlorides, however, has to be
taken into account specifically and limits the use of certain grades of stainless steel.

In contrast to zinc, the influence of pure humidity without other contaminants

is negligible for the corrosion of stainless steel. For stainless steel it is more
important to consider the effect of chlorides and of rain or other moving water
in washing off the corrosion products and corrosive substances. In many
applications the effect of this washing makes the use of weaker grades of
stainless steel possible. For applications like roofs and the facades of buildings
this can be an option. However, in typical applications where fasteners and
installation products are used there can be areas sheltered from the rain.

International (Eurocode 3, EN 1993-1-4 draft version) and national standards and

guidelines (such as the German technical approval DIBt Z.30.3-6) usually work
with a special scoring system when evaluating the suitability of certain stainless
steel grades.

This system takes the risks presented by the main influencing factors into
account, from which a corrosion resistance factor (CRF) is calculated.
Each risk factor (chlorides, sulfur dioxide, washing effect) is linked to a certain
number of points.

The CRF depends on the severity of the environment and is calculated as follows:
CRF = F1 + F2 + F3, where
• F1 = Risk of exposure to chlorides from salt water or de-icing salts
(categories ranging from +1 to -15, mainly determined by the distance
from the coast or roads, where de-icing salts are used)
• F2 = Risk of exposure to sulfur dioxide
(categories ranging from 0 to -15, determined by the average sulfur dioxide
concentration)
• F3 = Cleaning regime or exposure to washing by rain
(categories ranging from +1 to -7)
32 06/21
Summing up all of the factors results in a number of points (the CRF) which then
relate to five corrosion resistance classes (see Table 4). This is only an excerpt of
the procedure. For details please refer to the standards.

Corrosion resistance class CRC (link to the corrosion resistance factor CRF)
I II III IV V
CRF = 1 0 ≥ CRF > -7 -7 ≥ CRF > -15 -15 ≥ CRF ≥ -20 CRF < -20
1.4003 1.4301 1.4401 1.4439 1.4565
1.4016 1.4307 1.4404 1.4462 1.4529
1.4512 1.4311 1.4435 1.4539 1.4547
1.4541 1.4571 1.4410
1.4318 1.4429 1.4501
1.4306 1.4432 1.4507
1.4567 1.4162
1.4482 1.4662
1.4362
1.4062
1.4578

Table 4: List of stainless steel grades in the corrosion resistance classes based on
the tables in EN 1993-1-4:2006 (final draft version 2014)

In the Hilti range of fasteners and installation systems you will find grades such
as 1.4301, 1.4404 and the most stable 1.4529 (see Table 6), covering all important
corrosion resistance classes.

Steel grades Corrosion resistance class Products

1.4301 (A2, 304) II Screws, anchors, installation

products

1.4401 (A4, 316) III Screws, anchors, installation

products, fasteners driven by
powder-actuated tools

1.4404 (A4, 316L) III Screws, anchors, installation

channels, fasteners driven by
powder-actuated tools

1.4571 (A5, 316Ti) III Installation products

1.4362 (duplex, 2304) III Anchors, fasteners driven by

powder-actuated tools

1.4462 (duplex, 2205) IV Fasteners driven by

powder-actuated tools

1.4529 (HCR) V Anchors

Table 5: Examples of stainless steels used in Hilti products

For more detailed information on the stainless steel grades used in our products
please refer to our product catalogs or visit www.hilti.com.

06/21 33
5 HOW TO SELECT A SUITABLE
FASTENER AND INSTALLATION SYSTEM

Information about the selection tables

Hilti offers fasteners and installation systems in a wide range of suitable, cost-­
efficient materials. However, the differences in corrosion behavior, the complexity
of the factors influencing corrosion and the number of national and international
standards and guidelines applicable to the field of corrosion can present a
challenge when it comes to making the right choice of material for a certain
application.

In order to provide an initial overview of the performance of the various products,

our tables show general suitability and, where applicable, also a rough estimate of
lifetime of products in some typical environments.

“Important notes” provides information that must always be taken into account
when using the tables:

Important notes
The ultimate decision on the required corrosion protection must be made by the
customer. Hilti accepts no responsibility regarding the suitability of a product for a
specific application, even if informed of the application conditions. The tables are
based on an average service life for typical applications.

For metallic coatings, e.g. zinc layer systems, the end of lifetime is the point
at which red rust is visible over a large fraction of the product and widespread
structural deterioration can occur – the initial onset of rust may occur sooner.

National or international codes, standards or regulations, customer and/or

industry-specific guidelines must be independently considered and evaluated.

The tables published in this handbook describe only a general guideline for
commonly accepted applications in typical atmospheric environments.

Suitability for a specific application can be significantly affected by localized

conditions, including but not limited to:
• Elevated temperatures and humidity
• High levels of airborne pollutants
• Direct contact with corrosive products, such as found in some types of
chemically-treated and/or acidic wood, waste water, concrete additives,
cleaning agents, etc.
• Direct contact with soil, stagnant water
• Direct contact with fresh/young concrete (less than 28 days old)
• Electrical current
• Contact with dissimilar metals
• Confined areas, e.g. crevices
• Physical damage or wear
• Extreme corrosivity due to combined effects of different influencing factors

34 06/21
In Table 6 the environmental conditions given in the tables are described in more
detail. The underlying predominant corrosion categories and corrosion resistance
classes are also listed.

Corrosion resistance
categories according
to ISO 9223:2012

Stainless steel
Corrosion

class
Indoor applications
Dry indoor environments C1, C2 1
(heated or air-conditioned areas) without condensation, e.g.
office buildings, schools

C1, C2 1
Indoor environments with temporary condensation
(unheated areas without pollutants), e.g. storage sheds

Outdoor applications
Outdoor, rural or urban environment with C2,C3 2
low pollution
Large distance (> 10 km) from the sea

Outdoor, rural or urban environment with moderate C2,C3,C4 2,3

concentration of pollutants and/or salt from sea water
Distance from the sea 1-10 km

C3, C4, 3,4

Coastal areas C5, CX
Distance from the sea < 1 km

Outdoor, areas with heavy industrial pollution C4,C5,CX 3,4

Atmospheric SO2 concentration > 10 μg/m3 as yearly
average (e.g. petrochemical, coal industry)

Close proximity to roadways treated with de-icing salts

Distance from roadways < 10 m C3, C4, C5 3,4

Special applications
Special applications Special 4,5
Areas with special corrosive conditions, e.g. road tunnels climates
with de-icing salt, indoor swimming pools, special not
applications in the chemical industry (exceptions possible). covered by
C-classes

Table 6: Environmental conditions and their link to corrosivity categories and

corrosion resistance classes, per ISO 9223:2012.

06/21 35
Selection tables for fasteners and installation systems
Fasteners such as anchors, nails and screws are often used for single-
point and safety-relevant fixtures. Poor or limited visibility of the fasteners after
installation, the inability to repair or replace them, the part to be fastened, and (in
the case of expansion anchors) the friction conditions in the drilled hole all mean it
is necessary to take a conservative approach to minimize the risk of corrosion to
the fastener material. With zinc-coated fasteners, the end of the fastener’s lifetime
coincides with the start of the loss of the underlying steel. The selection table
for fasteners therefore does not state a lifetime range, but gives a general yes/no
recommendation based on the building service defined in the approval guidelines,
e.g. 25 or 50 years – see selection tables footnotes for details.

Fasteners often form part of a building’s structure, which means that the lifetime
of the fastener is required to be equal to the design lifetime of the building.
Secondary structures such as installation supports are often not required to last
the entire lifetime of the primary structure as building services are subject to more
frequent exchanges and modifications.

Furthermore, many applications with installation channels allow repair or lifetime

extension measures, for example, through application of zinc spray. With proper
assessment of the corrosivity of the environment including the planned lifetime
and also the implementation of periodic inspection and repair intervals, coated
carbon steel products can be used suitably and economically for a wide range of
applications in a wide range of surroundings.

In the case of zinc-coated installation systems the onset of corrosion of the steel
substrate does not cause immediate problems in terms of mechanical integrity.
The occurrence of around 5 % of red rust on the surface is considered to indicate
the end of the period of protection provided by the zinc coating. It is therefore
possible to state a guideline range of expected lifetime for a specific environment.

European Technical Approval – metal anchors for use in concrete

For anchors, the current European Technical Approval (ETA) requires use of
stainless steel in the corrosion resistance class III (“A4 class”) for outdoor
applications in general. Special applications such as road tunnels and indoor
swimming pools require an even higher grade (class IV or V). The reason for this
is, of course, to provide the user with a conservative and practical guideline for
selection of a proper material for outdoor applications. The intent of the ETA
approach is to eliminate the need for a detailed assessment of the environment
and the application when strictly following the ETA (assuming non-atmospheric
corrosion issues are not present). The user, for instance, does not have to
evaluate the influence of chlorides on the jobsite resulting from proximity to sea
water or the use of de-­icing salts.

However, in cases where chlorides can be neglected it is possible to go beyond

the ETA specifications. From a technical point of view, hot-dip galvanized or
stainless steel anchors in the CRC II (“A2 class”) may be suitable for outdoor
environments with certain lifetime and application restrictions. This is based
on long-term experience with these materials. Please note that this requires
a specific assessment and deeper understanding of the application and the
environment (see following tables).

36 06/21
5.1 Selecting the right corrosion protection for
anchors, power-driven fasteners and screws

For fasteners to be perfectly satisfactory and reliable for their entire service life
from a corrosion perspective, all the influencing factors must be identified before
a suitable fastener can be selected.

The following table provides a general guideline for the most common applications
for fastening elements. The appropriate corrosion protection for each fastening
material is shown based on the typical atmospheric environments (see notes).

Hilti anchor channels (HAC) are available in hot-dip galvanized steel according to
E ISO 1460:2009-10. HBC special bolts are available in electro-galvanized, hot-dip
galvanized and A4 versions. HAC may be used together with HBC in any material
combination in dry indoor environments according to ETA-11/0006 (28th February
2012). When HBC are hot-dip galvanized, they may also be used in indoor
environments with temporary condensation.

Anchors, product examples HSA, HUS3-HF HSA-F, HSA-R2, HUS-HR, HST-HCR

Anchors HUS3, HIT-V-F HRD-R2 HSA-R
power-driven HST, HIT- HST-R,
fasteners and screws V, HRD HIT-V-R
HIT-Z-R,
HRD-R
Screws S-DS01, S-MD Z, S-CD C, S-MD S, S-MD SS,
S-DD01 S-MP Z S-IT C S-CD S S-CD SS

Power-driven X-ENP 1), X-FCM-M, X-BT, On request

fasteners X-U X-GR X-BT-ER
X-GHP, X-CR,
X-GN X-FCM-R
Coating/ Carbon Electro­ Duplex- HDG/ A2 A4 HCR,
material steel with galvanized coated sherardized AISI 304 AISI 316 e.g. 1.4529
or without carbon 45-50 µm
phosphating steel
Environmental conditions Fastened part

Steel (zinc-coated,
Dry indoor painted), aluminum,
stainless steel
Steel (zinc-coated,
Indoor with temporary painted), aluminum ‒ –
condensation
Stainless steel – –
Steel (zinc-coated,
Outdoor with low  2)  2)
painted), aluminum ‒ ‒  2)
pollution
Stainless steel – –
Outdoor with mode­ Steel (zinc-coated,
 2)  2)
rate concentration of painted), aluminum ‒ ‒  2)
pollutants Stainless steel – –
Steel (zinc-coated,
Coastal areas painted), aluminum, ‒ ‒ – ‒ ‒
stainless steel

Outdoor, areas with Steel (zinc-coated,

heavy industrial painted), aluminum, ‒ ‒ – ‒ ‒
pollution stainless steel

Steel (zinc-coated,
Close proximity to
painted), aluminum, ‒ ‒ – ‒ ‒
roads
stainless steel

Special
Consult experts
applications

= expected lifetime of anchors made from this material is typically satisfactory in the specified environment based on the typically expected lifetime of a building. The
assumed service life in European Technical Assessments is 50 years for concrete anchors, 25 years for power-driven fasteners, steel and sandwich panel screws,
and 10 years for flat roof insulation screws.
= a decrease in the expected lifetime of non-stainless fasteners in these atmospheres must be taken into account (≤ 25 years). Higher expected lifetime needs a
specific assessment.
‒ = fasteners made from this material are not suitable in the specified environment. Exceptions need a specific assessment.
1)
Outdoor exposure for up to 6 months during construction is permissible for Hilti high-strength electro-galvanized siding and decking fasteners such as the X-ENP
(see instructions for use for details).
2) 
From a technical point of view, HDG/duplex coatings and A2/304 material are suitable for outdoor environments with certain application restrictions. This is based
on long-term experience with these materials as reflected e.g. in the corrosion rates for Zn given in the ISO 9224:2012 (corrosivity categories, C-classes), the
selection guidelines for stainless steel grades provided in Eurocode 3 EN 1993 (final draft 2014) or in the national technical approval issued by the DIBt Z.30.3-6
(April 2014) and the ICC-ES evaluation reports for our products for North America (e.g. ESR-1917, May 2013). The use of those materials in outdoor environments
however is currently not covered by the European Technical Assessments (ETA) of anchors, where it is stated that anchors made of galvanized carbon steel or
stainless steel grade A2 may only be used in structures subject to dry indoor conditions, based on an assumed working life of the anchor of 50 years.

06/21 37
5.2 Selecting the right installation system

Hilti’s installation systems are supplied in various coating technologies to meet

the requirements in all conditions:

Indoor
Hilti system Outdoor Coated Outdoor Plus
Coated
Zn HDG Zn HDG ZM S A2 S A4

MM-Channels X

MM-Components X

MQ-Channels X X X X X

MQ-Components X X X

MT-Channels X X

MT-Components X X

MI & MIQ-Channels X

MI & MIQ-Components X

MC-Channels X X

MC-Components X

The typical lifetime expectancy of Hilti’s installation systems is shown in the table
below:
Indoor coated Outdoor coated (C3) Outdoor Plus
(C1–C2)

Installation Channel MT, MQ, MT-OC. MQ-F,MQ ASTM, MQ system MQ system

system MM, MC MC-OC, MI, MIQ stainless A2/ stainless A4/
systems AISI 304 AISI 316

Pipe Indoor pipe HDG pipe rings2 MI-UB, MI-PS Stainless pipe rings 3
fastening rings1

Environmental conditions Lifetime (in years)

Dry indoor 50–100 100

Indoor with temporary

25–70 50–100
condensation

Outdoor with low

5–10 25–70
pollution

Outdoor with mode­

rate concentration of – 15–40
pollutants

Coastal areas – 5–20 ‒

Outdoor, areas with

heavy industrial – 5–20 ‒
pollution

Close proximity to roads – – ‒

Special
Consult experts
applications

= expected lifetime of an installation system made from this material is typically satisfactory in the specified environment.
1)
Indoor pipe rings: MP-H, MP-HI, MP-LH, MP-LHI, MPN, MP-MI, MP-MIS, MP-M, MP-MXI, MP-MX, MP-PI, SDC, MP-SP
2)
HDG pipe rings: MP-MI-F, MP-M-F, MP-MXI-F, MP-MX-F
3)
Stainless pipe rings: MP-SRN, MP-SRNI, MP-MR, MP-MRI, MP-MRXI

Note
1. Lifetime refers to the potential numbers of years until there is 5% red rust formation on any given product’s surface within
the system (generally threaded parts, not profiles, connectors or baseplates)
2. Lifetime is influenced by the exact environmental conditions of the project location

38 06/21
6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Internet resources
General corrosion
http://corrosion-doctors.org/

Zinc coatings
http://www.feuerverzinken.com/
http://www.galvanizeit.org/
http://www.nordicgalvanizers.com/

Stainless steel
http://www.edelstahl-rostfrei.de/
http://www.bssa.org.uk/
http://www.worldstainless.org/
http://www.euro-inox.org/ (information available in many languages)

Standards
EN ISO 8044:1999-08
EN ISO 9223:2012-02
EN ISO 9224:2012-02
EN ISO 9227:2012-05
EN ISO 16701:2008-04
ISO 20340:2009-04
EN ISO 6270-1:2001-08
EN ISO 6988:1994-10
EN ISO 3506-1:2009
DIN 55634-1: 2018

Literature
G. Kreysa M. Schütze, “Corrosion Handbook Volume 6: Atmosphere, Industrial
Waste Gases”, Wiley VCH, 2004
P. R. Roberge, “Handbook of Corrosion Engineering”, McGrawHill, 2012
H. Kaesche, “Corrosion of Metals: Physicochemical Principles and Current
Problems”, Springer, 2003
X.G. Zhang, “Corrosion and Electrochemistry of Zinc”, Springer, 1996
U. Nürnberger, “Korrosion und Korrosionsschutz im Bauwesen”, Bauverlag, 1995

06/21 39
7 DISCLAIMER

All information given in this handbook is based on the tests, principles, formulas,
standards and approvals described in this handbook, current as of the date
of publishing (June 2021). It applies only to applications comparable to the
conditions described. Extrapolation of the results to other environments is
not permissible. The selection guidelines and life expectancy information is
based on atmospheric corrosion only, and is intended only as an approximate
guide to assist in initial assessment. Site-specific conditions, including general
corrosion parameters (e.g. temperature, air and water movement, local pollutants,
mechanical abrasion), other forms of corrosion, lifetime requirements, application
criticality, inspection programs and local legal, code or project requirements
can significantly affect the selection process and must always be evaluated.
Significant scatter of values may also occur within the bandwidth of coating /
material performance and environmental parameters applicable to a specific
structure. Full assessment and final selection is the responsibility of the project
specialist or, respectively, the purchaser. This report must be regarded as a unit
and may be passed on to others or copied for further use only in its entirety. As
this information is intended only as a general guideline, Hilti accepts no liability
whatsoever for damage or injury resulting from use of this handbook.

40 06/21
Hilti Corporation

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