Fundamentals of Data and Signa

Prof. Biradar T. D.
Asst. Prof.
Electronics and
communication Dept.
D. J. Sanghvi college of
Engineering.
MUMBAI-56
1
 Introduction
Signal and Data
Any visible or audible
indication that can convey
information
Computer networks transmit
signals
Data is what we want to
transmit
Signals are the electric or
electromagnetic encoding
2
of data
 Signal Vs. Data

Signals Data
 Signals are what we use to  Data is what we want to
transmit the data transmit
 Signals are transient  Data is usually stored
example: example:
 telephone conversation over a  computer files,
telephone line,
 movie on a DVD
 live television news interview
from Europe  music on a CD
 web page download over  collection of samples from a
your telephone line via the blood
Internet others? gas analysis device

3
 Analog versus Digital

Analog is a continuous waveform, with examples

such as music, video, Human voice and Water ripples

4
 Analog versus Digital

Digital is a discrete or discontinuous waveform with

examples such as computer 1s and 0s.

5
Loss or Gain of Signal Strength
All signals experience loss (attenuation).
Attenuation and gain is denoted as a decibel (dB) loss or
gain.
Decibel losses (and gains) are additive.
Decibel is a relative loss or gain of signal
dB = 10 log10 (output power/input power)
dB = 10 log10 (Po/Pi) = 10 log10 Po – 10 log10 Pi
dB = dBo - dBi
Attenuation is denoted as a decibel (dB) loss.
Decibel losses (and gains) are additive.
6
dB is RELATIVE; cannot be calculated for a single power
 Signal Strength

So if a signal loses 3 dB, is that a lot?

A 3 dB loss indicates the signal lost half of
its power.
dB = 10 log10 (P2 / P1)
-3 dB = 10 log10 (X / 100)
-0.3 = log10 (X / 100)
10-0.3 = X / 100
0.50 = X / 100
7
X = 50
 What is Radio ?

Wireless transmission through space of

electromagnetic waves in the approximate
frequency range from 10kHz to 300,000 M Hz.

8
Electromagnetic spectrum

9
 Regulation of Wireless

• Radio frequency (RF) is scare and shared

resource.
• Each country governs the use of radio spectrum
• In U.S. the F.C.C. allocates spectrum for use and
resolves conflict disputes
• Internationally coordinated through ITU

10
Frequency Spectrum

• Limited resource
• Managed
• WARC
• FCC
• Bands

11
Spectrum Licensing

• Spectrum can be allocated for specific users.

Government
Licensed
• Unlicensed or Industrial, Scientific and Medical
(ISM) bands.
902-928 MHz (US only)
2400 MHz
5800MHz

12
Frequency Spectrum
• The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the part of
the United Nations (UN) that manages the use of both the RF Spectrum
and space satellites among nation states. 
• The ITU is divided into three Sectors:
• Radio communication Sector (ITU-R) determines the technical
characteristics and operational procedures for wireless services, and
plays a vital role in the Spectrum Management of the radio-frequency;
ITU-R Study Group 1 is the Spectrum Management study group.
• Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) develops
internationally agreed technical and operating standards.
• Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) fosters the
expansion of telecommunications infrastructure in developing nations
throughout the world, that make up two-thirds of the ITU’s 191
Member States.
• The ITU Radio Regulations set a binding international treaty governing
the use of the radio spectrum by some 40 different services.

13
Frequency Spectrum
• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is
an independent agency of the United States government,
created by Congressional statute to regulate interstate
and international communications by radio, television,
wire, satellite, and cable in all 50 states, the
• The FCC works towards six goals in the areas
of broadband, competition, the spectrum,
the media, public safety and homeland security. The
Commission is also in the process of modernizing itself.

14
ISM Unlicensed Frequency
Bands

15
Spectrum Suitability

• Less than 6 GHz

• Less range (up to 45km),non line of sight
(LOS),not affected by weather.
• Greater 6GHz
• line of sight (LOS),short range (1-5km),affected
by weather, more spectrum (1GHz)

16
Transmitting Signals

• The goal of sending data over RF is to get

information across with as much data as
possible, sending it as far as possible.
• More data can be placed on a signal in one or
two ways:
• More frequency used or
• Complex modulation.

17
 Bandwidth: (B.W.)

• Signal bandwidth:
• Bandwidth of information signal is simply the
difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies contained in the information
• We can divide signals into two categories: The pure
tone signal (the sinusoidal wave, consisting of one
frequency component), and complex signals that are
composed of several components, or sinusoids of
various frequencies.

18
 Bandwidth: (B.W.)

• The BW of a signal composed of

components of various
frequencies (complex signal) is
the difference between its
highest and lowest frequency
components.
• For example, a square wave may
be constructed by adding sine
waves of various frequencies
• The resulting wave resembles a
square wave. If more sine waves
of other frequencies were added,
the resulting waveform would
more closely resemble a square
wave
• Since the resulting wave contains
2 frequency components, its
bandwidth is around 450-
150=300 Hz. 19
 Bandwidth: (B.W.)

• Since voice signals are also

composed of several components
(pure tones) of various frequencies,
the BW of a voice signal is taken to be
the difference between the highest
and lowest frequencies which are
3000 Hz and (close to) 0 Hz
• Although other frequency
components above 3000 Hz exist,
(they are more prominent in the male
voice), an acceptable degradation of
voice quality is achieved by
disregarding the higher frequency
components, accepting the 3kHz BW
as a standard for voice
communications

20
Bandwidth of signals:

Media Bandwidth
Media Bandwidth
• Telephone
Telephone call call 3 kHz• 3 kHz

• AM radio
AM radio • 5 kHz
10 kHz
• FM radio
FM radio • 15 kHz
20 kHz
• Hi-fi audio tracks • 18 kHz
Hi-fi audio tracks 18 kHz
• 20 kHz
Audio• CD
Audio CD 20 kHz
• 4.5 MHz
• Broadcast
Broadcast TV TV 4.5 MHz
• 5.0 MHz
• Video CD
Video CD 5.0 MHz

21
 Channel (Medium)bandwidth:

• Range of frequencies that the medium can support.

• With each transmission medium, there is a frequency range of

electromagnetic waves that can be transmitted:
• Twisted pair cable: 0 to 109 Hz (Bandwidth : 109 Hz)
• Coax cable: 0 to 1010 Hz (Bandwidth : 1010 Hz)
• Optical fiber: 1014 to 1016 Hz (Bandwidth : 1016 -1014 = 9.9x1015
Hz)

• Optical fibers have the highest BW (they can support

electromagnetic waves with very high frequencies, such as light
waves)
• The BW of the channel dictates the information carrying capacity
of the channel
• This is calculated using Shannon’s channel capacity formula
• B.W. of communication channel should be always grater than B.W.
of the information.
22
Shannon’s Theorem
(Shannon’s Limit for
Information Capacity)
• Claude Shannon at Bell Labs figured out how much
information a channel could theoretically carry:
C=I = B log2 (1 + S/N)
Where ,I or C is Information Capacity in bits per
second (bps)
B is the channel bandwidth in Hz
S/N is Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR: unitless…don’t
make into decibel: dB)
S/N is a relationship between the signal we want
versus the noise that we do not want, which is in
the medium.
23
 Bandwidth of signal:
Approximations
Different definition of bandwidth:
a) Half-power bandwidth d) Fractional power containment
b) Noise equivalent bandwidth
bandwidth
c) Null-to-null bandwidth e) Bounded power spectral
density
f) Absolute bandwidth

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)50dB 24
 Bits and Baud Rate

Bits per second (bps) or Bit rate:

no.of bits transmitted across a medium in a given
second
Baud rate:
no.of times a signal changes value per second
bps and baud are not always the same

25
 Information Capacity:

Is measure of how much information can be

propagated through a comm. System is a function
of bandwidth and transmission time.

It represents the no. of independent symbols

that can be carried through a system in a given
unit of time.

26