CE 5315 Climate Science for Engineers

Simone Fatichi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, NUS
Room: E1A-05-12
Email: ceesimo@nus.edu.sg
 Introduction to Radiation Physics
 The sun is the engine that fuels the entire Earth (“sunlight is the staff of life…”).

 The water cycle but most generally the lower troposphere and the Earth surface are dominated by effects that
are originated by solar radiation.

The imbalance of solar energy is creating an uneven distribution of temperature across the Earth, which is the
driver of hydrology and meteorology (winds, ocean advection).

The radiation is a temperature dependent process.

Source: https://solargis.com/
 Solar Geometry
I0 = Solar constant ≈ 1361 W/m2

Kopp and Lean 2011, GRL

δ = ± 23.43° solar declination
Angle between sun rays and Earth’s equator plane

z = solar zenith angle

hs = solar altitude = 90°-z

az = solar azimuth
RHoriz  R sin  hs   R cos  z 

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuth R: radiation [W m-2]

 Solar Geometry
Equator Without axis inclination we will not have seasons and variation of day length (as
it is at the equator).

Equinox

Tropic of Cancer

Summer solstice

The Spherical shape plus the axis < 37-38° Lat. Radiation Surplus
Tropic of Capricorn inclination generate >37-38° Lat. Radiation Deficit

Winter solstice Energy moves from lower to higher latitudes in the North hemisphere
 Solar Geometry
Zurich (47.36°N) Singapore (1.28°N) Kolkata (22.95°N) Barrow (71.28°N) Melbourne (37.80°S)
Day length [h]
Sun height [°]
 Radiation Physics (Planck Law)
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space
or through a material medium.
Planck's law describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation (B) emitted by a black body in thermal
equilibrium at a given temperature T, when there is no net flow of matter or energy between the body and its
environment. Given a certain T, the radiation is a function of the wavelength λ.
Planck's law B: spectral radiance of a body [W sr-1 m-3]
2hc 2  5  λ: Wavelength [m]
B   , T   hc / k T RTOT   B    d  h: 6.62607015 10-34 [J s] Planck constant
e 1 0
c: 299792458 [m s-1] Speed of light
T: temperature [K]
k: 1.380649 10-23 [J K-1] Boltzmann constant

Radiated energy emitted at shorter wavelengths increases

more rapidly with temperature than energy emitted at longer
wavelengths.

Electromagnetic Energy hc
E
Planck–Einstein equation:

There is more energy at shorter wavelengths

Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck%27s_law

 Radiation Physics (Wien law)
The wavelength distribution of thermal radiation from a black body at a given temperature has essentially the same
shape as the distribution at any other temperature, except that each wavelength is displaced, consequently the
wavelength of the radiation peak is a function of temperature only.

Wien’s law

B   , T  b
0 max 
 T

b=2898 [μm/K] Wien displacement constant

T: temperature [K]
λ: Wavelength [μm]

Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation

Sun: 5777 K
Increase in temperature Decrease in wavelength
Earth: 290 K
 Radiation Physics (Stefan-Boltzmann law)
The Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all
wavelengths per unit time. The radiation of a black body is a function of the temperature at the fourth power.

RTOT  T 4 Stefan-Boltzmann's law

RTOT= emitted radiation [W m-2]

σ=5.67 10-8 [W m-2 K-4] Stefan-Boltzmann constant

4 D 2 SE
 Tsun 4
 I0
4 R 2 sun
Rsun= 6.96 105 [km] radius sun
DSE =1.496 108 [km] Distance sun-Earth

Solar Radiation Bands / Energy fraction

Shortwave Radiation
UV-VIS = 0.29-0.75 μm ≈49%
NIR = 0.75-4.0 μm ≈51%
PAR = 0.4-0.7 μm ≈45-50%
Longwave Radiation
Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance
 Radiation Transmission
The incoming radiation (energy) can be either reflected, absorbed or transmitted by a medium (e.g., air, water,
vegetation). However, radiation (energy) is always conserved.

Ri Rr
Ri  Rr  Ra  Rt
Reflection and transmission of direct radiation can generate
Ra diffuse radiation (a process called scattering).
Radiation absorption is how matter takes up a photon's energy
and so transforms radiation into internal energy of the absorber (for
example, thermal energy).
Rt

Total Shortwave Radiation: Rsw

Rsw  Rdir  Rdif Rdir: direct radiation [W m-2]

Rdif: diffuse radiation [W m-2]

Rdir is directional, it depends on sun position (z)

and needs to be projected on the surface of
interest, Rdif is isotropic and is coming from all
directions.
 Radiation Transmission
Radiation is attenuated by many factors as clouds, and components of the atmosphere, e.g., aerosols, ozone,
nitrogen dioxide, water vapor.

I r
2
I Radiation at the top of the atmosphere
Rsw  0 E2  0  341 W/m2
4rE 4 (effect of spherical shape and night).

Rsw  185 W/m2 Radiation at the Earth surface

Image Source: https://www.edhat.com/news/uv-radiation-reduces-covid-19-transmission

Atmosphere optical thickness (τ) in clear-skies

and clouds (mostly) in overcast conditions
control transmissivity (T).

Models of radiation
transmission in the
atmosphere can be
quite sophisticated.

Source: https://solargis.com/
Zdunkowski et al., 2007
 Shortwave Radiation

Zurich Greenland East Coast

Rsw [W m-2]
Rsw [W m-2]

Rsw -long-term average

Rsw [W m-2]

Hours
Doy
Zurich Singapore

Rsw [W m-2]
Rsw [W m-2]

Latitude [°]

Rsw long-term average for a given doy

Doy Doy
 Shortwave Radiation
The incoming shortwave radiation at the ground is also influenced by topographic features in complex terrains.

Peleg et al. 2017 JAMES

 Albedo
Albedo (reflection coefficient) is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation.
It is defined as the ratio of reflected radiation from the surface to incident radiation upon it and goes from 1 (total
reflection) to 0 (total absorption).
Albedo Values

R     R   d Albedo depends on the

 r
r
 wavelength (but often a
Ri  R   d i
single value is used)

Earth’s Albedo:
The type and “state” of α=0.30 With clouds
vegetation can modify α=0.14 Without clouds
Average Albedo: Source MODIS satellite
http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=60636 albedo
Zeng et al., 2010, EOS
 Albedo

Image Source: https://www.thecrowdedplanet.com/astypalea-secret-greek-island/

Manninen and Jääskeläinen Geophysica (2018)

Image Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/search/african+savannah+landscape

https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/savanna-rainy-season_2630478.htm
Image Source: http://www.omantravel.co.uk/the-empty-quarter-experience
 Radiation Physics
Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation refers to wavelength-specific radiative emission and absorption by a material
body in thermodynamic equilibrium, including radiative exchange equilibrium. The law states that the emissivity
and the absorptivity of a body (surface) at a given temperature and wavelength are equal, i.e., “a poor reflector is a
good emitter, and a good reflector is a poor emitter”

Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation a: absorptivity = ε: emissivity r: reflectivity = 1-ε = 1- a

ε1 = a1 ε2 =a2
a=1 black body; a < 1 gray body

No body can emit more than a black body

R1 R2

Generalization of Stefan-Boltzmann's law

RTOT   T 4 Most bio-meteorological surfaces are close to

being black bodies and have emissivities, ε>0.9.
 Radiation Physics: Leslie’s Cube Example

All faces of the cube are at the same temperature of 55°C

The black and white faces are highly emissive (almost the same).

The mirror-like polished face of the aluminum cube emits very little thermal radiation.
 Longwave Radiation
According to Stefan-Boltzmann law the radiation that is received by the Earth is the one emitted by the
atmosphere as a gray body:
RLW = downwelling (incoming) longwave radiation [W m-2]
εatm= atmospheric emissivity [-]

RLW   atm TA 4  atm   cs K N εcs= clear sky emissivity [-]

KN= cloud cover effect on emissivity [-]
TA = air temperature [K]

KN(N): function of cloud cover

εcs(ea,Ta): function of air vapor pressure and temperature

Incoming longwave radiation can be measured, but there are several empirical relations
describing atmospheric emissivity as a function of temperature and other variables.

Net Top of the Atmosphere

Longwave radiation. Source:
http://www.ecmwf.int
 Infrared Thermal Images

Image Source:
https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite- Image Source: https://www.retrofitprojects.co.uk/thermal-imaging-survey/
Image Source: https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/eco2lstev001/
missions/i/iss-ecostress

Fisher et al. 2020, WRR


RLW   cs K N  TA
Net Radiation
RLW = longwave radiation [W m-2]
4 Incoming longwave radiation
(from atmosphere)
εs= surface emissivity [-]
Ts =surface temperature [K]

RLW   STS
4
RLW   S  TS 4  1   S  RLW
Outgoing longwave radiation
(from Earth surface) More precisely

The net radiation Rn is the balance between net shortwave and net longwave radiation:

Rn  RSW (1   )  RLW  RLW

Net shortwave and longwave at the land surface, Source: http://www.ecmwf.int

 Surface Energy Balance
How is partitioned the “net energy” received by a surface?

U
Rn   E  H  G   p Ag  AH 
t
Net Radiation
Energy consumed by
Latent Heat photosynthesis
Energy Advection (including
Sensible Heat precipitation)
Ground Heat Flux Energy stored in the system

Typical simplified expression of the surface energy balance (after several assumptions):

Rn  E  H  G  0
 Ground Heat Flux
The ground heat flux G is the flux of energy from (to) the surface to (from) the underneath soil.
G= ground heat flux [W m-2]
T
G  z , t    s
T= soil temperature [K]
Flux equation (diffusivity) z= soil depth [m]
z Cvol,s = soil volumetric heat capacity [J m-3 K-1]
λs = soil thermal conductivity [W m-1 K-1]
Ds = soil thermal diffusivity [m2 s-1]
T G Energy conservation
Cvol , s 

Ground heat flux at the

-2][W/m 2
t z 20

[W m down
10

Flux at the surface

0
Combined together (heat diffusion equation):

surface
-10

-20

T (t , z )  T (t , z )
2
s

depth [°C] Ground Heat

 Ds Ds 
-30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Cvol , s time [h]

t z 2 17
t [h]

Temperature at:10 [cm][°C]

10 cm
16
Surface
15

Temperature
This is a partial differential equation (it depends on 14

time (t) and depth (z)) that requires a numerical 13

12
solution to compute G and T at any time and depth. 11
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
time [h]
t [h]
Soil Temperature [°C] Soil temperature

Seasonal variations
(3 years)

t [h]
0 0
Depth z [mm]
Depth (mm) z [mm]

-100
3h 15 h -100

21 h 15 h
3h 9h
-200 -200
9h 21 h
Depth (mm)
Depth

Daily variations
-300 -300

-400 -400 Initial

each 6 hr

-500 -500
10 12 14 16 18 -20 -10 0 10 20
Temperature [K] G [W m -2]
Soil Temperature [°C] Ground heat flux [W m-2]
 Surface Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes
Sensible heat (H) is heat exchanged by a body or
thermodynamic system in which the exchange of heat
changes the temperature of the body or system.

 a C p Ts , x  Ta 
H
rpath
Latent heat (λE) (also known as latent energy) is
energy released or absorbed, by a body or a
thermodynamic system, during a change of phase
(melt, evaporate, freeze, condense) - a constant
temperature process.

 a  qs , x  qa 
E  
rpath

rpath = resistance path [s m-1 ]

1
gpath = conductance path [m s-1 ] g path 
H = sensible heat [W m-2] rpath Bonan 2016, p. 278
λE = latent heat [W m-2]
 Energy Balance

E  H H  E

H  E
 Energy Balance (Examples)
Typical daily cycle of energy fluxes in different land cover types and climates

Grassland (Switzerland) Caatinga (Brazil) Evergreen Forest (Singapore)

 Global-Scale Earth- Atmosphere Energy Balance

Radiation from, and back to, Space Where is the Greenhouse Effect?
(340↓-100↑)sw-(239↑)lw ≈ 0

Shortwave Radiation Budget

340↓-76↑-24↑-161↔ -79↔ ≈ 0

Earth Surface Energy Budget

(161↓) sw - 20↑-85↑+ (342↓ -397↑) lw ≈ 0

Radiation Budget (troposphere)

20+85+79-239+(397-342)lw ≈ 0

Dominant role of
greenhouse gases

Wild et al. 2013 Clim. Dyn.

 Radiation absorption and Greenhouse Gases
Many trace gases, known as greenhouse gases absorb
and emit radiation in the bands of the longwave radiation
and near infrared radiation. Water vapor (H2O) carbon
dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are the most
important greenhouse gases.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas
https://twitter.com/rarohde/status/1197147289229385728