HYDROLOGY REVIEWER 1.

3 Philippine Watersheds

Module 1 WATERSHED CHARACTERISTIC

Introduction to Hydrology 1. Drainage Area

1.1 Introduction to Hydrology
• Hydraulic structures - such as levees, reservoirs,
barrages, and bridges
• The hydrological study of a project should precede
(come before) structural and other detailed design
studies.
• Hydraulic analysis is used to evaluate flow in rivers,
streams, etc.
2. Watershed Length
• If the channel slope is not uniform, a weighted slope
may provide and index that better reflects the effect
of slope on the hydrologic response of the watershed.
Weather Basics
Hydrologic characteristics of a region are determined by its
climate and its geological structure.

1.2 Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact 1.4 The Atmosphere
• Volcanic activity introduce water into the
• Troposphere accounts for more than 80 % of the
atmosphere, thus increasing the surface-water and
mass of virtually all water vapor, clouds, and
groundwater volume of the Earth.
precipitation in the Earth’s atmosphere.
• The quantities of water going through paths of the
• Temperature inversions (temperature increasing
hydrological cycle can be described by the continuity
with increasing height) are possible near the surface.
principle known as water budget equation or
• Due to the extreme stability of the stratosphere,
hydrologic equation.
particles that are emitted directly into it (from
• Total water resources of the earth are constant.
volcanic eruptions, nuclear explosions, etc.) will
• Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it
remain there for a long time.
is responsible for the formation of clouds.
• The stratosphere acts as a reservoir for atmospheric
• Precipitation is the primary connection for the
pollution.
delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth.
• Tropopause is the transition between troposphere
• Groundwater or "aquifer," used to describe water-
and stratosphere. Water vapor decreases and ozone
bearing formations.
increases as one moves closer to the stratosphere.
HUMAN IMPACT • The tropopause is generally higher in the summer
than in the winter.
1. When deforestation occurs, precious rain is lost from
the area, flowing away as river water, and causing TWO LAYERS IN THE TROPOSPEHERE
permanent drying.
1. Planetary Boundary Layer
2. Urbanization. Impervious surfaces alter the natural
- influenced by the presence of the surface of the
amount of water
earth.
- decrease in the volume of water that percolates
- responds to surface forcings (solar heating,
into the ground
friction, evapotranspiration, etc.)
- increase in volume and decrease in quality of
2. Free Atmosphere
surface water.
- right above the boundary layer and is not directly
3. Irrigation removes water from its natural source and
influence by local surface forcings.
often causes leaching and run-off where it is used.
- artificial watering of land GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ATMOSPHERE
4. Dams change the timing, amount, and chemical
1. The lower atmosphere contains water vapor, which
composition of a river's flow.
determine its humidity.
5. Cloud seeding is a weather modification.
2. Condensation and sublimation within the
- Sulfur Iodide aids in the formation of ice crystals.
atmosphere cause clouds or fog, and the liquid water
droplets or ice crystals may precipitate to the ground
as rain, sleet, snow, hail, dew, or frost.
 3. Because of the pull of gravity, the density of the
atmosphere and the pressure exerted by air
molecules are greatest near the earth's surface.
VARIABLE THAT INFLUENCE THE ATMOSPHERE
Cloudiness, Humidity, Pressure, Temperature, Winds
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
• Stability = equilibrium.
• When the atmosphere is stable, a parcel of air will
want to return to its original position after being
raised or lowered.
• Vertical motions are inhibited.
• Atmospheric stability is a measure of the
atmosphere's tendency to encourage or deter vertical
motion, and vertical motion is directly correlated to
different types of weather systems and their severity.
• Absolutely Stable:
environmental lapse rate < the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
1.5 Introduction to Cloud Physics
Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead
to the formation, growth and precipitation of atmospheric
clouds.
CLOUD FORMATION
• Terrestrial clouds can be found throughout most of
the homosphere, which includes the troposphere,
stratosphere, and mesosphere.
• Adiabatic cooling
- occurs when one or more of three possible lifting
agents – cyclonic/frontal, convective, or
orographic – cause a collection of air containing
invisible water vapor to rise and cool to its dew
point, the temperature at which the air becomes
saturated.
- Main mechanism
LIFTING AGENTS
1. Frontal and cyclonic lift occur when stable air is
forced aloft at weather fronts and around centers of
low pressure by a process called convergence.
- Warm fronts associated with extratropical
cyclones
- Cold fronts are usually faster moving and
generate a narrower line of clouds
2. Convective upward motion of air is caused by
daytime solar heating at surface level.
- convective lift can be powerful enough to
penetrate the tropopause and push the cloud top
into the stratosphere.
3. Orographic Lift wind circulation forcing air over a
physical barrier such as a mountain.
• Non-Adiabatic Cooling
- lowers the temperature of the air to its dew
point.
- Conductive, radiational, and evaporative cooling
require no lifting mechanism and can cause
condensation at surface level.
CLOUD DISTRIBUTION
• Convergence Along Low-Pressure Zones
- Near the equator, increased cloudiness is due to
the presence of the low-pressure Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where very warm and
unstable air promotes mostly cumuliform and
cumulonimbiform clouds.
• Divergence Along High Pressure Zones
- The horse latitudes are regions located at about
30 degrees north and south of the equator
TYPES OF CLOUDS
High Clouds
1. CIRRUS. Detached clouds in the form of white,
delicate filaments, mostly white patches or narrow
bands. They may have a fibrous (hair -like) and/or
silky sheen appearance.
- always composed of ice crystals
- Before sunrise and after sunset, cirrus is often
colored bright yellow or red.
2. CIRROSTRATUS. Transparent, whitish veil clouds with
a fibrous (hair -like) or smooth appearance.
3. CIRROCUMULUS. Thin, white patch, sheet, or layered
of clouds without shading. They are composed of very
small elements in the form of more or less regularly
arranged grains or ripples.
Mid Clouds
1. ALTOSTRATUS. Gray or bluish cloud sheets or layers
of striated or fibrous clouds that totally or partially
covers the sky. They are thin enough to regularly
reveal the sun
2. ALTOCUMULUS. White and/or gray patch, sheet or
layered clouds, generally composed of laminae
(plates), rounded masses or rolls.
- most common mid cloud (mukhang pwet ng
baso)
 3. NIMBOSTRATUS. The continuous rain cloud.
- Resulting from thickening Altostratus
- This is a dark gray cloud layer diffused by falling
rain or snow. (uulan na)
Low Clouds
1. CUMULUS. Detached, generally dense clouds and
with sharp outlines
- sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant
white while their bases are relatively dark and
horizontal.
2. STRATUS. A generally gray cloud layer with a uniform
base which may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice
prisms, or snow grains.
3. CUMULONIMBUS. The thunderstorm cloud
- this is a heavy and dense cloud in the form of a
mountain or huge tower.
4. STRATOCUMULUS. Gray or whitish patch, sheet, or
layered clouds which almost always have dark
tessellations (honeycomb appearance).
1.6 Solar Radiation
RADIATION SOURCES
• All matter radiates energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
• The hotter a substance is, the greater the amount of
emitted energy, and the shorter the wavelength of
the emission.
1.7 General Circulation
• A spatial imbalance between radiative inputs and
outputs exists for the earth-ocean-atmosphere
system.
THREE CIRCULATION BANDS
Polar cell, Rossby Waves, Hadley Cell
NEAR THE SURFACE
• equatorial belt of convergence is called the
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
- the air at the ITCZ is hot and humid, with low
pressure, strong upward air motion, heavy
convective (thunderstorm) precipitation
- equatorial trough (low-pressure belt) was called
the doldrums
• At 30° latitude are belts of high surface pressure
called subtropical highs.
- In these belts are hot, dry, cloud-free air
descending from higher in the troposphere.
• The cyclones are regions of bad weather and fronts.
• The anticyclones are regions of good weather.
• The high- and low-pressure centers move on average
from west to east, driven by large-scale winds from
the west.
• Near 60° latitude are belts of low surface pressure
called subpolar lows.
• Near each pole is a climatological region of high
pressure called a polar high.
• Between each polar high (at 90°) and the subpolar
low (at 60°) is a belt of weak easterly winds, called
the polar easterlies.
UPPER-TROPOSPHERE
• The stratosphere is strongly statically stable, and acts
like a lid to the troposphere.
• Near 30° latitude in each hemisphere is a persistent
belt of strong westerly winds at the tropopause called
the subtropical jet.
• In mid-latitudes at the tropopause is another belt of
strong westerly winds called the polar jet.
• The centerline of the polar jet meanders north and
south, resulting in a wave-like shape called a Rossby
wave (or planetary wave).
VERTICAL CIRCULATIONS
• Vertical circulations of warm rising air in the tropics
and descending air in the subtropics are called Hadley
cells or Hadley circulations. At the bottom of the
Hadley cell are the trade winds. At the top, near the
tropopause, are divergent winds.
• Most well-defined circulation occurs in August and
September.
• Strongest circulation is during February and March.
MONSOONAL CIRCULATIONS
• Monsoon circulations are continental-scale
circulations driven by continent-ocean temperature
contrasts.
THERMAL CIRCULATIONS
1. Sea and Land Breeze
- Daytime sea breeze
- Nighttime land breeze
2. Mountain and Valley Breeze
- Daytime valley breeze
- Nighttime mountain breeze
3. Monsoons, regional scale wind systems that
predictably change direction with the passing of the
seasons.
1.8 Temperature and Humidity
Temperature
TWO FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE
1. Latitude
2. Surface Properties
- In general, land absorbs less insolation than
water because of its lighter color.
- The specific heat of water is some 5x greater than
of rock and the land surface. As a result, water
requires large amounts of energy to cause a rise
in its temperature.
- Water heats more slowly and cools more slowly
than the surface of a large land body.
ACTORS INFLUENCING THE WAY LAND AND WATER
SURFACES HEAT AND COOL
• Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in water, on
land just the immediate surface is heated.
• Water is easily mixed by the process of convection.
• Evaporation of water removes energy from water's
surface.
TEMPERATURE VARIATION
• DIURNAL VARIATION is the change in temperature
from day to night brought about by the daily rotation
of the Earth.
• SEASONAL VARIATION is the change in temperature
due to seasonal variation of the angle of incident solar
radiation between hemispheres brought about by the
tilting of the Earth’s axis during its orbit around the
sun.
- The Northern Hemisphere is warmer in June,
July, and August
• VARIATION WITH LATITUDE is the change in
temperature due to the variation in the angle of
incident solar radiation in contact with the
geographical surface profile of the Earth.
• VARIATION WITH TOPOGRAPHY are temperature
variations induced by water and terrain.
• VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE. Temperature varies as
on move vertically upward from the Earth‟s surface.
- Temperature normally decreases with increasing
altitude throughout the troposphere. This
decrease of temperature with altitude is lapse
rate.
- An increase in temperature with altitude is
inversion. Inversions are common in the
stratosphere.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
• Celsius scale, measure temperature using the C.scale
• Kelvin scale – measure thermodynamics temperature
• Rankine scale – a shifted Fahrenheit scale, used when
working in thermodynamic related disciplines such as
combustion.
A thermometer is an instrument that operates on the principle
of thermal expansion of the material used, e.g. liquids like
mercury and alcohol, metallic materials, etc.
• Standard temp of the atmosphere at sea level and a
pressure of 1013.2 mbars is 15 degrees Celsius
Humidity
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
• The most humid cities on earth are generally located
closer to the equator, near coastal regions.
• Cities in South and Southeast Asia are among the
most humid.
• Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Jakarta, and Singapore have
very high humidity all year round.
TYPES OF HUMIDITY
1. ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY is the total mass of water vapor
present in a given volume or mass of air.
- ranges from near zero to roughly 30 grams per
cubic meter when the air is saturated at 30 °C (86
°F).
- Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapor
(mH20), divided by the volume of the air and
water vapor mixture (Vnet), which can be
expressed as:
- The absolute humidity changes as air
temperature or pressure changes, if the volume
is not fixed.
- In chemical engineering may refer to mass of
water vapor per unit mass of dry air, also known
as the humidity ratio or mass mixing ratio.
- Mass of water per unit volume defined as
volumetric humidity.
- British Standard BS 1339 suggests avoiding the
term "absolute humidity".
 2. RELATIVE HUMIDITY ratio of the partial pressure of
water vapor (pH20) in the mixture to the equilibrium
vapor pressure of water (p*H20 ) over a flat surface
of pure water at a given temperature:
- Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage; a
higher percentage means that the air-water
mixture is more humid.
- Relative humidity is an important metric used in
weather forecasts and reports, as it is an
indicator of the likelihood of precipitation, dew,
or fog.
3. SPECIFIC HUMIDITY or moisture content is the ratio
of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the air
parcel.
MEASUREMENT
A device used to measure humidity is called a psychrometer or
hygrometer. A humidistat is a humidity-triggered switch,
often used to control a dehumidifier.
Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely
placed satellites. These satellites are able to detect the
concentration of water in the troposphere at altitudes
between 4 and 12 kilometers.
Module 2 Precipitation
2.1 Occurrence
The term precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach
the earth from the atmosphere.
USUAL FORMS: rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew
RAINFALL AND SNOW: contribute significant amounts of
water.
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
1. RAIN is the principal form of precipitation in India.
The term rainfall is used to describe precipitations in
the form of water drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm-
6 mm.
On the basis of its intensity, rainfall is classified as:
2. SNOW consists of ice crystals which usually combine
to form flakes.
3. DRIZZLE is a fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets
of size less than 0.5 mm and intensity less than 1
mm/h.
4. GLAZE. When rain or drizzle comes in contact with
cold ground at around 0 deg C, the water drops freeze
to form an ice coating. (freezing rain)
5. SLEET is frozen raindrops of transparent grains which
form when rain falls through air at subfreezing
temperature.
6. HAIL is a showery precipitation in the form of irregular
pellets or lumps of ice of size more than 8 mm.
CLASSIFICATION OF RAIN & RAINSHOWER
(PHILIPPINES)
1. Rains - associated with meso-scale (synoptic) system
or macro-scale (large scale) system like TC's, Easterly
Waves, Monsoons, Fronts and ITCZ.
2. Rainshowers
- Precipitation of short duration but usually of
greater intensity from convective
clouds(primarily cumulus or cumulonimbus)
- Characterized by sudden start and sudden end
of precipitation, rapid change in intensity.
WEATHER SYSTEMS
1. FRONT - interface between two distinct air masses.
2. CYCLONE - large low pressure region with circular
wind motion.
TYPES OF CYCLONE
• TROPICAL CYCLONE. A tropical cyclone, also called
cyclone in India, hurricane in USA and typhoon in
South-East Asia, is a wind system with an intensely
strong depression with MSL pressures sometimes
below 915 mbars.
- center of the storm, called the eye
• EXTRATROPICAL CYCLONE. These are cyclones
formed in locations outside the tropical zone.
3. ANTICLONES. These are regions of high pressure,
usually of large areal extent. The weather is usually
calm at the center.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES (PAGASA) CONSIDERATIONS FOR SITING A RAINGAUGE

as of 01 May 2015
Tropical cyclones derive their energy from the latent heat of
condensation which made them exist only over the oceans
and die out rapidly on land.
• TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD) - maximum sustained
winds of up to 61 kilometers per hour (kph) or less
than 33 nautical miles per hour (knots) .
• TROPICAL STORM (TS) - maximum wind speed of 62
to 88 kph or 34 - 47 knots.
RAINGAUGES
• SEVERE TROPICAL STORM (STS) - maximum wind
speed of 89 to 117 kph or 48 - 63 knots.
• TYPHOON (TY) - maximum wind speed of 118 to 220
kph or 64 - 120 knots.
• SUPER TYPHOON (STY) - maximum wind speed
exceeding 220 kph or more than 120 knots.
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
1. CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION is typical of the tropics
and is brought about by heating of the air at the
interface with the ground.
- may be in the form of light showers or storms of
extremely high intensity.
2. OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION results from the
mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air currents
over natural barriers such as mountain ranges.
- FACTORS THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN THIS
PROCESS: land elevation, local slope, orientation
of land slope, and distance from the moisture
source.
3. CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION movement of air masses
from high-pressure regions to low-pressure regions.
- warm air replaces colder air, warm front
- cold air displaces warm air, cold front
- front is not in motion, stationary front
4. ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED. Rainmaking is the act of
2.3 Precipitation Data Analysis
attempting to artificially induce or increase
precipitation, usually to stave off drought.
• The ground must be level and in the open and the
instrument must present a horizontal catch surface.
• The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible
to reduce wind effects but it must be sufficiently high
to prevent splashing, flooding, etc.
• The instrument must be surrounded by an open
fenced area of at least 5.5 m ́ 5.5 m. No object should
be nearer to the instrument than 30 m or twice the
height of the obstruction.
1. NONRECORDING GAUGE
• 8-inch gauge
2. RECORDING GAUGE
• TIPPING-BUCKET RAINGAUGE It is an upright
cylinder that has funnel-shaped collector.
• WEIGHING-BUCKET TYPE the catch
from the funnel empties into a bucket mounted on a
weighing scale. The weight of the bucket and its
contents are recorded on a clock-work-driven chart.
• NATURAL-SYPHON TYPE aka float-type gauge. The
rainfall collected by a funnel-shaped collector is led
into a float chamber causing a float to rise.
• TELEMETERING RAINGAUGES are of the recording
type and contain electronic units to transmit the
data on rainfall to a base station both at regular
intervals and on interrogation.
- Telemetering gauges are of utmost use in gathering
rainfall data from mountainous and generally
inaccessible places.
RADAR MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
RAINGAUGE NETWORK
ADEQUACY OF RAINGAUGE STATATIONS

2.2 Measurement of Precipitation

Precipitation is expressed in terms of the depth to which

rainfall water would stand on an area if all the rain were
collected on it.

- collected and measured in a raingauge, aka

pluviometer, ombrometer and hyetometer.

A raingauge essentially consists of a cylindrical-vessel

assembly kept in the open to collect rain.