Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Architectural Utilities 2 Electrical and Mechanical
Architectural Utilities 2 Electrical and Mechanical
AL
UTILITIES 2
ELECTRICAL &
MECHANICAL
EOUIPMENTS
• THE NEW·LADDER
TYPE CURRICULUM
REVISED EDITlON
REVISED EDITION
ISBN : 971-11-0997-2
Published and Printed by:
JMC PRESS, INC.
388 QUEZON AVENUE, QUEZON CITY
Tel. Nos. 410-9534 • 740·8817
TELEFAX: 712-4929
Distributed by:
GOODWILL BOOKSTORES
Glorietta 3 Mall, Ayala Center
Ayala Avenue, Makati City
Tel. Nos. 893-9058/893-9079
Fax No. (632) 810-9033
e-mail: goodwill@ pworld.net.ph.
Dedicated to all future
Architects and Engineers
.. '
ACKNOWLEDGM·ENTS
The completion of this book was made into reality through the patient and efforts of the
artist and graduate of architecture, Mr. Johnny Tino Camsol.
Special thanks are also acknowledge to the following artist who contributed in making draw-
ings notably, Roy Pagador, Albert Martin, who help in the cover design, Fermin Balangcod,
Jerry Jun Suyat; Geoffrey Behis, Charles Alanqui and Clamor Lecitona, all from the GSS
Construction and Trading Enterprises.
To the ones who lent unselfishly their Books, like Dean Aveline Cruz of the Baguio Colleges
Foundation Engineering Department and Miss Macabiog, a Librarian of the same school.
To Mr. Luis V. Canave who guided me on the complete process of publishing and printing
books and to Mr. Francisco C. Malicsi, Teresita G. Espinoza, Eduardo C. Villanueva and
Paraides G. Aragones for their untiring cooperation in preparing the manuscripts typewritten
by Miss Thelma T. Villareal in computerized typesetting.
To the many students of Architecture whose curiosity about and interest in Electrical and
Mechanical Equipment and its realization in book form have been a source of inspiration.
And lastly the author wants to acknowledge his heavy indebtedness to the various authors
listed in the bibliography.
v
PREFACE
Since the curriculum for B.S. Architecture was revised, there is a need for a more
comprehensive study of the subject in Electrical and Mechanical equipments.
The Architect is the prime professional and author of the building aesign with which a
project will be constructed, he functions as the creator and coordinator of the different
aspects involved in the planning and as such, Architects has to be knowledgeable in a
summer of fields in addition to those that are concerned mainly with the building design for
him to properly assist and serve his client. After the design is approved, the complete con-
struction drawings and specifications are prepared. It is here where the specifications and
detailed construction drawings setting forth in detail the work required for Electrical and
Mechanical equipments and other service-connected equipments is done.
This book is intended as a practical guide to good electrical and mechanical designing in
architecture. It is written primarily for architects, engineers, and students of architecture,
electrical engineering and civil engineering, and all others who wish a non-mathematical but
comprehensive treatise on this subject. Useful design data have been presented in such a
manner that the text can serve as a convenient handbook in the solution of most problems
encountered in Architecture & Electrical/Mechanical equipments. A strong trend in modern
architectural treatment is the casual acceptance of equipment as a design element, together
with aesthetics, function, and structure. For example, the inclination to hide equipment
behind furring is diminishing.
The book is divided into three parts. It is arranged in a sequential manner so as to guide the
reader from the energy and environment to the indoor climate control which is discussed
lengthily here, the author features the solar energy and fireplace designs which is fast
becoming a part of modern design.
The second part deals with electricity and starts from the principles to the systems and
wiring materials to the service and utilization. When the reader has a background of these
subject matter then he is new ready for the wiring design of the whole system.
The third part deals on Signal equipment and the vertical transportation which comprises the
elevator and escalators. On the Appendix is included some highlights of acoustics and
lighting which is to be discussed more in detail in a future book the author is preparing.
Each subject matter is accompanied immediately with the corresponding illustrations for
clarity and the excerpts from the electrical code is also included.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 7 TRANSPORTATION , .. ......... ...... .... .. .... .... ... ... .... ... ....... .. ...... ... 308
Passenger Elevator, 308
Elevator Equipment, 308
Gearless Traction Machines, 311
Geared Traction Machines, 311
Arrangement of Elevator Machines,
Sheaves and ropes, 312
Safety Devices, 314
Elevator Doors, 315
Cabs and Signals, 318
Elevator Selection , 319
Single Zone System, 334
The Physical Properties and Spatial,
XI
Requirements of Elevators, 335
Special Elevators, 345
Freight Elevators, 359
Material- Handling Equipment, 355
Moving Stairways and Walks, 359
Location . 360
Parallel and Crisscross Arrangements, 361
Size Capacity and Speed, 363
Components, 364
Standard Versus Modular Designs, 366
Safety Features, 369
Fire Protection, 370
Application, 373
Moving Walks and Ramps, 375
xii
chapter PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRICITY
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY
1. ELECTRICITY ENERGY
In terms of natural resources electricity is an expensive fonn of energy. since the efficiency of
heat-to-electricity conversion, on a commercial scale, rarely exceeds 40%. Electricity con-
stitutes a form of energy itsetf which occurs naturally only in unusable forms such as lightn-
ing and other static discharges or in the natural galvanic cells, which cause corrosion. The
primary problem in the utilization of electric energy is that, unlike fuels or even heat, it can-
not be stored and therefore must be generated and utilized at the same instanf.
The bulk of electric energy utilized today is in the form of alternating current (a-c), produc-
ed by a-c generators, commonly called alternators. Direct-current (d-el generators are
utilized for special applications requiring large quantities of d-e. In the building field such a
requirement is found in elevator work . Smaller quantities of d-e, furnished either by batteries
or by rectifiers are utilized for telephone and signal equipment, controls, and other specializ-
ed usas.
CURReNT
Battery
Produces RESISTANCE
..,R..,.
T
Voltage "V''
cf:o-------.J
Switch
Pump produces
FRICTION
Pressure " P" 'F ..
ELECTRIC-HYDRAULIC ANALOGY
2
It is convenient to establish an analogy between electric systems and mechani_cal systems as
an aid to comprehension. Current, or amperage, is a measure of flow and, and such, would
correspond to water flow in a hydraulic system. The correspondence is not complete,
however, since in the hydraulic system the velocity of water flow varies, whereas in the elec-
tric system the velocity of propagation is constant and f!18Y be considered instantaneous;
hence, the need to utilize the electric energy the instant it is produced.
The higher the voltage (pressure}, the higher the current Wow) for a given resistance (fric-
tion).
LOAD
TERMINAI..S
+
SWITCH
3
precious metals-silver, gold, and platinum -with coppet and aluminum only slightly in-
ferior. Conversely, materials that resist the flow of current are called insulators. Glass,
mica, rubber, oil, distilled water, porcelain, and certain synthetics such as phenolic com-
pounds exhibit this insulating property and are therefore used to insulate electric conduc-
tors. Common examples are .rubber and plastic wire coverings, porcelain lamp sockets, and
oil-immersed switches.
INSULATOR
5. OHM'S LAW
The current I that will flow in a d-e circuit is directly proportional to the voltage V and in-
versely proportional to the resistance R of the circuit. Expressed as an equation, w e have the
basic form of Ohm's law that
v
I = -R-
that is, a current 1 is produced that is proportional to the electric pressure V and inversely
proportional to the electric friction R.
Examples:
1) An incandescent lamp having a hot resistance of 66 ohms is put into a socket that is con-
nected to a 115 V supply. What current flows through the lamp?
6. CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
a) Series Circuits
The elements are connected one · after the other in series. Thus, the resistance and
voltages add.
4
- . . .lo ~+-] --......c\o o*-1-=~fc: 'f-
+ + +
10 OHMS 15 OHMS \S
-< RESI~
o~-c
~I!SlTOR
=]30-==
TOT'AL.. 25 OHMS
An electric circuit may be defined as a complete conducting path that carries current
from a source of electricity to and through some electrical device (or load} and back to
the source. A current can never flow unless there is a complete (closed) circuit.
GRAPHIC
PR~SENTAIO PliYSICAl. PRE~TAION
In any series circuit, the total Resistance R is the sum of the resistance around the circuit.
Thus,
0 . 02.
: our'~s
- r,ab:O.O/
a battery IO<!Id 1.15
120 volt
o .oz.
rd..!t =0.02
5
The battery voltage may be called Vab = 120v
The voltage across the load resistance, V cd = 115v
The resistance of the two wires rbc = rda = 0.04 ohm.
Example:
The battery in the above figure is rated at 120v. the line resistance {both wires) is 0.04
ohm, and the load resistance is 1.15 ohms. Determine the (a) current flowing in the cir-
cuit, lbl the voltage across the load IVcdl·
a) the current flowing is:
y_ = 120
I =
R rab t
Vab
roc T red -r rda
100 amp.
.
b) The voltage drop across the load is
Vcd = I X Red = 100 x 1. 15 = 115v
A practical application of series circuits is found in an incandescent lamp street lighting
circuits. The figure below explains that loss of one lamp can disable the entire circuit.
Futhermore, the point of fault is difficult to pinpoint, necessitating individual testing of
lamps.
SE~I LA\IIP
~
0 "IJ' a
..
t • ~
] At; ClR DC.
SOURCE
Q
+ Q Q
~
€J IN A <:::HRISTMA$ LIGHT se:~lES 1
IF ONE l-lte;.HT IS OUT rHE WHOLE
CU1'CLJir <::AN NOT WORK.
bl Paraltel Circuits
When two or more branches or loads in a circuit are connected between the same two
points, they are said to be connected in parallel or multiple. Such an arrangement and
its hydraulic equivalent are shown below.
!!I'Oamps ~ zoa
30amps
I
"' 20.a
l 1oa.
equals
3oa
>
---7
aoa
(-
10.25
6
ANALOGOUS TO:
ltDgpm
~aopm 10 gptn
From the circuit shown below, it should be apparent that multiple loads are across the
same voltage and, in effect, constitute separate circuits. From this we conclude that in
the circuit is the sum of the individual currents flowing in the branches that is,
IT = J, + Iz +I,
= 12 + 1 t 10 =Z3 amp
IO.Q ~
TOTAL.. 23 .amp
L r
I,
u.amp
1
23-12=
~ms
120 volt to 12.
source ohm ohm 11. j = roamp
12amp
IO.!mp
~231 ~10.3
12 a "'"""'} 14 roa
~,t ~2<>ohms+
O
~zchms
IZO
volts
LJJ
120
volts
L:dr. 111
Loads connected in parallel are equivalent to separate circuits superimposed into a single
connection. Each load acts as an independent circuit unrelated to, and unaffected by the
other circuitS. Notice that the total current flowing in the circuit is the sum of all the
branches, but that the current in each branch is the result of a separate Ohm's Law
calculation. Thus in the 10-ohm load a 12·amp current flows and so forth.
7
The parallel connection is the standard arrangement in all building wiring. A typical
lighting and receptacie arrangement for a large room is shown below .
SWITCH .... .
PICTORIAL
A
UGHTS
TO HOUSE PANEL~-
ro amp
ARCHITECTURAL
SCHEMATIC PLAN
Here the lights constitute one parallel grouping, .and the convenience wall outlets con·
stitute a second parallel grouping. The fundamental principle to remember is that loads in
parallel are additive for current, and that each has the same voltage imposed .
8
7. DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
Id-e) and (a-cl
Direct current - whenever the flow of electric current takes place at a constant time rate,
practically unvarying and in the same direction around the circuit. The terms universally ac-
cepted are "d-e voltage" or "d-e current". The d-e voltages of 1.5v positive polarity, and
1.0v negative polarity is shown below,
t l -5
+1.o
+05
~os
0
I.S
d) fully rectified
I
I
.:P
S I I
~ VJ~' :::::::::=:::!=[\
=====:-
e) half-rectified a-c
9
The distance along the time axis spanned by a positive and negative a-c loop is called one cy-
cle of time. Modern a-c systems in the United States operates at 60 ~ycles per second, or 60
hertz. This means that current at 60 hertz'(Hz} is delivered to the consumer. In a-c, instead of
resistance, the corresponding parameter in an a-c circuit is impedance, which is also
measured in ohms. Thus for an a-c circuit, the equivalent to Ohm's Law is
I = Y.. where z is the symbol normally used for impedance
z
MA6NeTIC R:)l.ES-
i:l"t'WeR A A:~M·
NeNT MA6NET OR
Aha .6\...eCTJlOMAGNET
}S StJIT"ABl...e.
- M~•c. f".e\d
If the conductor is formed into a coil and rotated in tne magnetic field, a voltage of alter-
nating polarity is produced, that is, alternating current . It does not matter whether the
conductor or the magnet moves; the motion of the conductor and the field wit h respect
to each other produces the voltage.
P Rotat-100
----..... ', 11'0:------"'
N
..
LVOLTA6E 16 pt~kb! Dff
With sl14n~ tDnt&'ts,
GaliU • S Ll P - RINE'15"
10
.~AT1NG
'MAGNET Vab
COil.OFIJ
WlRE
Voltage is picked off with sliding con-
tacts, called "slip-rings".
It does not matter whether the conductor
moves and the magnetic field is stationary,
or vice versa, as long as there is relative mo-
tion between the two.
11
By Ohm's Law V = IR A in Ohms
and since W = I (IR} Win Watts
W = I (V) I in amperes
V in volt
Example :. incandescent lamp = 66 ohms Resistance
115V Supply
v 115
I = R = 66 = 1.74
Example:
calculate the current and
power in two branches of the circuit and the total circuit current assume a 120 v a-c
source.
a) Power= VI
R
v = -120 = 48 ohms
2.5
b) Second branch is 10 amp. 0.8 pf load
Power = V x amp x pf
= 120 X 10 X 0.8 = 960 W
but the circuit volt - ampere
is. 120 x 10 : 1.200 Va
Since power is the rate of energy use, it follows that energy = power x time. Therefore the
amount of energy used is directly proportional to the power of the system and to the length
of time. It is in operation. Since power is expressed in either watts or kilowatts, and time in
hours (second and minutes are too small for use), we have for units of energy: watt-hours
(wh) or kilowatt-hours (kwh ) energy used for one hour .
12
Example:
a) Find the daily energy consumption of the appliances listed below if they are used daily for
the amount of time shown.
Toaster (1340 w) or 1.34 kw 15 min. or % hr.
Percolator (500 w) or 0.5 kw 2 hr.
Fryer (1560 w) or 1.56 kw 39 min. or Y.! hr.
Toaster = 1.34 kw x % hr. = 0.335 kwh
percolator = 0.5 kw x ~hr. = 1.00 kwh
fryer = 1.56 kw. x Y.! hr. = 0.78 kwh
iron = 1.40 kw x % hr. = 0.70 kwh
Total = 2.815·kwh
b) If the average cost of energy is per kilowatt-hour, find the daily operating cost
2.815 kwh x /kwh='---
c) If considering an average power demand of a househoid is 1.2 kw, calculate the monthly
electric bill of such a household, assuming the rate of per kilowatt hour= P _ _
Monthly energy consumption
= 1.2 kw x ·24 hr x 30 days = 864 kwh
day month
Electric power bill
• 864 kwh X .,. _ _ /kwh • ft" _ _
13
'TIMER DRUM
sup~1e- ~tuam
S19n.al tD ~r.am
MANUAL OVERRIDE
PRQSRAM DRUM
(pm po.;"1t1onare
ava1 1.1 ble for controI
..
bf Z1 ~lrCUIW .
CIRCUIT WIRING
STEPP1N6 MOTOR
a't1v.1ttd by lh1~r
dr'\.lm SWitG:hes.
TERMfNAL STRIPS
for a:l1't>~d
ar~Uits.
14
MANIJAl.lY
ADJUS'WI.E
<0Nnt()C. LQ'\P
<t>~TJU).
'<NOB
l~O
INOICA'fO&
"SHE DOABLE"
Non-essential lighting Sewage Ejectors with
Ventilation fans appropriate level
Space heating controls
Comfort Cooling Transfer pumps
Non-critical batch Any device with
process equipment flywheel effect
Electric Boilers (Electric snow melting)
NONSHEODABLE"
Essential lighting Process equipment
Elevators Material bandling
Refrigeration equipment
Compressors Office machinery
The nonsheddable loads are fed directly from the power line. The sheddable loads are fed
via a panel of control relays that respond to on/off instructions from the demand con-
troller. The facility's operator will then analyze the sheddable loads and determine a
minimum coincident kw load for this group. This figure when added to total coincident of
the nonsheddable loads, becomes the kw rate control or the set point.
15
1NSTANTAN15'0US
KW~ tli.TA
LOA~
Most commercial units permit considerable flexibility in field adjustments in order to ar-
rive at optimum operation. Some units as shown below, have special provisions to over-
come some of the limitations inherent in rate control systems. These are:
1. Excessive cycling due to too narrow an op~rating band or insufficient time delay bet-
ween control demands .
2. Inability to change or " weight" load priority structure. resulting in excessive cycling of
certain loads and insufficient cycling of others.
3. Excessive off-time due to the absence of limit t imers.
4. Inability to readily adapt to varying load patterns resulting from variable production
schedules, time schedules, changes in weather.
5. Nonrecognition of the block of energy available in a given timing interval.
As a result of these limitations, this system is most useful in applications where operating
modes do not change frequently and the facility is not very large . Thus, stores, super-
markets, warehouses, small industrial facilities, and commercial installations are well
served with this level system if they have at least 20% sheddable loads; and their con-
nected electric load is at least 150 kilovolt amperes (kva).
16
This demand c<Jntrol unit operates on
the rate control principle, keeping the
demand w ithin a band around the set
point.
DSMAND
INTEftVAI..
A constant rate of energy use over a demand interval would show as the set of repeated
straight lines. The utility company determines the demand over the demand interval by
integrating the kwh energy over the interval and dividing by t he interval time. Thus, the
user is actually given a block of energy (kwh) that can be utilized at any desired rate, not
necessarily at the constant rate of the above Figure (a).
17
f;!NE~Y ~VEL.IlR!:
-------·- - - - - TO-~IMU -~
~SI
,.~
, ...'t-.(IP!''i """ ~·
1"""'-- -- - - - -- - - - -- ' The desirable rate of energy use •s the
......c::o. F " Ideal Curve" as shown in this figure.
OFFSET.,. -Ne~ "'•~ .. 0
UJNl'Jl,Cl.I..SiP I.O'.DS
Graph (b) showing an offset, which es-
tablishes an " ideal curve" to whj,ch ac-
INTERVAL-~ tual energy use will be compared by
r!ME' __.,. the controller. in deciding whether to
Fl6. .a shed or add loads.
INT'EfU.lAL l.OG.IG.
INC.L~ \O&I'fL
CURVE PULSS
c;.e NEllA"ffR
-
~
18
13. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
To measure energy, the factor of time must be introduced, since ... energy = power x
time.
a-c watt-hour meters are basically small motors, whose speed is proportional to the power
being used. The number of rotations is counted on the dials which are calibrated directly in
kilowatt-hours.
CU~RENT
I-E'AOS
;.. ,
..........
~.
J
A::IWER
S<>URCA
WM
I I
l LOA.OJ
..,
~"Jj\E
WATTME\1:R LEADS
TYPICAL INDUCTION-TYPE Kwh Meter with Kw demand dial. Decade dials register total
disc revolutions that are proportional to energy. Disc speed is proportional to power.
19
....
chapter
ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM and
MATERIALS:
· WIRING
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND
MATERIALS: WIRING
1. SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The major components of a building's electrical power system are illustrated here:
HI6H • VOLTAeE
PRIMARY I"E~S
2400,4160,72.00
OR 1~,.to VOL. TS
Sfai'MER MAIN
1-....,_.----4SWIT£M
VAlJLT !21>/2De Clf ~O ._-'~
1 - - - -- - J IZO/Z10 or L-.~
227/100Volts
LAfi6E'
MO'Tl:>R
ROOF
M.c .c.
..---..,..... j
~,. I1DOM
22
It ·is called a " riser diagram.'! when this some type of information is presented showing
the. spatial retations between compenents.
When electrical symbols are used· in lieu of the blocks, it is called a " one line" or a
" single line diagram " .
These components may be arranged in three major categories.
3 CATEGORIES:
1st- WIRING ............ ............ includes conductors and raceways of all types
2nd-POWER HANDLING EOUtPMENT ....... ........... includes transformers
switchboards, panelboard, large switches and circuitbre_!lkers.
3rd - UTIUZATION EQUIPMENT .... , .. ........... actual utilization of equipment
such as lighting motors, controls ar:~d wiring devices.
In the Block diagram shown, there is a diffe·rentlation by line weight between heavy and
light (large and small) conductors. This size differentiation, as indicative of the amount
of power handled and is shown in the following figure.
IO . s:N~26Pa SWira-llNG
~N'P Pl<'l:>TE:t:Tlbf-.1 !"DR lAUE
~ c i Ra.lT!O
~ 1.,\~f? AIR a!Z'a.liT
~K !>W~S4.R
23
2. NATIONAL ELECTRIC CODE-
Or NEC is a code used by all inspectors, electrical designers, engineers, contractors, and the
operating personnel charged with the responsibility for safe operation .
24
the building or beginning not over 2.5 M from the building , to facilitate the raising of
ladders where necessary for fire fighting.
EXCEPTION: This requirement does not apply where it is the rule of the local fire
department to exclude the use of ladders in alleys or other restricted
places which generally occupied by supply lines.
WHERE WIRES RUN ALONG, AND WITHIN THE LIMITS OF PUBLIC HIGHWAYS OR
OTHER PUBLIC RIGHTS-OF-WAY FOR TRAFFIC
25
4. Open Supply Conductors Attached to Building
Where the permanent attachment of open supply conductors of any class to buildings is
necessary for an entrance such conductors shall meet the following requirements:
a. Conductors of more than 300 volts to ground shall not be carried along or near the
surface of the building unless they are guarded or made inaccessible.
b. To promote safety to the general public and to employees not authorized to ap-
proach conductors and other current-carrying parts of electric supply lines, such
parts shall be arranged so as to provide adequate clearance from the ground or other
space generally accessible, or shall be provided with guards so as to isolate them ef-
fectively from accidental contact by such persons.
c. Ungrounded metal -sheathed service cables, service conduits, metal fixtures and
similar non-current carrying parts, if located in urban districts and where liable to
become charged to more th~n 300 volts to ground, shall be isolated or guarded so as
not to be exposed to accidental contact by unauthorized persons. As an alternative
to isolation or guarding non-current-carrying parts shall be solidly or effectively
grounded.
d. Clearance of wires from building surface shall be not less than those required in Table
2.
(2) Where span length exceeds 45 M the increased clearances required by Rule 232, B, 1 of
the PEC shall be provided.
e. Supports over buildings. Service-drop conductors passing over a roof shall be
securely supported by substantial structures. Where practicable, such supports shall
be independent of the Building.
26
b. Guarding of Supply Conductors/Supply Conductors of 300 volts or more shall be
proPllrly guarded by grounded conduit, barriers, or otherwise, under the following
conditions:
1) Where the clearances set forth in Table 2 above cannot be obtained.
2) Where such supply conductors are placed near enough to windows, verandas,
fire escapes, or other ordinarily accessible places within the reach of persons.
NOTE: Supply conductors in grounded metal sheathed cables are considered to be
guarded within the meaning of this rule .
c. Where the required clearances cannot be obtained, supply conductors shall be or
Grounded Metallic Shield, Jacketed Primary Cables grouped or bundled and sup-
ported by grounded messenger wires .
Communication
Supply Lines
lines
Clearance of 0 to Exceeding
line conduc- 8,700 8,700
tors from - volts volts, and
In gene- On joint- In gene- On joint- for each
ral ly used ral ly used 1,000 volts
poles poles of excess
mm mm mm mm mm
Vertical and
lateral conduc-
tors: Of same
circuit 75 75 75 75 6.25
Of other cir-
cuits 75 75 150 150 10
Span and guy
wires attached
to same pole:
General 75 150 150 150 lO
When parallel to 75 150 300 300 10
Ligtning-
protection wires
parallel to line
Surfaces of cross-
arms 75 75 75 75 5
Surfaces of poles 75 125 75 125 5
27
• Clearance Over Roof. 'Conductors shall have a clearance of not less than 2,5 M
from the highest point of roofs over which they pass with the following excep-
tions:
Exception No. 1. Where the voltage between conductors does not exceed 300
votts and the roof has a slope of not less than 100 mm in 300 mm, the clearance
may not be less than 1 M.
Exception No. 2. Service drop conductors of 300 volts or less which do not pass
over other than a maximum of 1.2 M of the overhang portion of the roof for the
purpose of terminating at a through-the-roof service raceway or approved support
may be maintained at a minimum of 500 mm from any port.ion of the roof over
which they pass. ...
b. Clearance from Ground. Conductors shall have a clearance of not less than 3M from
the ground or from any platform or projection from which they might be reached.
c. Clearance from Building Openings. Conductors shall have a horizontal clearance of
not less than 1 M from windows, doors, porches, fire escapes or similar locations and
shall be run at least 500 mm above the top level of a window or opening.
d. Service Drop of 'communication lines, when crossing a street, shall have a clearance
of not less than 5.50 meters from the crown of the street or sidewalk over which it
passes.
Service Drop of communication Jines shall have a minimum clearance of 3.00 meters
above ground at its point of attachment to the building or pedestal.
e. No parts of swimming and wading pools shall be placed under existing service-drop
conductors or any other over-head wiring; nor shall such wiring be installed above
the following:
a) Swimming and wading pools and the area extending 3.00 meters outward
horizontally from the inside of the walls of the pool.
b) Diving Structures
c) Observation stands, towers or platforms
7. Wiring Methods
Service entrance conductors extending along the exterior or entering buildings or other
structures shall be installed in rigid steel conduit or asbestos cement conduit or con-
crete encased plastic conduit from point of seNice drop to meter socket and from meter
to the disconnecting equipment. However, where the service entrance conductors are
protected by approved fuses or breakers at their outer ends !immediately after the ser-
vice drop or lateral ) they may be installed any of the recognized wiring methods.
a. Abandoned Lines and/ or portions of Jines no longer required to provide service shall
be removed.
b. Power or communication poles, lines, service drops and other line equipment shall
be free from any attachment for antennas, signs, streamers and the like_
c. Metallic sheaths or jackets of overhead power or communication cables shall be
grounded at a point as close as possible to ground level whenever such cables
change from overhead to underground installations.
8. Transformers
a. Oil-insulated Transforme,. Installed Outdoo,. Combustible material. Com-
bustible buildings and parts of buildings, free escapes, door and window openings
shall be safeguarded from fires originating in oil-insulated transformers installed on,
attached to, or adjacent to a building or combustible material. Space separations,
28
fire·resistant barriers and enclosures which confine the. oil of raptured transformer
tank are recognized safeguards. One Or more of these safeguards shall be applied ac-
cording to the degree of hazard involved in cases where the transformer installation
presents a fire hazard. Oil enclosures may consist of fire-resistant dikes, curbed areas
or basins, or trenches filled with coarse, crushed stone. Oil enclosures shall be pro-
vided with trapped drains in cases where the exposure and the quantity of oil involv-
ed are such that removed of oil is important.
b. Dry-Type Transformers Installed Indoors. Transformers rated 112-1/2 KVA or
less shall have separation of at least 300 mm from combustible material unless
separated therefrom by a fire-resistant heat-insulating barrier, or unless of a rating
..
not exceeding 600 volts and completely enclosed except for ventilating openings .
Transformers of more 112-1/2 KVA rating shall be installed in a transformer room of-
fice resistant construction unless they are constructed with Class B (80°C rise) or
Class H (150°C rise) insulation, and are separated from combustible material not less
than 1.85 M horizontally and 3.7 M vertically or are separated therefrom by a fire-re-
sistant heat-insulating barrier.
Transformers rated more th~m 35,000 volts shall be installed in a vault.
c. Askarel-lnsulated Transfformen l·nstafted Indoors. Askarel-insulated
transformers rated in excess of 25 KVA shall be furnished with a pressure-relief vent.
Where installed in a poorly ventilated place they shall be furnished with a means for
absorbing any gases generated by arcing inside the case, or the pressure relief vent
shall be connected to a chimney or flue which will carry such gases outside the
building. Askarel-insulated transformers rated more than 35,000 volts shall be install-
ed in a vault.
d. Oil-Insulated Transformers Installed Indoors. Oil-insulated transformers shall be
installed in a vault constructed as specified in this Section except as follows:
11 NOT OVER 112-1/2 KVA TOTAL CAPACITY. The provisions for transformer
vaults specified in Section 9.3 of this Rule apply except that the vault may be con-
structed of reinforced concrete not less than 100 mm thick.
2) NOT OVER 600 VOLTS. A vault is not required provided suitable arrangements
are made where necessary to prevent a transformer oil fire igniting other
ma~erils, and the total transformer capacity in one location does not exceed 10
KVA in a section of the building classified as combustible, or 75 KVA where the
surrounding structure is classified as fire-resistant construction.
3) FURNACE TRANSFORMERS. Electric furnace transformers of a total rating not
exceeding 75 KVA may be installed without a vault in a building or room of fire-
resistant construction provided suitable arrangements are made to prevent a
transformer oil fire spreading to other combustible material.
4) DETACHED BUILDING. Transformers may be installed in a building which does
not conform with the provisions specified in this Code for transformer vault, pro-
vided neither the building nor its contents present fire hazard to any other building
or property, and provided the building is used only in supplying electric service
and the interior is accessible only to qualitied persons:
e. Guarding. Transformers shall be guarded as follows:
1) MECHANIC PROTECTION. Appropriate provisions shall be made to minimize the
possibility of damage to transformers from external causes where the
transformers are located exposed to physical damage.
21 CASE OR ENCLOSURE. Dry-Type transformers shalt be provided with a non-
combustible moisture resistant case or enclosure which will provide reasonable
protection against accident insertion of foreign objects.
29
31 EXPOSED LIVE PARTS. The transformer installation shall conform with the pro-
visions for guarding of live parts in PEC Rule 1056.
4) VOLTAGE WARNING. The operating voltage of exposed live parts of transformer
installation shall be indicated by signs visible markings on the equipment or struc-
tures.
9. Provisions for Transformers Vaults
a. New Building. New building requiring an expected load demand of 200 KVA or
above shall be provided with a transformer vault, except that tran.sformers may be
mounted on poles or structures within the property if enough space is available, pro-
vided that all clearances required can be obtained and no troublesome contamination
on insulators, bushings, etc. can cause hazards and malfunctioning of'1he equip-
ment.
b. location. Transformer and transformer vaults shall be readily accessible to qualified
personnel for inspection and maintenance. Vaults shall be located where they can be
ventilated to the outside air without using or ducts wherever such an arrangement is
practicable.
c. Walls, Roof and Floor. The walls and roofs of vaults shall consist of reinforced con-
crete not less than 150 mm thick, masonry or brick not less than 200 mm thick, or 300
mm load bearing hollow concrete block shall have a coating of cement or gypsum
plaster not less than 20 mm thick. The vault shall have a concrete floor not less 100
mm thick. Building walls and floors which meet these requirements may serve for the
floor, roof and one or more walls of the vaults. Other forms of fire-resistant construc-
tion are also acceptable provided they have adequate structural strength for the con-
ditions and a minimum fire resistance of two and one-half hours according to the ap-
proved Fire Test Standard. The quality of the material used in the construction of the
vault shall be of the grade approved by the Building Official having jurisdiction.
d. Doorways. Any doorway leading from the vault into the· building shall be protected
as follows:
1t TYPE OF DOOR. Each doorway shall be provided with a tight-fitting door of a
type approved for openings in such locations by the authority enforcing this
Code.
2) SILLS. A door sill or curb of sufficient height to confine within the vault, the oil
from the largest trensformer shall be provided and in no case shall be height be
less than 100 mm.
3) LOCKS. Entrance doors shall be equipped with locks, and doors shall be kept
locked, access being allowed only to qualified persons. Locks Jnd latches shall be
so arranged that the door may be readily 'and quickly opened from the inside.
10. Ventilation. Ventilation shall be adequate to prevent a transformer temperature in ex-
cess of the prescribed values.
a. Ventilation Openings. When required, openings for ventilation shall be provided in
accordance with the following:
1) LOCATION. Ventilation openings shall be located as far away as possible from
doors, windows, fire escapes and combustible material.
2) ARRANGEMENT. Vaults ventilated by natural circulation of air may have roughly
half of the total area of openings required for ventilation in one or more opsnings
near the floor and the remainder in one or more openings in the roof or in the side-
walls near the roof; or all of the area required for ventilation may be provided in
one or more openings in or. near the roof.
31 SIZE. In the case of vaults ventilated to an outdoor area without using ducts or
30
flues the combined net area of all ventilating openings after deducting the area
occupied by screens, gratings, or louvers, shall be not less than .006 sq, mm per
KVA of transformer capacity in service, except that the net area shall be not less
than 0.1 sq. m. for any capacity under 50 KVA.
5) DAMPERS. Where automatic dampers are used in the ventilation openings of
vaults containing oil-insulated transformers, the actuating device should be made
to function at a temperature resulting from fire and not a tempera..,...which might
prevail as a result of an overheated transformer or bank of transformers.
Automatic dampers should be designed and constructed to minimize the possibili-
ty of accident closing.
6. DUCTS. Ventilating ducts shall be constructed of fire resi5%ant material.
7. DRAINAGE. Where practicable, vaults containing more than 100. KVA
transformer capacity shall be provided with a drain or other means which will
carry off any accumulation of oil or water in the vaults unless local conditions
make this impracticable. The floor shall be pitched to the drain when provided.
8. WATER PIPES AND ACCESSORIES. 'Any pipe or duct system foreign to the
electrical installation should not enter or pass through a transformer vault. Where
the presence of such foreign system cannot be avoided, appurtenances thereto
which require maintenance at regular intervals shall not be located inside the
vaults. Arrangement shall be made where necessary to avoid possible trouble
from compensation, leaks and breaks in such foreign system. Piping or other
facilities provided for fire protection or for water-cooled transformers are not
deemed to be foreign to the electrical installtion.
11. CAPACITORS
a. Application. This Section applies to installation of capacitors on electric circuits in
or on buildings.
Exception No.1. Capacitors that are components of other apparatus shall conform
to the requirements for such apparatus.
Exception No. 2. Capacitors in hazardous locations shall comply with additional re-
quirements in PEC section 400-414.
location. An installation of capacitors in which any single unit contain more than
three gallons of combustible liquid shall be in vault conforming to part C of PEC Sec-
tion 319.
Mechanical Protection. Capacitors shall be protected from physical damage by
location or by suitable fences, barriers or other enclosures.
Cases and Supports. Capacitors shall be provided with non combustible cases and
supports.
rransformers Used with Capacitors. Transformers which are components of
:apacitor to a power circuit shall be installed in accordance with PEC Section 319.
The KVA rating shall not be less than 135 per cent of the capacitor rating in Kvar.
31
Emergency system are generally installed in places of assembly where artificial il-
lumination is required, such as buildings subject to occupancy by large numbers of
persons, hotels, theaters, sports arenas, hospitals and similar institutions. Emergen-
cy systems provide power for such functions as refrigeration, operationof
mechanical breathing apparatus, ventilation essential to maintain life, illumination
and power for hospital room, fire alarm systems, fire pumps, industrial processes
where current interruption would produce serious hazards, public address systems
and other similar functions.
b. All requirements of .this Section shall apply to emergency systems.
c. All equipment for use on emergency systems shall be properly approved.
d. Tests and Maintenance
1) The authority having jurisdiction shall conduct or witness a test on the complete
system upon completion of installation, and periodically afterwards.
2) Systems shall be tested periodically in accordance with a schedule acceptable to
the authority having jurisdiction to assure that they are maintained in proper
operating condition.
3) Where the battery systems or unit equipment are involved, including batteries us-
ed for starting or ignition in auxiliary engines, the authority having jurisdiction
shall require periodic maintainance.
4. A written record shall be kept of such tests and maintenance.
e. Emergency systems shall have adequate capacity and rating for the emergency
operation of all equipment connected to the system.
f. Current supply shall be such that in the event of failure of the normal supply to or
within the building to group of buildings concerned, emergency lighting to emergen-
cy power, will be immediately available. The supply system for emergency purposes
may be composed of one or more of the types of systems covered in Section 12.7
shall satisfy the applicable requirements of this Section.
Consideration must be given to the type of ser:vice to be rendered; whether for short
duration, as for exit lights of a theater, or for long duration, as for supplying
emergency power and lighting during long periods of current failure from trouble
either inside or outside the buildings as in the case of a hospital.
Assignment of degree of reliability of the recognized emergency supply system
depends upon the careful evaluation of the variables of each particular installation.
g. A storage battery of suitable rating and capacity shall supply, by means of a service
installed according to Section 200 of the PEC and maintained at non mofe than 90
per cent of system voltage, the total load of the circuits supplying emergency
lighting and emergency power for a period of at least 1/2 hour.
Batteries, whether of the acid or alkali type, shall be designed and constructed--to
meet the requirements of the emergency service. Lead-acid type batteries shall in-
clude low gravity acid (1.20 to 1.22 S P. GR.), relatively thick and rugged-plated and
separators, and a transparent jar.
h. A generator set driven by some form of prime mover, with sufficient capacity and
proper rating to supply circuits carrying emergency lighting or lighting and power,
equipped with suitable means for autormatically starting the prime mover on failure
of the normal service shall be provided. For hospitals, the transition-time from ins-
tant of failure of the normal power source to the E!mergency generator source shall
not exceed ten seconds. (See Section 12.4).
i. There shall be two service, each in accordance with Section 200 of the PEC, widely
separated electrically and physically to minimize the possibility of simultaneous in-
32
terruption of power supply arising from an occurence w ithin the building or group of
buildings served.
j. Connection on the line side of the main service shall be sufficiently separated from
said main service to prevent simultaneous interruption of supply through an oc-
curence within the building or group of buildings served.
k. The requirements of Section 12.3 and Section 12.6 also apply to installations where
the entire electrical load on a service or sub·service is arranged to be supplied from a
second source. Current supply from a standby power plant shall satisfy the require-
ment of availability in Section 12.6.
I. Audible and visual signal devices shall be provided, where practicable, for the
following purposes: ..
a) To give warning of dearrangement of the emergency or auxiliary source.
b) To indicate that the battery or generator set is carrying a load.
c) To indicate when a battery charger is properly functioning.
m. Only appliances and lamps specified as required for emergency use shall be supplied
by emergency lighting circuits.
n. Emergency illumination shall be provided for all required exit lights and all other
lights specified as necessary for sufficient illumination.
Emergency lighting systems should be so designed and installed that the failure of
any individual lighting element, such as the burning out of a light bulb, shall not
leave any area in total darkness.
o. Branch circuits intended to supply emergency lighting shall be so installed as to pro·
vide service immediately when the normal supply for lighting is interrupted. Such in-
stallations shall provide either one of the following:
1) An emergency lighting supply, independent of the general lighting system with
provisions for automatically transferring to the emergency lights by means of
devices approved for the purpose upon the event of failure of the general lighting
system supply.
2) Two or more separate and complete systems with independent power supply,
each system providing sufficient current for emergency lighting purposes and are
both lighted, means shall be provided for automatically energizing either system
upon failure of the other. Either or both systems may be part of the general
lighting systems of the protected occupancy if circuits supplying lights .for
emergency illumination are installed in accordance with other Sections of this
Rule .
p. For branch circuits which supply equipment classed as emergency, there shall be an
emergency supply source to which the load will be transferred automatically and im-
mediately upon the failure of the normal supply.
q. Emergency circuit wiring shall be kept entirely independent of all other wiring and
equipment and shall not enter the same-race-way, box or cabinet with other wiring
except:
a) In transfer switches, or
b) In exit or emergency lighting fixtures supplied from two (2) sources.
r. The switches installed in emergency lighting circuits. shall be so arranged that only
authorized persons have control of emergency lighting, except:
a) Where two or more single throw switches are connected jn parallel to control a
single circuit, at least one of those switches shall be accessible only to authorized
persons.
33
b) Additional switches which act only to put emergency lights into operation but
not to disconnect them may be permitted.
Switches connected in series and three-and-tour-way switches shall not be allowed.
s. All manual switches for controlling emergency circuits shall be located at the most
accessible place to authorized persons responsible for their actuation . In places of
assembly, such as theaters, a switch for controlling emergency lighting systems
shall be located in the lobby or at a place conveniently accessible therefrom.
In no case shall, a control switch for emergency lighting in a theater for motion pic-
ture projection be placed in the projection booth or on the stage. However, where
multiple switches are provided, one such switch may be installed in such locations
and so arranged that it can energize but not disconnect for the circuit."'
t. Lights on the exterior of the building which are .not required for illumination when
there is sufficient daylight may be controlled by an automatic light-actuated device
approved tor the purpose.
u. In hospital corridors, switching arrangements to transfer corridor lighting in patient
areas of hospitals from overhead fixtures to fixtur~s designed to provide night
lighting may be permitted, that switches can only select between two sets of fix-
tures but cannot extinguish both sets at the same time.
v. The branch circuits over current devices in emergency circuits shall be accessible to
authorized persons only.
w. Where permitted by the authority having jurisdiction, in lieu of other methods
specified elsewhere in this Section, individual unit equipment for emergency il·
luminations shall consist of:
1) Battery
2) Battery charging Jlfleans, when a storage battery is used.
3) One or more lamps, and
4) A relaying device arranged to energize the lamps automatically upon failure of
the normal supply to the building.
The batteries shall be of suitable rating and capacity to supply and maintain, at not
less than 90 per cent of rated lamp voltage, the total lamp load associated with the
unit for a period of at least 1/2 hour. Storage batteries, whether of the acid or alkali
type, shall be designed and constructed to meet the requirements of emergency ser-
vice. Lead-acid type storage batteries shall have transparent jars.
Unit equipment shall be permanently fixed in palce (i.e. not portable) and shall have
all wiring to each unit installed in accordance with the requirements of any of the
wiring methods discussed in Chapter 11 of the PEC. They shall not be connected by
flexible cord. The supply circuit between the unit equipment and the service, the
feeders or the branch circuit wiring shall be installed as required by Section 12.17.
Emergency illumination, fixtures which obtain power from a unit equipment which
are not part of the unit equipment shall be wired to the unit equipment as required
by Rule 5257 of the PEC and in accordance with the one of the wiring methods des-
cribed in Chapter 11 of the PEC .
13. EffECTIVELY
a. All primary and secondary supply lines already existing shall comply with the provi·
sions of this Rule Within two (2) years from the effectivity of this Rule.
b. Transformers to be installed on, ilttached to, or in buildings shall comply with the re-
quirements of this Rule. Transformer installations already existing shall comply with
the requirements within two (2) years from the effectivity of this Rule.
34
c. Non-compliance with the provisions of this Rule shall be subject to the penal provi-
sions in Section 213 of PO 1096.
35
EVAPORATION- That part of the AC/refrigeration system in which liquid refrigerant
is vaporized to produce 'refrigeration.
EXTERNAL INSPECTION - An inspection made on a boiler during operation.
GUARDED -Shielded, fencea, or otherwise protected by means of suitable enclosure
guards, covers or standard railings, so as to preclude the possibility of accidental con-
tact or. dangerous approach to persons or objects.
HOIST - An apparatus for raising or lowering a load by the application of a building
force, but does not include a car or platform . tt may be base-mounted, hook suspen-
sion, monorail, over-head, simple drum type or trolley suspension .
HOISTWAY- A shaftway for the travel of one or more elevators or dumbwaiters.
INTERNAL INSPECTION -An inspection made when a boiler is shut down , with
hand-holes, manholes, or other openings opened or removed to permit inspection of the
interior.
LIQUID RECEIVER - A vessel permanently connected to a system by inlet and outlet
pipes for storage of a liquid refrigerant.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER - A boiler mounted on a self-propelled track locomotive used
to furnish motivating power for travelling on rails.
LOW PRESSURE HEATING BOILER - A boiler operated at pressures not exceeding
1.05 kgs/sq./m. with steam or water temperature not exceeding 250°F.
MACHINE- The driven unit of an equipment.
MACHINE HOUSE - An enclosure for .housing the hoisting mechanism and power
plant.
MACHINE PARTS -Any or all moving parts of a machine.
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT. MACHINERY OR PROCESS - Includes steam
engines, internal combustion engine plants, hydraulic power plants, pumping plants,
refngerating plants, air conditioning plants, mill shops, factories, foundries, shipyards,
etc. containing any mechanical equipment, machinery or process, driven by steam, in-
ternal or external combustion fuel, electricity, gas, air, water, heat, chemicals or other
prime movers.
MOVING WALK - A type of horizontal passenger-carrying device on which
passengers stand or walk, with its surface remaining parallel to its direction of motion
and is uninterrupted.
POINT OF OPERATION - That part of a machine which performs an operation on the
stock or material and/ or that place or location where stock or material is f ed to the
machine. A machine may have more than one point of operation.
PORTABLE BOILER - An internally fired t}oiler which is self-contained, primarily in-
tended for temporary location.
POWER TRANSMISSION MACHINERY -A shaft, wheel, drum. pulley, system of
fast and loose pulleys, coupling, clutch, driving belt, V-belt sheaves and belts, chains
and sprockets, gearing, torque connectors, conveyors, hydraulic couplings, magnetic
couplings, speed reducers or increasers or any device by which the motion of an engine
is transmitted to or received by another machine.
PRIME MOVER -An engine or motor operated by steam, gas, air, electricity, liquid or
gaseous fuels, liquids in motion or other forms of energy whose main function is to drive
or operate, eit her directly or indirectly, other mechanical equipment.
PROCESS MACHINE - An equip.ment designed and operated for a specific purpose.
REFRIGERANT -A substance which produces a refrigerating effect by its absorption
of heat while expanding or evaporating.
36
TON OF REFR I GERATION -The useful refrigerating effect equal to 12,000
BTU/hour; 200 BTU/minute.
TRAVELLING CABLE -A cable made up of electric conductors which provides elec-
trical connection between an elevator or dumbwaiter car and a fixed outlet in the
hoistway.
UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSEL-A vessel in which o re~ ure is obtained from an exter-
nal source or from an indirect application of heat.
VENTILATION - Process of supplying or removing air by natural or mechanical means
to or from any space.
4. Hoists:
a. Operating control shall be plainly marked to indicate the direction of travel.
b. Each cage controlled hoist shall be equipped with an effective warning device.
c. Each hoist designed to lift its load vertically shall have its rated load legibly marked on
the hoist or load block or at some easily visible space.
d. A stop, which shall operate automatically, shall be provided at each switch, dead end
rail or turn-table to prevent the trolley running off when the switch is open.
e. Each electric hoist motor shall be provided with electrically or mechanically operated
brake so arranged that the brake will be applied automatically when the power is cut
off from the hoist.
5. Elevators:
a. Hoistways for elevators shall be substantially enclosed through their height, with no
openings allowed except for necessary doors, windows or skylights.
b. Ropes, wires or pipes shall not be installed in hoistways, except when necessary for the
operation of the elevators.
c. Hoistway pits shall be of such depth that when the car rests on the fully compressed
buffers, a clearance of not less than 600 millimeters remains between the underside
of the car and _the bottom of the pit.
37
d. When four or more elevators serve all or the same portion of a building, they shall be
located in not less than two (2) hoistways and in no case shall more than tour t41
elevators be located in any one hoistway.
e. Where a machine room or penthouse is provided at the top to a hoistway, it shall be
constructed with sufficient room for repair and inspection. Access shall be by means
of an iron ladder or stairs when the room is more than 600 millimeters above the ad-
cajent floor or roof surface. The angle of inclination of such ladder or stairs shall not
exceed 60° from the horizontal. This room shall not be used as living quarters or
depository of other materials and shall be provided with adequate ventilation.
f . Minimum number of hoisting ropes shall be three (3) for traction elevators and two
(2) for drum type elevators.
g. The minimum diameter of hoisting and counter-weight ropes shall be 30 millimeters.
h. Elevators shall be provided with over-load relay and reverse polarity relay.
i. In high-rise apartments or residential condominiums of more than five (5) stories. at
least one passenger elevator shall be kept on 24-hour constant service.
6. Escalators:
a. The angle of inclination of an escalator shall not exceed 35° from the horizontal.
b. The width between balustrades shall not be less than 558 millimeters nor more than
1.20 meters. This width shall not exceed the width of the steps by more than 330
millimeters.
c. Solid balustrades of incombustible material shall be provided on each side of the
moving steps. If made of glass, it shall be tempered type glass.
d. Each balustrade shall be provided with a handrail moving in the same direction and at
the same speed as the steps.
e. The rated speed, measured along the angle of inclination, shall be not more than 38
mpm.
f. Starting switches shall be key ope~atd and located within sight of escalator steps.
g. Emergency buttons shall be conspicuously and accessibly located at or near the top
and bottom landings but p·rotected from accidental contact.
38
name of the manufacturer, serial number. maximum allowable worl<ing pressure,
heating surface in sq. m. and year of manufacture.
d. Boilers of more than 46. sq . m. heating surface shall each be provided with two
means of feeding water, one electrically driven, one pump and one injector.
e. Two check valves shall be provided between any feed pump and the boiler. in addi-
tion to the regular shut-off valve.
f. Where two or more boilers are connected in parallel, each steam outlet shall be pro-
vided with a non-return valve and shut-off valve.
g. Boiler rooms shall have at least two separated exits.
h. In no case shall the maximum pressure of an old/existing boiler be increased to a
greater pressure than would be allowed for a new boiler of same construction.
i. Each boiler shall have at least one safety valve. For boilers having more than 46 sq.
meters pressure of water heating surface or a generating capacity exceeding 907 kg.
per hour, two (2) or more safety valves shall be required.
j. Each boiler shalt have a steam gauge, with a dial range of not less than 1-1/2 times
and not more than twice the maximum allowable working pressure. It may be con-
nected to the steam space or to the steam connection to the eater column.
k. Whenever repairs/replacement are made on fittings or appliances, the work shall
comply with the section on New Installation of the Philippine Mechanical Engineer-
ing Code .
I. After a permit has been granted to install a boiler/pressure vessel/pressurized water
heater upon payment of the installation fees thereof, it .shall be the duty of the Build-
ing Official to make periodic inspection of the installation to determine compliance
with the approved plans and specifications.
m. Upon completion of the installation, the Building Official shall conduct an inspection
and test, after which a certificate of operation for a period not exceeding one year
shall be issued upon payment of the required inspection fees.
n. The Building Official shall notify the owner in writing of the intended date of the an-
nual inspection at least 15 days in advance. However, the owner may request a post-
ponement in writing of said inspection and the Building Official shall fix a date for in-
spection agreeable to both, but not to exceed 30 days from the intended date.
o. The owner or user of a boiler shall prepare the same for inspection by cooling it
down, blanking off all connections to adjacent boilers, removing all soot and ashes
from tubes, head shell, furnace and combusti9n chamber. The owner shall assist the
Building Official by providing all labor and equipment required during said inspec-
tion .
39
sealed with fir_e resistant material equivalent to that of the wall, floor or partition, to
prevent the passage of flame or smoke.
f. When ducts or the outlets or inlets to them pass through f ire walls, they shall be pro-
vided with automatic fire dampers on both sides of the fire wall through which they
pass.
·g. Fire doors and fire dampers shall be arranged to close aut,omatically and remain
tightly closed, upon the operation of the fusible link or other approved heat actuated
device, located where readily affected by an abnormal rise of temperature in the
duct.
h. Each refrigerating system shall be provided with a legible metal sign permanently at-
tached and easily accessible, indicating thereon the name of manuf~re or in-
staller, kind and total number of kgs. of refrigerant contained in the system and field
test pressure applied.
i. In refrigerating plants of more than 45 kg. refrigerant, masks and helmets shall be
used. These shall be kept in a suitable cabinet outside the machine room when not
in use:
j. Not more than 136 kgs. of refrigerant in approved containers shall be stored in a
machine room at any given time.
k. Where ammonia is used, the discharged may be into a tank of water, which shall be
used for no other purpose except ammonia absorption . At least one gallon of water
shall be provided for every 0.4536 kg. of ammonia in the system .
I. Refrigerant piping crossing a passageway in any building shall not be less than 2.3
meters above the floor.
m. In a refrigerating system containing more than 9 kgs., stop valves shalt be installed in
inlets and outlets of compressors, outlets of liquid receivers, and in liquid and suc-
tion branch header.
n. Window type ACs shall be provided with drain pipe or plastic tubing for discharging
condensate water into a suitable container.
o. Window type AC installed on ground floors of buildings shall not be less than 2.13
meters from the ground.
p . Window type ACs shall be provided with exhaust ducts if the exhaust is discharged
into corridors/ hallways / arcades/ sidewalks etc.
q. Window type ACs installed along corridors/hallways/above the first floor shall not
be less than 2. 13 meters above the floor level.
40
- Tanks shall be designed for twice the maximum total dynamic pressure re-
quired.
- An air volume control device shall be installed to maintain correct air volume
inside the tank.
10. Pipings :
a. Piping shall, as much as possible, run parallel to building walls.
b. Grouped piping shall be supported on racks, on either horizontal or vertical planes.
c. Piping on racks shall have sufficient space for pipe or chain wrenches so that any
single line can be altered/repaired/replaced without disturbing the rest.
d. Piping 100 millimeters in diameter and above shall be flanged~ Smaller sized pipes
may be screwed .
e. Piping subjected to varying temperature shall be provided with expansion joints.
f. Galvanized piping shall not be used for steam.
g. Piping carrying steam, hot water or hot liquids shall not be embedded in concrete
walls or floors and shall be properly insulated to prevent accidental scalding to per-
sons and to minimize heat loss.
h. Color coding of piping shall be as follows:
1) Steam Division - High Pressure- White
- Exhaust system- Buff
2) Water Division - Fresh water, low pressure-Blue
- Fresh water, high pressure-Blue
- Salt water piping-Green
3) Oil Division - Delivery-Brass or 'Bronze
- Discharge- Yellow
4) Pneumatic Division - All ping-~ray
5) Gas Division - All piping- Black
6) Fuel Oil Division - All piping-Black
7) Refrigerating Division - Pipes-Black
- Fittings- Black
NOTE: All cases not specifically covered by t his Rule shall be in accor-
dance w ith the Philippine Mechanical Engineering Code.
4. ENERGY CONSIDERATION
Energy costs are a major factor in ecof)omic analysis. However, energy considerations
are at least as important, in and of themselves. In addition to purely electrical charac-
teristics, electrical equipment possesses also economic and energy ' 'ratings'' .
41
a) Voltage-the voltage rating of an item of electrical equipment is the maximum
voltage that can safely be applied to the unit continuously. It frequently, but not
always, corresponds to the voltage applied in normal use. Thus, an ordinary wall
electrical receptacle is rated at 250 v maximum, though in normal use only 1 20v is
applied to it. The rating is determined by the type and quantity of insulation used
and the physical spacing between electrically energized parts.
b) Current-the current rating of an item of electrical equipment is determined by max~
imum operating temperature at which its components can operate properly con-
tinuously . That in turn depends on the type of insulation used.
A motor is rated in horsepower (or kw), transformer is rated in kva and a cable, is
rated in amperes. The criterion on which all these it base is maximum permissible
operating temperature.
4.2
c) Insulated Conductors in Closed Raceways
This system is the most general type and is applicable to all types of wiring in all
types of facilities. It can further be subdivided into two major subcategories.
7. CONDUCTORS
Electrical conductors (wiring) are t he means by which the current is conducted through
the electrical system, corresponding to the piping in the hydraulic analogy. By conven-
tion, a single insulated conductor No. 6 AWG (American Wire Gauge) or larger, or
several conductors of any size assembled into a single unit, are referred to as a cabte.
Single conductors No.8 AWG and smaller are called wire.
The standard of the American wire and cable industry for round cross-section conduc-
tors is the American wire gauge (AWG). All wire sizes up to No. 0000 (Also written
4/0) are expressed in AWG. The AWG numbers run in reverae order to the size of the
wire, that is, the smaller the AWG number, the larger the size . Thus, No. 10 is a heavier
wire than No. 12 and lighter (thinner) than No. 8 the 4/ 0 size is the largest AWG desig-
nation, beyond which a different de!lignation called MCM (thousa nd circular mil) is us-
ed. In this designation, wire diameter Increases w ith number; thus 500 MCM is a
heavier wire (double the area) than 260 MCM.
A circular MU is an artificial area measurement, representing the square of the cable dia-
meter (diam2) when the diameter is expressed in mils (thousandths of an inch). Thus a
solid conductor Y2 inch in diameter is 500 mils in diameter, or 250,000
circular mils in area (500)2 or
250 MCM
CM diam2 ( 500)2 250,000 = 250 MCM
MCM = 1000 = 1000 = 1000 ~ 1000
In Metric System, conductor sizes are given simply as the diameter in millimeters (mm).
43
METRIC ENGLISH
SIZE d-e Resistance
CROSS Diameter Diameter Ohms/1000 It
SECTIONAL Size Area jlnches) { Milimeters) at TF F. 25° C
AREA mm 2 (AWGO~MC) (Circular Mils) Solid Stranded Solid Stranded (Bare Copper)
8. CONDUCTOR AMPACITY
Conductor current carrying capacity or ampacity is explained above by the maximum
operating temperature that it s insulation can · stand continuously. Heat is generated as
a result of the current flowing and the conductor resistance (12R). This head is dis-
sipated into the environment. The operating temperature therefore depends on the
amount of current, the wire resistance, and the environment. Thus for a given environ-
ment (open-air or enclosed), ampacity increases with increasing conductor size. If more
than three conductors are placed in a conduit, the increase in temperature requires that
the conductors be derated in the amount as shown in this Table.
CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
DERATING FACTORS
4 to 6 0.80
7 to 24 0.70
25 to 42 0.60
43 and above 0.50
When conductors are placed in an enclosed raceway. The heat generated is not as easi-
ly dissipated as it would be if the conductor were in free air and the temperature rise is
greater. Thus, t he current rating in free air is much higher that for the same were in con-
duit.
44
W\~ ~NCLOse."
C.URE~T RA11N6 l.ES$,
TEMPERATURE RISE
IS6REATER.
heat, water and so on, although outer jackets usually accomplish this function. Using our
hydrauiic analogy, conductors are analogous to pipes; when pressure is high, pipes are
heavier; when voltage is high ; insulation must be thicker.
Insulation is rated by voltage for example, 300 ,600, 1 ,000, 3 ,000 . 5 ,000, and
15,000v. If insulation is used above its rating. it may break down causing short circuits
and arcing with the possibility of fire. Ordinary building wiring is usually rated for 300v
or 600v. The common types of building insulation are listed below:
INSULATORS -used as supports and for additional protection for wires.
General Wiring
Maximum
Trade Type Operating Application
Name Letter Temperature Provisions
Moisture- and
75" c Dry and wet
heat-resistance RHW
16JO F locations
rubber
60° c
Thermoplastic T Dry locations
140" F
Moisture-resistant 60° c Dry and wet
thermoplastic
TW 140" F locations
Heat-resistant 90" c
THHN Dry locations
thermoplastic 194° F
Moi.sture- and
75 ° c Dry and wet
heat-resistant THW
167° F locations
thermoplastic
Moisture- and
75° c Dry and wet
heat-resistant THWN
167" F locations
thermoplastic
Moisture- and 90° C
Dry locations
heat-resistant 194° F
cross-linked XHHW
thermosetting 75° c Wet locations
polyethylene 167° F
90° c
Silicone-asbestos SA 194°.F Dry locations
Asbestos and
110" c
Varnished AVA Dry locations only
230° F
cambric
45
)j:>.
en
10
8
-
0.311
-
0.0760
0.199•
0.226
0.0311 •
0.0408
-
0.201
-
0.0317
0.285 0 .064 0.166 0.0216
•No. 14 to No. B, solfd; No. 6 and larger, stranded. Refer to Table 15.1 for equivalent sizes In millimeters.
Various materials are utilized for outer coverings as wire and cable. Lead provides
moisture protection . Neoprene gives moisture, corrosion and abrasion protection.
Metal wire or Tape coverings of bronze or steel protect against rodent attack or
physical damage. ·
GOLOFf cooeo
RUBeEROR
THemAOPVGnt.
I~LATON
TYPE AC FLEXJBLE
ARMORED CABLE (BX)
47
12. NON-METALLIC SHEATHED CABLE (ROMEX)
In application, the NEC types NM and NMC, also known by the trade Name " Romex"
are similar to type AC (BX). However, not having the physical protection of metallic ar-
mor, use is restricted to small buildings, that is, residential and other structures not ex-
ceeding. three floors above grade. This cable type comprises an assembly of two or
more plastic-insulated conductors and a ground wire, all coyered with a flame-
retardant, moisture-resistant plastic jacket. In the case of type NMC, the jacket is also
corrosion resistant. The plastic jacket, in Ueu of the armor on type AC, makes type NM
easier to handle but more vulnerable to physical damage.
Q
SOLID~
UNJAC.KETEO BUILDING WIRE .5oltd- ~o 9, N~ 10, Nq 1(. (SMit\.LE~
StranMd- No~,c:>-1 1 N0-2, Mo.-()0
TYPES T and TW (and lar~s)
48
14. SPECIAL CABLE TYPES
Ml CABLE TERMINATION
To maintain the integrity of the Ml cable. Terminations are made with compression
rings, glands, and sealing compound. Sleeves are installed on the exposed bare con·
ductors to provide insulation between the wires and metal box.
bl Jacketed Cables
These cables comprise an assembly of two or more individually insulated conduc-
tors, cabled together and covered with a plastic or metal jacket. Metal clad cables,
due to inherent rigidity, may be installed with cable clamps. Plastic jacketed cables
require continuous support. The nature of the jacket material is determined by the
cables application. Cables intended for underground use must be designated type
UF
49
.- -~lNDIVL.Y COlOR COoED ECO'(
FILLER MATERIAL.
BINDING TAPE
Type UF - Plastic
Type TC - Plastic
Type AlS -Aluminum
Type CS - Copper
"o~t ...I"U.:::l'-.:= DESI6NA110f.JS
OUTER JAC.KET MATERIAL
The outer jacket material determined the type of support necessary metal jacketed
cables may be clamped at appropriate intervals; plastic jacketed cable must be con-
tinuously supported by tray, a messenger cable or the earth.
r----l CONDUCTOR
SHIELDJN6 TAF'fS- HIGH VOLTAGE, 3 CONDUCTOR
<:~-UN !(ED PoLYETHYlENE
INTERLOCKED STEEL-ARMORED CABLE
1N$UlATION
COI...a? -COOED TAPE
.'BINDER TAPE (This type of construction carried its own
race way and finds application indoors, in in-
dustrial and large commercial facilities.
15. BUSWAY
When it is necessary to carry large amounts of current (power) the usual alternatives
are to use several conductors in parallel or a single large conductor. The former solution
becomes expensive· with the increasing size and number of parallel cables, particularly
where tap offs are necessary. However the single large cable becomes increasingly in·
efficient in wire sizes above 750 MCM, bec~us large cables require more cross sec-
tion per ampere than small ones. This is not the case with flat conductors -(called
BUSBARS), leading to their use for high-current-carrying application.
Busbars are described by dimensions; thus a bar may be .!' in. x 4 in., (0.64 x 10) em),
5/16 in. x 6 in. {.8 x 15 em) and so on. As a rule of thumb, the current-carrying capaci-
ty of copper bus is 1000 amperes/sq . in. of cross Section~ 1 50 amperes/sq. em). Thus
a .!' in. x 2 in. copper bar is ~ sq . in. in area and will safely carry 500 amperes. Bus is
normally constructed of solid copper and, when assembled with other bars in a metal
housing, it is referred to as busduct or busway.
The bars in a busduct, whether bare or insulated, are rigidly assembled by bolting them
to insulating supports that are then connected to a stiff metal housing. A wide variety
of fittings and joints are available to enable buswork to be installed with angles, bends,
tap-offs, and curves.
so
INSULATIN6 AND
PRoTEc.nve W1fN'S
CONDUC.TOR
l
c:'~ANIEL
SUPPORT HUN6
PROM CEU.IN6
}
/
.... __,.-/'
T IN'TeR.S~O A TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF
COMPAC.T DESIGN BUSDUCT
BUSDUCT is specified by material, number of buses, (normally three or four, plus
ground bus is required). current capacity, type, and voltage. In addition, maximum
voltage drop is often specified . Thus, a typical brief description of a busduct would be:
copper busduct .... 4-wire, 1 000 amp, low-impedance type, 600r; or aluminum
busduct, 3 wire, 2000 amp. plug-in type, 600v-both with a maximum fall-load.
Voltage drop of 2.5, per 100ft. at 90, power factor.
'Plug-In' refers to a design that allows devices such as switches, circuit breakers, and
so on, to be directly plugged into the busduct, similar to a common plug insertion into a
receptacle low impedance refers to a design that is specifically intended to give
minimum voltage drop.
51
plugs are spaced every 12. in. (0 .30) on
alternate sides to facilitate connection of
plug-in breakers, switches, transformers,
or cable taps - Bars are insulated over
their entire length.
COMPARISON
16. CABLEBUS
This construction is similar to ventilated busduct, except that it uses insulated cables
instead of busbars these cables are rigidly mounted in an open space-f rame. The advan-
tage of this construction is that it carries the ampacity rating of its cables in free air,
which is much higher than the conduit rating, thus giving a high amperes- per
pesos/dollar first cost figure. Its principal disadvantage is bulkiness . The figure shows a
construction with 6 cables. Units are available w ith 3 to 18 cables sizes 250 through
1500 MCM. Corresponding · electrical ratings are from approximately 400 to 6000
amp in voltage with ·ratings of 600, 5000, and 15,000v.
52
When considering first cost alone, the advantage lies in cable by adding the energy- less
consideration shifts, the advantage to cable tray and interlocked armor cables. A dif·
ferent system is used to advantage by considering the change in feeder ler,gth, the
number of taps, hours of operation, energy rates, etc.
THE~
:NSULATED tA131,.gS
L-OWER SUPmP.'r
SLOCI< l"'~Tot:y
AAVt:; A FIU!E- AIR
.AM~ITY 1'2'AnN6,
JN,T,A.I..U:D YIELPIN6 A HI~
AMPE'i:E- PIOR PcUAI't
OR. Pfi!'.SO FM.TOR. AR
THIS' ASS'E:MCJI.Y.
53
PLASTIC BOOYWITH
PHA~E ANO HElJT~
PINS AT TOP
T/GI4TENIN6
f'leSSUrtS P't.ATB
M---f HOLt>lNG- So\DOLE
f-----{ NlpPl..E
I COUBLE La:I<NUTS.
ounET eQ<
SUSPENDED FlXTURE
TAP(~
Til..OCJ<N UT
b) lighting Track
This is a factory- assembled channel with conductors for one to four circuits per-
manently installed in the track. Power is taken from the track by special tap-off de-
vices that contact the tract's electrified conductors and carry the power to the
attached lighting fixture the tracks are generally rated 20 amperes, and unlike Flat
Cable (Fe) assemblies. they are restricted to 120v.
LIGHTING TRACK,
The electrified conduc-
tors are permanently
installed in the alumi-
~'(Y)N1. I~LATJON num track , which is
grounded for safety .
Tracks and insert
plugs are available in
single circuit design
(a) and multiple circuit
design.
55
18. CABLE TRAY ..... OPEN RACEWAY
CABLE mAY
SUPR>Rl'EO FH\?M
11-U:;: CEILING 6Y
'-IA~ER$
GABLES WITH
\...--- - - 1 INTl'!eRAL. ME£HANICAL
PROTEcTION
•
A) Steel Conduit
T he purpose of conduit is to:
al Protect t he enclosed w iring f rom mechanical inj ~ry and corrosion.
b) Provide a grounded metal enclosure for the wiring in order to avoid shock
hazard.
c) Provide a system ground path.
d) Protect surroundings against firehazard as a result of overheating or arcing of
the enclosed conductors.
el Support the conductors
This rigid metallic conduit or raceway must be corrosion resistant. There are four
(4) ways in which steel conduit is manufactured.
a} Hot-d.p. galvanized (dipped into molten zinc}.
b) Enameled (coated with a corrosion - resistant enamel).
c) Sherardized (coated with zinc dust).
d) Plastic covered.
There are three (3) types of steel conduit that differs basically only in wall thick-
ness.
i.
a) Heavy-walt steel conduit or simply called " Rigid Steel Conduit".
a
b) Intermediate Metal Conduit, usually referred to as IMC.
r:=~AM·-
c) Electric Metallic tubing, normally known as EMT or thin-wall conduit.
---
- -~ .. - -
·--------
J. - - - = ---------
- = - - - - - .)
Rigid Steel conduit and intermediate metal conduit use the same fittings and are
threaded alike.
As a result of its thin walls, EMT is not threaded instead it uses set screw and pres-
sure f itting not recommended for imbedding in concrete and not permitted in
hazaradous areas.
IMC yield a larger ID or inside diameter for easier wire pulling and is lower in weight
than the rigid steel conduit.
57
The nominal trade sizes of conduits are
00000000000
Vz", 3/4", 1", , Vz", 2", 2Vz, 3" , 3Vz", 4", 5", and 6"
~-6
When steel conduit is installed in direct contact with the earth! it is advisable to use
hot-dip galvanized type and to coat the joints with asphaltum.
The selection of conduit size depends on the number and diameter of the wires that
may be drawn into the conduit without injuring the wire. The number and radius of
bends in the conduit, as well as its total length, affect the degree of abrasion to the
wiring insulation.
Long, straight pulls may be through as much as 200 feet (up to 64 meters) of con-
tinuous conduit without bends. The NEC states that no wire shall be spliced, con-
nected, or tapped then drawn into the conduit so that the connection is within the
conduit itself. All such connections shall be made within connection boxes.
.
.
. ......
. . ..
~
ra~: :.~;
:~-· ....
•. .. . •<.
WIRE - - ~ CONPUt,. ~
J -~ ·.-:;~
. --
L~ ...
---
METAl. BOX - ·
. J--- - - -
-< __ ~-
59
For structural reasons, conduit in concrete slabs are run close to the bottom surface
(in the portion of the slab in Tension) or near the Central portion. In many instances,
the structural slab is covered with a concrete topping, in which conduit may be in-
stalled without affecting slab integrity, In any event the top of any conduit shall be
at least 3/ 4 inch below the finished floor surface in order to prevent cracking.
In general, the following rules should be observed and included in all spedfit:ations
for conduit work in concrete slabs.
1) Conduits shall have an outside diameter (00) no greater t han 1/3 of the slab
thickness as measured at its thinnest point.
2) Conduits running parallel to each other shalt be spaced not less than three times
the OD of the largest conduit center-to-center .
31 Conduits running parallel to beam axis shall not run above beams.
4) Conduit crossing shall be as near to a right angle as possible.
5) Minimum cover over conduits shall be 3/4".
B) Aluminum Conduit
The use of aluminum conduit has increased greatly in recent years because of the
weight advantage that aluminum has over steel, being even lighter than EMT . The
savings in laborcost more than offsets the additional cost of the material it self . In
addition, aluminum has better corrosion resistance in most atmospheres. It is non-
magnetic, giving lower voltage drop; it is nonsparking; and generally, it does notre-
quire painting.
Its major drawback is its deleterious effect on many types of concrete, causing
spalling and cracking when embedded. It is also inadvisable to bury aluminum in
earth because of the rapid corrosion often encountered.
60
Dl Liquid- tight Flexible Metal Conduit
This conduit is of the same construction as flexible conduit, except that it is
covered with a ·liquid- tight jacket. It is not intended as a general purpose conduit,
its use being restricted to connections where flexibility and imperviousness to li-
quid is required. The trade name "sealtite" is most often applied to this product.
E) Non-Metallic Conduit
A separate classification of rigid conduit covers raceways that are formed from
such! materials as fiber, asbestos-cement, soapstone, rigid poly-vinyl chloride (pvc).
and high density polyethylene. These materials when utilized as an electric raceway
must be so labeled and must be resistant to moisture and chemical corrosion .
....
For use above ground. this conduit must be flame retardant, tough and resistant to
heat distortion, sunlight, and low temperature effects. For use undergound the last
two requirements are waived. Due to physical limitations, pvc conduit is the
material of choice for indoor exposed used and asbestos cement, fiber and pvc
plastic for outdoor and underground use.
61
Wireways and troughs are sheet metal enclosures with hinged or removable
covers, which may be utilized to carry up to 30 conductors. rated 600v maximum
in dry, non-hazardous, noncorrosive locations and where not subject to physical
abuse. Splices and taps are permitted in such raceways, making them particularly
useful for feeding groups of starters, switches and other equipment that may be
nippied into the trough and its wiring spliced at that point. Another advantage of
this type of raceway is that the hinged or removable cover exposes all the conduc-
tors to full view and access for replacement, inspection, addit ion of other wiring,
and so on.
Available in 2 W' x 2 .W' 4" x 4"
4" x 6" and 6" x 8 "
and in 1·, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 ft. lengths .
., ~,. ·
.··"' /'_____ ... ·
~ - - - -· - · - · - - · - -~ ·No.aooo _ i)4''
........._ ·- -· - ~
62
20. FLOOR RACEWAYS
A) Underfloor Ducts . . . . UF
These raceways which may be installed beneath or flush with the floor, are covered
find their widest application iri office spaces, since their use p€rmits placement of
power and signal outlets immediately under desks and other furniture, regardless of
furniture layout. Where such underfloor raceways are not employed, and it is
desired to place an outlet on the floor, one of the following methods is necessary.
a. Channel the floor and install a conduit in the chase, connecting it to the nearest
wall outlet. Patch the chased portion.
~TGH
'-,_~ ~Nl>UIT
b. Drill through the floor and run a conduit on the ceiling below to an outlet below.
c. Drill through the floor twice and connect the new outlet to an existing outlet via
a conduit on the ceiling below, (This is expensive and disturbs the occupant
below)
CSIL\NG3'
63
puq
~NI:UT
\
I 'ILA1Efl.AL
TAl<J!!OFF
~ • Ft..COIZ ELff.l\N
In a single-level system all the system components are on the same level-the
feeder ducts from the panels, the distrb~on ducts with inserts for floor outlets
and, most important. The junction boxes. As the number of parallel distribution
ducts grows with the size of the open floor area and the density of the furniture
layout, the need for more feeder ducts and consequently larger and more complex
junction boxes also grows.
A modern office floor layout almost invariably requires a triple duct system (Power,
Telephone, and signal). Since power and Telephone wiring most be separated by
metal barriers, the junction boxes becomes complex and consequently large and
deep. The depth of these boxes obviously controls the amount of concrete fill re-
quired. A simple single-level system requires a minimum concrete fill of 2 .1-S in.,
while a complex one can easily require an inch more. With such a concrete fill re-
quirements, a two-level system with its flexibility becomes desirable.
64
SJN6LE LON T E N ~ l(J N !
1 O UTLET h' r:I 001.J8LE. 14\"~
TEN$lON c:)U'llJ:f
I /
WAL.L ·.__..
ELE!CtYV ;
The two-level system has its Feeder and distribution ducts on different levels thus
eliminating the necessity for complex junction boxes. This gives the system un-
limited feeder capacity and thereby obviates the necessity for supplementals con-
duit feeds, as in the single-level system. The drawback of this sytem is the conduit
fill required. A minimum of 3 5/ 8 in . is required through additional slab thickness
throughout can be avoided by depressing part of the slab to accomodate the feeder
ducts.
65
OISTZJ6U t O~ DUCTS ~SET INSERTS TO BE
2EMDVED LATeR ON
• f
~·
. 4
JOISTS r
ceNTER TOA~D 1lfE
STEEL OF ~ N~R t.£A."'-'M
Underfloor duct systems are expensive. They ~an add 50% to the buildings electric
system cost, w ithout consideration of the construction costs involved. To justify
their use, the buildign should meet these criteria.
a. Open floor areas, with a requirement for outlets at locations removed from walls
and partitions-:·
b. Outlets from ceiling systems unacceptable.
c. Frequent rearrangement of furniture and other items requiring electrical and
signal service.
Example of facilities that may meet these criteria are prestige office buildings,
museums and galleries, high-cost merchandising areas, and selected areas In in·
dustrial facilities.
66
duct system described in A) is best applied to known furniture. Layouts and the rec-
tilinear arrangements).
Aile,.~
.-J--·.
~tas
IN f!LEC'f'Rli-I!.P
a: u.s ~r2f.
IS JIVI(.S). ~r; F'GU.QV
A PRE£lt!Tl:JtMIN&f> MI:O-
ll.E . SOME ARe. AG11\Im!P
JNI1WJ.Y, Cmt:'l?$ Ql NBE
,I,S ~·i> WNI:lJ
t>ITU£ ~YOUT ~ N«'".
POWER. Wl~
SlpNAL. WUtiNG ~-
f'l..OOFf CEU$ ·sert~AS ~A'fl.Y
~t:ERS, ~')Il* PWJEt~ l'E.ce~
Art!) -'"NAt. .UN~ 'Jt) nf r: f'Ra:eT t~T .....__./
67
DETAIL t>
• SEE PET.-\tL C
PRESET I~T;
SEE ~T .....Il-,S
(~
DeTAIL C.
68
GelLING ADOPTER
IXTlJRES
. ..
: .•
C.Ell.ING
. . . .. .. .
~TtE
.. ~ .......: ~ .
--=r '~
LCNI>\Jt l>~
~X.a\PS
/ \ ··,.," SCREW ~
~ f"lX'Tl.J!ZS. BAit
Of?II..L z)i HOLE lN THE. FlEL.O. --
•;. FIRST, I~T ~TICJ'W- j, •;;.
TOP Pl.ATB~
...... .. ,....... ,
~-
...... . ; -·..
~1'-E ~lPLS. FOR t'ONDUIT
~n- •.:
toNNEtT/DN ~
•' . ) • 4
/ ~ ;;.;.: ?H~
~
APAf'feR
..... $ our
' s:ECc:N D :>ceEW
BoTTOM PL4n=.
I~TO Tt>f'
69
21. CEILING RACEWAY SYSTEMS
The need for electrical flexibility in facilities with limited budgets coupled with the high
cost of underfloor electrical raceway systems encouraged the development of equi-
valent over-the-ceiling systems. These systems are actually more flexible than their
underfloor counterparts, since they energize lighting as well as provide power and tele-
phone facilities; Furthermore they permit very rapid changes in layouts at low cost.
This last characteristics is particularly desirable in stores where frequent display
changes necessitate corresponding electrical facility changes.
It is now allowed by NEC, wireways to be run inside hung ceilings, fixtured t~ be fed by
lengths of unsupported raceways (Floor-to-ceiling system}, splices inside wireways,
and plug-in type connections in accessible ceiling spaces. (Hung ceilings with lift-out
tiles are classified in this respect as accessible spaces). An additional advantage is that
it itself can be altered at will since it is not cast in concrete. Thus, not only layout
changes in the utilization of existing spaces can readily be accommodated.
r
G-~ H~
/VI::SWA'f TEUimoNiii.
1'ltLe ~ m.a
70
G- 4fOO 1.1\lt=l?AL
~AY TgLEPI'!ONE
Header dum (wireways) connect to electrical panels and telephone cabinets in the
powe~ and telephone closets, respectively . Telephone headers are normally of larger
size than the power header and .can carry other low-voltage signal equipment as well
Distribution ducta (laterals) tap onto the headers. These laterals may act as subdistribu-
tion wireways (foreground) or may feed fixtures and poles directly. Power feeds f rom
these laterals are made by means of plugs and receptacles, thus eliminating the cost in-
volved in the "hard" wiring of fixtures; this allows the desired flexibility.
Poles carrying telephone and. i 20v power <.fawn to the desk level can be fed from
laterals above, below, in, or on the ceiling as desired. (Good for big office spaces,
libfaries).
0054 /
SERlE$ r/ 126 FO<.U:;::
~
[1]}
fr- f ~.(-7f
SECTION A
., ~fOUNDEP
KA IZSY f?Ea:?TA·
eLf! o~n.s r t-+~
71
cEILING
G·40X>
FEEDER
~WAY
TEl.f'HON~ -+-- -.
z l.i- S"
Tf!.IJ!. R:>'NEfl 1-r--··---- -.3)11
POL..S
T. ~.> 1--- - - - -
SUSPENPP.D
c.elLING l - ---=-::no
rtAN~f?. f--- - - -- r _ _...,......
PIVIDEI<.
~.t:ER ~'(1- '- 'li.no~
In an effort to·reduce the on-site labor cost of systems such as those described earlier,
a number of manufacturers have produced pre-wired plug-in t ype equipment that re·
duces the field assembly time drastically. The reasoning behind this is that factory labor
cost is considerably lower than field labor cost, and therefore a considerable
savings can be effected. An ancillary benefit is that a plug-in type system is simply and
rapidly altered if required.
Th is f igure shows schematically how such as system yould be employed t o feed a
group of necessed f lourescent troffers in a typical hung ceiling installation.
See illustrations on next page.
In this category are included pull boxes. Splice boxes are placed in raceway runs at
points where splices or taps must be made; the NEC prohibits having splices inside con-
duits. (Splices are permitted in wireways and troughs with removable covers). Pull
boxes are placed in conduit runs where it is necessary to interrupt the raceway for a
wire pulling point. This depends on the pulling friction in the system. The size of the pull
boxes depends on the number and' size of incoming conduits, the direction in which
conduits leave, and whether or not splices will be made in the box.
72
When a box is equipped with a hinged door and contains some equipmef!t other than
wiring, such as terminal board, it is referred to as a cabinet. All boxes must be equipped
with tightly fitting, removable covers.
CI ~ILONn
IN BJV<NcH ~Bl: Sj;T
SttE£:T M=r-,A.L
. PIJLL BoX
,. 'JNTERIO.~· CF
' 6l1X CONNEC'Tt>R 'Wi-+I C.
~'16 ne
INn>
S.)fft=.l21orz. .ss-cneti
73
...
ELECTRICAL
chapter SYSTEMS and
MATERIALS
SERVICE and
UTILIZATION
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
AND MATERIALS
SERVICE AND UTILIZATION
1 . ELECTRIC SERVICE
Service is normally tapped onto the utility lines at a mutually agreeable point at or
beyo nd the property line. The service tap may be a connection on a pole with an
overhead service drop to the building, an underground service lateral to the b_!lilding, or
a connection to an underground utility line with a service lateral to the building.
Service from the utility line to the building may be run overhead (OH) or underground
(uG). depending on the following condit ions:
a, Length of service run
b. Type of terrain
c. Budget limitations
d. Utility company voltage
e. Site and nature of electric load
f. Importance of appearance
g. Local practices and ordinances
h. Maintenance and service continuity
i. Weather conditions
2. OVERHEAD SERVICE
Depending on terrain and other factors, the cost of overhead as compared to
underground installation is in the range of 10% to 50%.
Overhead cables are of several types: bare, weatherproof or preassembled aerial cable.
Bare copper cable supported on porcelain or glass insulators on crossarms is normally
used for high voltage !2.4 kv and higher) lines. Secondary oircuits at 600v and below
are generally run on porcelain spool secondary racks with 1/c weatherproof cable as
the conductor. Preassembled aerial cable consists of three or four insulated cables
wrapped together with a metallic tape and suspended by hooks from the poles . This
type of construction may be used up to 1 5 kv. (more economical).
76
SOUJE~L
...,------·····-·-··--····--·---
E;"-H"R.a..NCE CAB~E OR( WEATHERHEAD
-=oR ,.:0!-JOUiT)
t.n I
\'I
;:_..,ROUND
LLAM?
r--.. . . . . . . . . .~
tJ ~M:N '
3. UNDERGROUND SERVICE
advantages- attractiveness (lack of overhead visual clutter)
-service reliability and long life
disadvanta9es- high cost
-To eliminate high cost, utilities frequently use direct burial techniques
which, by eliminating the raceway, reduce costs considerably, since
direct buried cable cannot be pu11ed out if it faults, as would be the
case with a raceway installed cable.
4. UNDERGROUND WIRING
Methods available
a) Direct Burial
~f-C6N12BTS"
@'/:~ ~ v av .hl SLAB
~
rlll
c ~ PLANic.
CT2S?SOTE
78
When underground electric wiring is duct installed and the run extends over several
hundred feet.
A pulling handhole or manhole is necessary. This is often used for high voltage cable.
Cable usually used is theSE Type U, or Use.
5. SERVICE EQUIPMENT
"Transformer" between the high voltage incoming utility lines and the secondary ser-
vice conductors is required whenever the building voltage is different from the utility
voltage. It may be pole or pad-mounted outside the building, or installed in a room or
vault inside the building.
6. TRANSFORMERS
Are devices that changes or transforms alternating current of one voltage to alternating
current of another voltage. Transformers cannot be used on d-e Transformers may be
pole or pad mounted outside the building, or installed in a room or vault inside or out-
side the building.
Step up -a transformer rated 120/480v transforms lower volt, 120v acto 480v
a-c bigger load.
79
Step down- to transform a bigger load to lower voltage.
12ov
---7 To Rt:cc -
TI'\Cl.J:: P.
Sf:l'?v/CE
f10
DlRECT PLU6
IF95V
REAVDUT MU BE
~
-~ ,. 110 V PUIG TQ 110V
STEP UP U~ A5 A
tl:<--9sv 8005TER
IF l1:JN VOLTAGE
GOMES lN
80
200V
IF \,
~
IF LOW VOLTAGE
DIRECT A..UG COlV1ESIN
200V
READ oor
220
<E,TEP DOWN USED AS A
BOOSTER
1 =W- o r l =va
--
v v
81
UTILIT'1' PCLE WITH
HIGH-VOLTAGE 93<V'ICE
~ : 41~0V
STEP-~WN EXTERIOR
TRI"N~FOME 41~0 10 1W/W&Y
ST'EP-UP ~FORME
1W/W8 to 41~ v
\20/ZOS
NOTE: There are appliances manufactured now which has an automatic switch
transfer at inside such that the appliances, example is a t.v. can be switched
directly to either a 11 Ov outiet or 220 v outlet.
0METERIN6
£ERVICE SWITCHES
S~ICE GONNCC110N
poiNTS
GERVIGE. ~ICE
CONDUCTORS
SERVICe TJ<AN5FOR'MER
TRANSR)RMER
Metering must be provided at either the utility or the facility voltage, and at either the
service point or inside the buildings which must be accessible to the utility meter
reader. Generally, for a single-use b~ildng or a building where electric energy is in-
cluded in the rental charge, only a single meter is necessary.
see illustration on next page figure a
82
,:-JN~6
~ERVIC
\ ~URENI
TRAN5Fa<MeR
~61NET
...
Sa<'JIC.E DJ7LONEt.~i;:r!=-
~ LOW V<?L1Aa:: -
6ERVIL.E oF 4® AMP~ '
SINGLI::. LINE DIAGR4M ~ l..AI<G!==R
FIGURE .A.
INCOMING,
LOAD ~
(-
ciJCUIIT BR£51\KER OR
• _,.......,., t/IAIN Pr<OTFCTION roR
DI~Necf
MA~N ~ERV!Cl:.
IN
0• .. •
THE A~R'TMeN INVOLvt=O
1-tl,~EA
LIRCUJT S'R!::AK
0• 0• 0•
l=R.
FIGU~ B.
8. SERVICE SWITCH
The purpose of the electric service switch is to disconnect all the electric service in the
building except emergency equipment. Thus in the event of fire, no electrical hazard
will face f ire fighters. It is therefore obvious that this disconnecting apparatus must be
located at a readily accessible spot near the point the service conductors enter the
building. The service switch or "service disconnecting means" may comprise one to
six properly rated switches. These are frequently assembled into a switchboard.
83
9. SWITCHES
An electrical switch is a device intended for on/off control of an electrical circuit and is
rated by current and voltage, duty, poles and throw, fusibility and enclosure. The cur-
rent rating is the amount of current that the switch can carry continuously and interrupt
safely, Switches are rated as 250v, 600v, or 5kv as required. Switches intended for
normal use in light an power circuits are called general-use safety switches and are
rated NO for normal duty. Switches intended for frequent interrupting are rated HD tor
heavy duty. Switches intended to be opened load only occasionally, such as service
switches, are rated LD for light duty .
..
·.
84
NUMBER OF POLE& AND THROWS OF A SWrTtH
- - o' - NOCDNTAGT
·----r
-~
NO-NORMALOPEN IL ____ j
r----,
!o~"';-
-+tO~ I
~-'
.b.) IWO- POLE: <;.tNGLE-THROW ~WrfC-14
r--- -~
GOURGE ~ 1
l':
to ~:-
TO LDAD
6CURCE it 2.
...;:......,:;;;;...._ ___..,I..OO
I I
I
L---..J
J) ~INGLE - POLE DOUBI-t rHROW GWITCH
WITH a:NTER ''a:F'' pa61110N (IN ca-IT!iWL
W(J;!.I< ~L.a> A n. 'INt> -~ AUTOMAIIC 5\YIT~ )
TO I...OAO
-
e) ~1.: RJLE lXlJBLE - 1-l~ ~1CH
( ALGOCALLEDA 3-WAY~rcH)
85
t-TO'T
I
L- ---.1
NEUTRAL
86
Unless otherwise noted, a switch is assumed to be single throw. Since the NEC states
generally that the grounded neutral conductor of a circuit should not be broken, most
switches carry the neutral through unbroken, by means of a solid link within the
switch. This gives· rise to the term Solid Neutral ISNI Switch. Switches are available in
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5-pole construction. Poles are indicated by a "P"; thus 3-pole is written
"3P", and so on.
A switch may be constructed with or without provision for fusing. If provided, the
switch is fusible; if not, the switch is nonfusible.
...
GR00t-ID6".D L INii
A
87
A s '' OFf'
FR0"'1 A
.....
SWtT<:H
JS ON
fROM B
A B
OR
88
I
$3'-...,..., -
~
I l..--'
t-
•''
7
7
,
I
s .. \
" Pf,J~
A .SWITCH ON S
f'ROM ~·
+-
A 8
SWITCH ON FROM
OA ..
A'
89
'iDW A 3· W~Y ""R>GGI..E SWlT~fi WORKS
( lltE ~T >J~R A AND B IS SHUNTED
Ttti!:JlE-BY BEa>MING Tlic a:>MMON ~E' OF
1l+E IWO KNlVES).
J3ETTEJ:\
90
(+
" ' .... ...
' _,
' ~:_ "' _ __..__:::.a....._.. I
.....
'
" \
\
~ I
Sot...... . /
..... ._ - ~ -~':
---
-:-.
' ...
-
OFF
HeRE. THE 5AAP SWlTC~ HA5 1WO KNlVES
K- 1, K~2 WH1tli a:>NNEc15 THE ~tN=S CF THE
9\MF:~
ON
HERE TliE SNAP S'NITl::H K- 1 lONNE,TS
LINE$ B~K AND ·REO ANt> K-2 CaNEl:.~
l.IW~ BLACK AND R'ED
91
HOW A FOUR-WAY SWJTCH WORKS
r - - ---------,
I I
UtE1 A
\
1.~e t
I
I
I
I
*' NOll:
THERE ARE BINOtNG F~UR
~
I 0 H Tt:RMINAL SGREWS AND
I I INSIDE TMe sa< ARE El~T
L----------J
(a,) toNTACT FOIN1'S A -tz, H.
r------------,
UE1 I I
I
I
LINE t G._...__..........,_;;;=.,
r
I
l
I o H I
I I
I . !
------------
92
s. ~. ~ ~
OR
SINGLE RX.e
3 ~NG .SWITlH
93
LIVE "'---"""'
r - - - - - - -l LINE. I
~ - I 1
] l 4
I I
I
I l I
LINE"* I
I LINE Z I
L---....J.
SPbT OPOT
L_J
WliEN SWITiH lS ~ THE RIGHT, LINES I attd 4
I"!ND LINE'S 2.. .al\:i 3 .ar~ L:bNNt:L"$D.
LINE 1
LINE ?>
I
1 SPDT
LINE4
LINE 2 I SINGLE POLE
L-- -' l__ j DOUBLE THROW
94
SWITCHES
r1 r1 ... .
'TUMBLER ~JTCH ENCLOGED KNIFE ~TC!-1
oPEN I(NIFE SWITCH GURFACE T'(P£ (BOX' iYPE)
Fus.;e
TUMBLER ~ITCH
FLUGH "'TYPE
H.J5T.ALLATION Of KNIFE
.SWITt.H - DaJBL E F'OL5
SWITCH
a
A contactor is a switch. Instead of handle-operated, movable blade and fixed grip•. a
contactor uses two contact blocks of silver coated c::opper, which are forced together
to make (close) or are separated to break (openl the circuit. The common wall light
switch is a small mechanically operated contactor. A relay is ~ small electrically
operated contactor. (See switch device). Most contactors are operated by means of an
electromagnet that causes the contacts to close or open. The reverse action is by spr·
ing and/or gravity.
The great advantage of contactors over switches is their facility for remote control.
Switches must be manually thrown-o.r at best with a motor. However the magnetic
contactor is inherently a remotely cont">lled device, making it ideal for a myriad of con·
trol functions. They are controlled by push-bunon or automatic devices such as float
switches, thermostats, pressure switches, and so on since control can be both remote
and automatic, the application of relays and contactors is universal in remote control of
lighting; ·heating, air conditioning, all motor control. sequence switching, automatic
load transfer etc .
In order to protect insulation, wiring, switches, and other apparatus from overload and
short circuit currants, it is necessary to provide automatic means for opening the cir-
cuit. The two most common devices employed to fulfill this function are the fuse and
the olrcult breaker. {C/8).
96
ConGC1S-
normal
Tf8flsfer switch,
oontrol and
Manual- wnsing devices
operwting
handle
Motor
openrtor
97
a) Fuses
The fuse is a simple device consisting of a fusible link or wire of low melting
temperature that when enclosed in an insulating fiber tube is called a cartridge fuse,
and when in a porcelain cup is known as a plug fuse. When a fuse is subjected to ex-
cess current, the energy loss in the link generates heat and melts it.
Plug fuses, such as those normally used in a residence all rated 5 to 30 amp. car-
tridge fuses are made in sizes 5 to 600 amp.
THERMAL aJTa!T
J) ~LEMN I
.98
in ftgure (b); (c) and (d), the dual elemef)t fuse allows the heat generated -by temporary
overloads to be dissipated in the large center metal element, preventing fuse blowing. If
the overload reaches dangerous proportions the metal will melt, releasing the spring and
opening the circuit
High capacity faults are cleared by the melting of the two end elements.
~ ~ hve
A
99
The megnetlc trip comprises a coil with a
moveable core. On short circuits, magnetic
forces actuate the core which ttips the cir-
cu it breaker latch. Both the thermal arid the
magnetic action have inverse time
characteristics, that. is, the heavier the
overload the faster the trip action.
COPPER PI6TAIL
,100
f'R"OM o TO ZS'OOAMPSRES
CONNECi10NG
ARC: CHUTE
-1-<'UAADS ~NST
P'MMe TO THE
.. eRE.AKeR
-1 SILVERED
~T/IGS
TRIPS' INOtt'.A-
TION WHEN
MElHANtSM
TRIP,S,HAN
MCVE'~ TO
MIDDLE
~T
~E.TIC
ADJlJSljb.Sl£
TRIP-~
T~L A BlMcrALLIC ~T
'Tl~ """oi;Jftn.,'-""'- rRfP- !!tAR:
~ D!Sa>NNa:llON ct-
/NSTANTANE'DU.S 'TRIP ~TS , ACTIVATING 1HE ALL ~N: WliJ;N AN
~1 IN n-u= E'vt;NT TIZIP ME,HPNl5M ANP ~I.MP ~ atlfZT a~t:UIT
OF A ~DR.T 'l~aT ~NI ntE 'IJU:lltT JN oa.n~_ ON ANY DN~ Ctoi.DUT~
OVER.l.OAPS. I tN THE "~T.
Two types of circuit breakers are the molded case breaker and the "Large air
breaker.''
Although fuses and circuit breakers are circuit-protective devices their characteris-
tics differ markedly. Fuses are inherently instantaneous operating devices. Time
delay is provided by a second element. Due to the rapidity of operation, fuses are
energy-limiting devices. The inherent characteristics and advantage of the breaker
over the fuse lies in the'fact that it can be reset after tripping by merely operating its
handle and is not self-destructive on operation, as in the fuse .
101
TYPICAL MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS
These are free-standing assemblies of switches, fuses, and/or circuit breakers, which
normally provide switching and feeder protection to a number of circuits connected to
a main source . A switchboard may be represented in a single line Diagram .
<::URReNT
TRANSFORMER
MAIN SWITCHBO-\RD
102
In a typical Switchboard, switches are normally shown in the open position. The NEC
allows up to six switches in parallel as service entrance equipment. Switches must be
on the line (supply) side of fuses. Metering is normally placea on the service conduc-
tors, and the metering equipment is built into the main switchboard. Each line in a
single-line diagram represents a 3-phase circuit.
GIRCU&T BRE.At<ER
103
I
lSl
ffiDIIIIIIIIIIIIIIU ~~
~
t-
z ~
UJ
~
~y 1-
ell DS!Y otS'I~ ~
SINITCH ~
~
~
lW\NS'~MEC
751(YA
~
lt>OC>A
M-\ 11-J A.
..
13$ KvjteoV C/6 ~
&>
~ :z. 3 PIYISE
0
afAM~ F
v; lb~RS >Ma: ~
~ illiDDIIIIIIIIII ITI
03b ISO
UNIT SUBSTATION
fNCOMlN6
L.INe
METERS
~ t) f l
480V
MANUAL
) +.:)
[)RAWOUT
) ) SE0NMRY
tftff
SWin::HGEAR
OUT601NG FEEoeRS
104
This unit would supply a building with a maximum demand of 7 50 kva. The incoming
13,800v cables enter cubicle. A and connect to the switch and fuses connects to the
switchgear. This main secondary switchgear in turn. Feeds various switchboards, and
pane lboards distributed through the building.
15. PANELBOARDS
SWITCH BOARD
~NEL
c, Cz c., c., Cs
The panel components-that is, the buses, breakers, are mounted on an insulating
board that in turn is mounted inside an enclosing cabinet. The line terminal of each cir-
cuit-protective device (breaker or fused switch) is connected to the busbars of the
panelboard. The load Terminal of the device then feeds the outgoing branch circuit.
T. O:::IRCUI"!)
. 10 ~UTER
~ c::J Cl
Sf"Ac:E TD .AUJ)W
(tOUT"IN~ (}It'
~IZG&JtT WUtiN~
105
SlN6la ,DL&
C/B - · ·-··
.;-!
. ·i
'
106
CIRClilT
NUMBER$
4JTA'IN""(
VIISW Tb ~I+CW- -· ·-
lN.Sli:>E
107
r z..
.--... 3 "t
.--... 5 <D
............. 7 1p,
9 ............... 9 10
II IZ
s~ E SP.ACE
_.....13 14
II 15 I~
17 18
SPACE
....--... 19 2D
13 ....--... 2.1 22
.......... Z3 Z't
A B (.
,,
3 PHASE, 4WIRE PANEL
10-SP I 2-2P z- 3P I
When panels are stacked one above the other (on succeeding floors) and are fed from
the same riser cable, a special construction panel known as a riser panel may be used.
(mult i-storey apartments)
(see illustrations on next page).
Panelboarda are described and specified by type, bus arrangement, branch breakers,
main breaker. voltage and mounting. A typi.cal description might be:
Lighting and Appliance Panel. 3 -phase, 4-wire; 200 A mains; main C/8, 225 A
frame, 1 50A T rip .
Branch Breakers- All framel sea. SP-20A, 4 ea 2P-20A. 4 ea. 3P 20A; Flush with
hinged locked door.
a) Panel Type:
A lighting and appliance panel is one having more than 1 0% of its overcurrent
devices rated 30 amp. or less, for which neutral connections are provided (single-
phase loads). All other nomenclature, such as lighting panel, power panel, distribu-
tion panel, with the c ommonly used abbreviations of LP. PP, OP, is entirely unof-
ficial.
108
For identification purposes, letters could be used such as KP for kitchen panel, BP,
basement panel, ELP the emerge'1cy lighting panel, etc. To identify th~ floor location ,
numbering is used such as LP3A means lighting panelboard " A " on the third floor.
RIQ::R ~BL i: S
f<IS t=:R NEUIRAL Cj-\B J..E.
PHASE
CABLE S
BeLT r(PE
TAP C::ON-
NEC.r~s
jGROUND EIJS
I(GREEN -6Rbi.NO
INTENCED fVR.
¥.;1 R~ IJSS)
R'l S ER CONDUIT
109
c) Panel Cabinet and Mounting
Panel boards are classified as Flush-Type or Surface-Type. Flush type panelboards
are those that have the trim and doors practically flush with the finished surface of
the wall.
Surface-type panelboards project into the room. the cabinets being bolted to wall
surfaces or columns. (used in industrial plants)
FLUSH SUF?FACE
T YPE TYPE
TRIM
BODY
al Direct Current Motors- d-e, As a result of the high cost and relative rarity of direct
current, these motors are only used where continuous fine speed control is re-
quired, as in the case of elevator drives.
110
STATOR WINDIN6S
CLASS'S' INSULA-rEO
An a-c motor controller is basically a contactor designed to handle th~ heavy brush
currents encountered in an a-c motor starting. Its function is to start and stop the motor
and to protect the machine from overload. These two separate and distinct functions
. are accomplished by combining a set of contacts for on/off control with a set of ther-
mal overload elements for overloaq protection in a single unit.
When the contacts are operated by hand, the controller is called a manual starter; when
the contacts are operated by a magnetic coil controlled by push buttons, thermostats,
or other devices, the unit is known as magnetic controller or simply and more com-
monly-a starter.
This include all devices that are normally installed in wall outlet boxes, including recep-
tacles, switches, dimmers, and pilot lights. Attachment plugs and wall plates are also
included.
111
19. RECEPTACLES
Receptacles are identified by the number of poles and wires, and whether or not the
device is designed for connection of a separate grounding w ire. The equipment ground-
ing pole is not counted in the number of poles but is counted in "wires". The equip-
ment grounding pole must not be confused with the system ground (neutral). Recep-
tacles are available from 10 to 400 amp ., 2 to 4 poles an d 125 to 600v .
2-R::li..E- Z-WIRE
(SIN.;U:)
~ POLE., 3 WIRE
Z· POL.I! 3-WIRE
IS Amp, IZSV
(SINGl.~
(DUPlEX) . GROUNOir-.6 iYPE
[!HITH!]
TRIP\.. EX
'ONVENIE.NCE OUTl..ET
112
RISCEPTACLE. (z.qov.) fM HORIZONTAl-
AND VE2TIGAL BL.AL'ES AND U SHAFEP
~OUND
DUPLEX OUTLET
These are switches up to 30 amperes that can be outlet-box mounted. A typical speci-
fication grade Toggle-Type wall switch is showZ'I below.
ltA11NG JNC:ISet> ~
lkTO ME-pt.L STRAP I
arn-EI
BOX MOWfTlNG
SGIZ.EWS
SILVER ~MIU ~T.S
The usual a-c switch rating is 15, 20 or 30 amp. at 120 or 120/277v. Normal con-
structions are single-pole, 2-pole, 3-way, 4-way, momentary-contact, 2-circuit, main-
tained contact SPOT. Operating handles are toggle-type, key, push, rocker,
rotary, and tap-plate types.
see illustrations on next page.
113
AUTOMA"T\C. 0Ct>R c;w\TC.H
BUTTCN IS ~Esa:D Wt+EN
QXR \S '~ J. Ll~HT IS
0PF BU'TTON A:»P.s ClJT ~WITatl
THE L~HT ON WHEN DDOfllS
OPEN
KEY
ROTARY .SWJT(H
IS AMP'E~ lZOV
• 0 0
0
u nn 0
o o on
0
3 .:;A,NG
114
In ~igh - secur i ty areas, where the easily defeated normally switch is inadequate, a
tumbler lock controlled unit can be used, as in fig . {a). Loads that can be timed-out.
such as bathroom heat ers and ventilating fans can be controlled by the unit illustrated
in Fig. b.
©c \
~:(OJ
These boxes are generally of galvanized st amped sheet metal w ith multiple ~ inch., -%
in., and severall in., conduit knockouts conveniently placed around the peripherv. and
on the back. The most common sizes are the 4 in. square and the 4 in. octagonal boxes
used for fixtures, junctions and devices.
,
1~ PEPENDING Qi WHAT
I (.CNDUIT pt Pfl Slcai'S
IS USOI!P.
115
A cle1:erly designed telescopir'lg floor bo.t locks in the "up~ positior'l during 11se and rests ftu.sh
in the floor during periods of inadicity atlll tchen flnMs fl (~ clen>l('d. Crmrtesy of .\foxirom Corp.
Nonmet.lllit
Ughl gauge metal
gravel slop or
gllilet
\
-·
Nute·
Eiectrodes and
loop 3'-0~
Protrusioll$
min from
be~tl tS·
fdunda!ions
~nile do not
requott added C.W. pipe
oonnected to Ground plate or loop (counteJJ)Oise) conductor:
protection
loop or lrenclled conductor tor dry ~ ndy oocky base soil.
electrode lor rocky base with electrodes as required
to attain good gtijvnd
Typical lightning-protection diagram.
116
INSULATORS - used as supports and f or adamonal protection for wires.
~ I=ORCEH.AIN TUBE
(A.PDinllNAL INSUlAr~
BALL STRAIN BAL.L KNOB ~ WIRES WttlCH PASS
R:>RC.ELA\N INSULATOR THMJctH ~ ,IN STUDS,
( F~ HAN6lN6 'M~ A:>RCELAI N JOISTS .
(Rllt $1JPR)RT ( f Wlil£5)
CIRCULAR LOOM
~ FLEXJ81..f. LOOM
(.USE AS APDlTIDNAL INSULATO~
WHEN ~SING CRo"Jt-16
.EA!H OTHER,eiC) Ft:lRCSL.AtN $PUT K.Nt"e
( USE!> AS SUProRT R)R Wli?ES
IN KNOB AND TUS~\NQO<)
t
BRACKET INS'UlATm
INQJlATlON ft)JUELAIN SOME- TIMES
CALLED .ffiRYICE B~C.$
t2 SECONMRY RACK$
(LISE TO MAN6 SSI<:VlGE
WIRE)
SOL.II) WI lUI
117
BOXES -used as junction boxes
as outlets
as attachment for switches
RECrAN<;ULAR .
!=OR OUTLETS ,
S'W\"T'Q-Ie$, FIXTUilE.S
GelLING OUTLET
OCTAGON BOX
esc>>< ClRCULAR
6U5HtNG
118
~C>VE R
METAl. OR
&AKEUTE
11 ~)
--··---,
f~
w q)
\. ~ \
11
' ~· ' ,. /
' '1
CEJU~ SOCKET
~ - ·- -. J._
c:)(fTl.ET
OUTlET ~ON'vEiec.
FL..USt-! IYF£
22. EMERGENCY/STANDBY
POWER EQUIPMENT
The Equipment involved in both Emergency and Standby is similar, however, the use is
-different.
Emergency Systems provide "power and illumination essen-for safety to life and pro-
perty, for instance, emergency power for exit lighting and egress lighting in places of
assembly, plus power for equipment necessary for safety such as elevators, fire alarm
systems, fire pumps, and extensive systems in health-care facilities.
Standby System provide power to "selected loads in the event of failure of normal
source. These systems are primarily intended to protect against property damage of
financial loss and are not involved with safety considerations. Water and sewage treat-
ment plants use this. Private owners on the other hand do install standby systems
when power interruption would cause serious damage to an industrial process or ~
research project.
2. Battery Equipment
Storage batteries are often used to supply limited a~ounts of emergency power,
primarily for lighting. Such units are mounted in individual cabinets or in racks for
120
larger installations and are always provided with automatic charging equipment.
The distinct advantage is that batteries can be installed either in central system
with distribution feeder of the battery power, throughout the facility, or they can be
installed in small package units around the building.
The great disadvantages of battery systems is limited duration of power . Only up to
1 % hour minimum.
121
..
chapter
ELECTRIC
WIRING DESIGN
ELECTRIC WIRING DESIGN
1 . GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Experience guides the designer to a solution that best suits the job since it is his respon-
sibility to establish the most economical design within the framework of the design
criteria.
a) Flexibility
Every wiring system should incorporate sufficient flexibility of design in-branch cir-
cuitry, feeders, and panels to accomodate all probable patterns, arrangements, and
locations of electric loads. The degree of flexibility to be incorporated depends in
large measure on the type of facility. Thus laboratories, research fa cilities, and small
educational buildings require a great deal more flexibility than residential, office,
and fixed-purpose industrial installations.
As part of the design for flexibility, provision for expansion must be provided as ex-
perience has demonstrated that most facilities will grow, both physically and in
electrical demand. It must, however, be emphasized that over design is as bad as un-
derdesign, being wasteful of money and resources both initially and in operation.
b) Reliability
Is determined by t wo factors, the utility's service and the building's electrical
syster:n. The service record of the utility should be studied along with the economic
impact of a power outage to determine whether, and to what extent standby power
equipment is justified . Emergency equi pment, being concerned with the safety of a
building's occupants, is determined by national building codes and is largely inde-
pendent of the electric service arrangements. Beyond the service point, the reliabi-
lity of power is entirely dependent on the wiring system. Here, too, economic
studies must be made to determine the quality of equipment and the amount of
redundancy !duplicate equipment) to be installed .
c} Safety
The designer must be constantly alert to such factors as electric hazards, caused by
misuse or abuse of equipment or by equipment failure. Also a t horough acquain-
tance with the size of equipment used will eliminate the oft-encountered physical
hazard caused by obstruction of access spaces, passage, closets, and walls with
electric equipment . Finally, lighting protection can be subsumed under the heading
of safety.
d) Economic Factors
This item is divided into two frequently interrelated items; First Cost and Operating
Cost
The first cost depends in large measure on whether the constructor is interested in
minimum owning cost. Low-cost equipment generally results in higher energy cost,
higher maintenance cost, and shorter life .
The decision is not purely an economic one, inasmuch as the electrical energy cost
factor in the operating-cost equation is directly related to energy consumption, with
one excep.tion which is the utility's demand charge. Here t!'lere occurs an ope-
rating costs. Load leveling equipment permits the electrical distribution system to
be sized without consideration of coincident load peaks, thus resulting in smaller
equipment, operating more efficiently-near its full-load capacity.
124
e) Energy Considerations
1 . Energy CodtJs end BudgtJts
Buildings constructed with governmental participation will increasingly be sub-
ject to energy budget limitations expressed in BTU/square foot/year.
2. EntJrgy Control
This item consists largely of providing facilities for metering current flow, volt-
ages, power and energy consumption. These may take the form of built-in
metering and/or meter points at selected locations throughout the electrical sys-
tem, to permit accurate load analysis. Meters both instantaneous. reading and
recording types, can provide data on equipment loading, .load patterns. load
coincidence, power factor. load voltage, power demand, and energy consump-
tion.
3. Ene1gy Conservation TechniqutJs
These can effectively and economically be built into the design rather than being
applied to any existing design. Thus, a study of the intended building use pat-
tern may lead to a design that utilizes separate systems for daytime use and for
night/weekend use.
Such a design permits shutdown of whole systems rather than operate at very
low load with concommitant high losses and low power factor. Also, providing
relatively small items such as coffee-vending machines and eleminating coffee-
pot) outlets, connecting water coolers to time clocks, and the like, are included
in this category and at this stage.
f) Space Allocations
The general impression that electrical equipment is small and easily concealed is ac-
curate only for wire and conduit. Panels, motor control centers, busduct, distribu-
tion centers, switchboards•. transformers. and so on can be large, bulky, noisy and
highly sensitive to tampering and vandalism. Thus space allocations must be con-
cerned with maintenance ease, ventilation, expandability, centrality (to omit length
of runs) limitation of access, and noise, in addition to the basic item of space ade-
quacy.
g) Special Considerations
These depend on the specialized nature of certain facilities and may include items
such as security, central and/or remote controls. interconnection with other
facilities, and the like.
2. LOAD ESTIMATING
When initiating the wiring design of a building it is important to be able to estimate the
total building load in order to plan such spaces as transformer rooms, chases, .and
closets. Such an estimate can be made from the figures given in the table shown here.
These figures are average. Where it appearnhat the building will have heavier or lighter
loads because of lighting levels or other factors, the figures should be modified accord-
ingly.
125
Electric Load Estimating
I II Ill fV v VI
Volt-Amperes per Square Foot"
Ten Year
I Lightingc,g
Misc. l1 Air Conditioningt Percent
Type of Occupancy Powerd Electric Nonelectric Load Growth
Auditorium
General 1.0-2.5 0 12-20 5-8 20-40
Stage 20-40 0.25
Art gallery
Bank
4-6
2.5-4.5
0.5
2.0
S.-7
5-7 I 2.0-3.2
2.0-3.2
20-40
30-50
Cafeteria 0.5 I
Church
iI
3-5
I 1.5-3.0 0.5
6-10
5-7 I
2.5-4.5
2.0-3.2 I 20-40
10-30
Computer area
Department store I
3-6 1.5• 12-20 5-8
I 50-200
single dwellings:
Halls. closets, corridors, 0.5 - -- -
storage spaces 0.25 - - j
126
Having established the figures in the individual categories, they should be added toge-
ther without application of demand or diversity factors in order to obtain the maximum
demand load for which the building service equipment must be sized, in the absence of
electric load control (load leveling) equipment. At this point, an analysis must be made
to determine the feasibility of incorporating such equipment into the facility. Input to
this study includes the utility's complete rate of schedule, _including all penalty clauses,
a detailed analysis of the building's equipment load patterns, and any external con-
straints such as maximum loads imposed by power and energy budgets.
Equipment load patterns must be carefully analyzed because they determine a loads
"sheddability". Thus for kitchen equipment, load interruption may be undesirable but
shifting of cooking time by a half hour is entirely feasible.
127
The following Table gives a Tabulation of service entrance. Size in amperes, based on
single- and 3-phase service for typical occupancies. These figures are for quick esti-
mate purposes and should be adjusted after the design is completed.
3 WIRE. t2J)Y
L_LV--.uO D
DO
DO
DD
tJ
tlo"'R'S
MAIN t:!S'l'RlSI.>nON
~E L
M OP
f •C IR C~ ;:. - ~R l
• FUSES IF SMAlL _j
L __--- - .
OR S:!/'olf'I.J! ~
128
3. SYSTEM VOLTAGE
a) 1 20 v, single-phase, 2-wire. This is also the arrangement of the usual branch cir-
cuit.
This is used for the smallest of facilities such as small residences, out-buildings, and
isolated small loads up to 60 kva. load is calculated by multiplying current and volt-
age. For 60-amp service, which this type service is normally limited to, no more
than 50 amp. are usually drawn. Thus
VI = 120 x 50 = 600 va = 6 kva
The nominal system voltage is 120v, although it is also referred to as 110 and
115v.
For heavier loads, the system normally used is
A t
~ .,~ I
I
~v I
?
.co~
4P.
8
-~LOAPl
~
i
~ lU>Y 112.0¥
~
~
s~P.,
<~ •
~
i 1
-
s~r EM GRCUND
lll>V ($J~LE)
A ---+--+--------"'-J.-
6
J
3 WIRE'
SINGLE ~E
N--_..._____ ~-
I ZO V (SINGLE)
129
The code requires that all residences with five or more 2-wire circuits have a mini-
mum of 100 amp. 3-wire service. (see Chapter item on service entrance) Service
disconnect for 1 00-amp. service would be a 100 amp, 2-pole and solid neutral
switch , fused at no more than 80% of rating, or 80 amp.
This is usually written 1 OOA, 2P & SN, 80 AF. This service is used principally for
residences, small stores, and other occupancies where the load does not exceed 80
amp. or 19.2 kva . load calculated thus:
= ~O
240 80
Kva = x
1000 . = 19 .2KVA
b) Although it may appear otherwise, the neutral carries no more than full-load cur-
tent. Note that each flhot leg" ot the 3-wire system carries line current. Thus, total
loa.d can also be calcufated:
Load Kva = twice load on each line assuming a balanced 80-amp load
Total Kva = 2 x 80 amp x 120v
= 2 x 9,600 va = 19,200 va
= 19.2 kva
If load is unbalanced, with say 30 amperes in one line and 50 amperes in the se-
cond, total load is-
30 amp
50 amp
1 20v X 30 + 120 X 50 = 3600 + 600
= 9600 va = 9.6 kva
Depending on the rating of the servic.e transformer, system voltages can be
120/ 240, 115/ 230, or 110/ 220, although 120/ 240 is the accepted industry
standard loads that are 1 20v cause a current only in one line. Loads that are 240v,
such as a clothes dryer, cause current on' both lines. For example, find the line cur-
rents caused by the 3 loads as shown in the figure.
\'2DV
HOT LEG
I12.DOW
lJ j4800W j
J
L 144-0W 1
130
1200w, 120v iron on line A
1440w, 120v hair dryer on line B
4800w, 240v dryer on lines A and B
We calculate thus:
lA = -
v
R
Since V = IR R in ohms
(resistance)
and watt W = 12R Ware watts
(elec. power)
and since W = I IIRl I in amperes
(current)
W =I (v) V in volts
(voltage)
or w
I==-
v
1200 = 10 amperes
120
\~ = 12 amperes
A
·- -.
NE'I.JTRA\.. LEG
f--z.amp
Note than the neutral carries the difference in current between A and B legs ( 1 2-1 0)
131
MJJol. k>OA z. ~
'l,. .!1114 SN ( SOUO NSIIJTlll\t..
J
~ - ~ , A ________,_-~
}
I SIN~
I PHA.Sl:
I I FCR.
~- 8~ - ~ -1 ~- zos
TO
~-
JUlY IIZJ)'I/
This arra ngement comprises % only of the full 120/20 8v, (3 phase - 4-wire con-
nection as shown in the next figure).
When feeding large faci,lities, a 3-phase, 4-wire system is normally employed.
In large facilities, lengths of feeders and sizes of loads become so great that a higher
voltage is required. In t his system, 20v loads such as lighting, small machines,
receptacles, and so on, are fed at 120v by connection between each phase log and
neutral.
132
c
PANELI30X
Motors larger than Ya hp and all 3-phase loads are fed at 208v by connection bet-
ween the 3-phase legs. Single-phase, 208v loads such as heaters are accommo-
dated as in (c) above, by connection between 2 phase legs. Such loads !ire often
referred to as ''2 pole" loads, alluding to the 2-pole current breakers used to feed
them.
I - 15•000w = 42 amperes
-fix208v
Requiring No. 8 RHW wire (45 a capacity)
at 208v
at 480v
I - lS,OOOw = 18 amperes
-rax480v
133
~-cr0a1
r-:~+oZ7
~
~+-zn
SYS1l!M
~ITOUN
4-BOV
3¢ MOm£
ZZ7 V Dls:tHA~
~t;S<NT
\. I ~HT!NG
The vast majority of secondary wiring systems are grounded. Some reasons are:
134
a. To prevent sustained contact between the low-voltage, Secondary system and the
high-voltage primary system in the event of an insulation failure. Such contact
could cause a breakdown of the secondary system insulation and severely endanger
the system' s users.
b. To prevent single grounds from going unnoticed until a second ground occurs,
which w ill extensively disab le the secondary systems .
c . To permit locating ground faults w it h ease.
d. To protect against voltage surges.
e. To establish a neutral at zero potential for safety and for reference this neutral must:
1 . Never be interrupted by switches or other devices.
2. Be connected to ground only at one point-the service entran ce.
3. Be color coded w hite or natural gray for easy recognition.
,
$«-IP
N!I!IJTRAL -i ~\ \ ~8UILO J NG SEevKJ; SW I T~
f ~ - l .z POLE , F~!: . PLUS Sl:U[) NalnAI.
SCi.. ID W1-JIC
(IC1EMWAQ.E
FtlR. 'I'Erot-IG) J'
"'TYFt~ ,~aJ!l
YOt.T~ • 0 WIRING
NOTE ntAr Nt=UTRAL
IS NEVER INn:w.UPTEP
~ t BY f"UgE ~ c-je
~ f -- :
--.-·c ~ J ~ LD I N G PANEL ~ IZD
,....---tCONNECTlOH TO >TRI:E.f SltE IF M~
'-4 suroEP c.Ct.O ~TeR PIPE
An accident fault within an appliance can connect the metal case of the appliance to
the line. This may readily occur with such common devices as an electric drill ,
clothes washer, dryer or food mixer. To eliminate this hazard of " Electric Shock",
appliance housing is grounded to a cold water pipe. The plug is 3*wire, two wires,
connected to the appliance and the third wire to the housing.
To eliminate the dangerous situation of current, ground fault leak, the (GFCI or GFI)
Ground fault circuit interrupter was developed . This device compares, with extreme
precision, the current flowing in the hot and neutral legs of a circuit, if there is a dif-
ference, it indicates a ground f ault and the device trips out.
135
N A B
11
a)C.IRCUIT AARANGa.ENT USIN~ ~tEN <5ROUNO WIRE
i---; ;en
g WII?.E Af>PL!.~-
1 :
~ MILl' ~tf
h---- l
f®:
ca(
r- - - -- -,
6 REEN GROUN
5. DESIGN PROCEDURE
The steps in the electrical w iring design of any facility are outlined below. These may in
some instances be performed in different order, or two or more steps may be com-
bined.
a) Make an electrical load estimate based on areas involved building data, and any
other pertinent data.
b) In cooperation w ith the local electric-utility, decide upon the point of service en-
trance, type of servic-e run, service voltage, metering location, and building utiliza-
tion voltage.
cl Determine with the client the usage of all areas, and type and rating of all client-
furnished equipment including their specific electric ratings and flervice connection
requirements.
dl Determine from other consultants such as HVAC, plumbing, elevators, kitchen,
etc. The exact electrical rating of all the equipment in their designs. This determina-
tion w ill often result after conferences during which the electrical consultant makes
valuable recommendations to these other specialists about the comparative cha-
racteristics and costs of equipment.
136
e) Determine the location and estimate the size of all required electric equipment
spaces including switchboard rooms, emergency equipment spaces, electric
closets, and so forth. Panelboards are normally located in closets but may be
located in corridor walls or elsewhere. This work is necessary at this point to en-
able the architect to reserve these spaces for the electrical equipment.
f) Design the lighting for the facility. This step is complex and involves a continued in-
teraction between the architect and the lighting designer.
g) Depending on the type of Facility, it may be necessary to separate the lighting lay-
out from the receptacle and signal device. layout for the sake of clarity of the
plans. Once the decision has been made as to how this is to be handled, the lighting
fixture Layout can be made.
h) On the same plan, or on a separate plan, as decided, locate all electrical apparatus
including receptacles, switches, motors, and other power consuming apparatus.
Underfloor duct and ceiling track systems would be shown at this stage.
i) On the plans, locate signal apparatus such as phone outlets, speakers, micro-
phones, TV outlets, fire and smoke detectors, and so on.
j) Circuit all lighting devices, and power equipment to the appropriate panels, and
prepare the panel schedules. Included in this step is the separate circuitry for
emergency equipment.
k) Compute panel loads.
I) Prepare the riser diagram. This includes design of distribution panels, switch-
boards, and service equipments.
m) Compute feeder sizes and all protective equipment ratings.
nl Check the preceding work.
o) Coordinate the electrical work with the other trades and with the architectural
plans.
6. ELECTRIC SPACES
al Residences
In private residences, the service equipment and'the building panelboard are incor-
porated into a single unit. The main disconnect is usually installed as the main
switch/breaker of the panel. The panel is normally placed in the garage, utility room,
or basement, since the building is so rarely large that length of branch circuits ex-
ceeds 100ft. (33m) The panel should be placed as close to the load center as prac-
ticable, without sacrificing valuable space or making the panel inaccessible.
Frequently a smaller panel can be subfed from the main panel to feed the kitchen
and laundry loads. In apartments, panels are normally placed in the kitchen or the
corridor immediately adjoining the. kitchen. This location is chosen so that the panel
circuit breaker may act as the required disconnecting means for fixed appliance
larger than 300 volt-amperes cr 1/8 hp.
137
~a
12·SP EJ~CH
~
.+~Zf BR,A!IICH
m::AKSS
ISO A PANtsL
t.~S' Amp MAIN ~
SE~VIC
12 S P S.AANCH 81lfiAI<'.I!IC!.S
~
"\ - ~p BRANdi $~1<E.I:S
(o)
f"AI'!Irt..- SJ\.IT tll.IS"
1- :l p &~ Fl!S)f~ I z-SP SR5A~.6
S- t.P SRA~M IWJ!.,.\t<.SRS"1 l>f'Je S"PA~te
(MAX. " ~):E-1?. JlltAY tbN~nTu-r=
'ffifi SE.IZ.YI ~ PISa:> NN5CT'I NG l'Ae.MIS)
(C:)
r I
PAf'E.L.
1>6A t.~ A MAl~ GlleAi:E R
IZ- Sf> ~H 81'64~
~vta!
J - ZP 9AAN<::H J:I*ON~
S'US P!>tNEiL
1- 2.P ~I'CW 5f'Ate ~TLHJ:N
~L)J!. P.AM~L
... -:z..p ~r
z ~ ~r ~ J'SIZS
b) Commercial Spaces
The location of the required panel boards depends on their type and quantity, and
availability of space. In the two stories high research building as shown in this
figure, lighting panels are recessed into the corridor wall, and the panels are verti-
cally stacked and fed by a single conduit.
4'14' ....._.,....
·-
.... 50ft
b 0 --
1
L.~ 0
(a) 0 f 10
I' I I I, I I I I I
Lighting Pl.n
138
Not~>s:
I. All recopcxles in sui! otticts al 42 • a I t to a.~l!t line
2. All receptacles in e•er.. ottic:H at 12" a fl to c I
3. Sur1- •aceway in labs tn041ntM .t u- at t to c I
4. Sclecial out.et5: Q.. 20 amp. 250 v 3 wire 2 pole gro~nde<l oll\let (lOt 206 v Is 1\p otntrilul'!)
~. 30 amp. 250 v 3 wire 2 pole 8fO&>nde<l outlet (tor 208 • 6 ~w IUI11)
~ c 50 amp. 2So v 4 wire 3 pole grounded outlet (tor 10 np portable M-G set)
~ 1 20 atnp. 120 v/ 20 Mnp. 250 v 3 .we 2 polo CJOUnded 011\1«1 (for tleotlil!ll ~ SJ>eCil! ..,.)
~.:;
17\ __...
, .. .... _
(b)
If this building were six or more stories high, an electric closet of the type shown
below would be advisable to accomodate the panel and riser conduits. Of course,
when panels are installed . in finished areas such as corridors, flush mounting is re-
quired.
0 0 0
• I
139
.........,___ s'-o*(,Sf>tN~
L.I~TrNG
PANEL
swm:H MAY~
I..LJCATED OUTSII:le
oo
0~ INSite, IF t':allSJDE 0 0
A !<&Y ()PEitAlEP oo
UNIT IS AJ)YISA$-E
To limit the voltage drop on a branch circuit in accordance with the code require-
ment, panelboards should be located so that no circuit exceeds 100 ft. !33m) to
160ft. {46m) length. If circuits longer than t his are unavoidable, No. 10 AWG wire
should be used for runs of 33m-46m and No. 8 AWG for longer circuits. These wire
sizes apply to 1 6 or 20 amp branch circuits, which are normally wired with No. 12
AWG wire .
Panels supplying large blocks of load ' simultaneously switched, such as auditorium
house lights, lobby lights, large single-use office areas, store lighting, and the like,
can be constructed with built-in contactors to switch the entire panel, with control
at any desi red location. These remote-control (RC) switches has already been dis-
cussed.
If only part of the panel' s circuits are so arranged, a split bus panel is provided, par-
tially contactor controlled. When lighting and appliance panels require more than 42
poles at a single locat ion, a double panel is utilized comprising two paneAs in a single
enclosing cabinet with a steel barrier between the t wo units.
(See illustration of split Bus Panel on next page).
7 . ELECTRIC CLOSETS
In the design of a building electric system it is often advantageous and convenient to
group t he electrical equipment in a small room called an efectric closet. The shape of
this space can be varied to fit the architectural and electrical demands but it should pro-
vide the following: ·
a) One or more locking doors.
b) Vertically stacking, above and below other electric closets and located so as not to
block conduits entering or leaving horizontally (Thus locations on outside walls and
adjoining shafts, columns, and stairs are poor) .
c) Space free of other utilities such as piping or duct, passing through t he closet,
either horizontally or vertically.
d) Sufficient wall space to mount all requisite and future panels, switches transform-
ers, telephone cabinets, and signal equipment.
140
e) Floor slots or sleeves of sufficient size for aU present and future com;fuit or bus
risers.
f) Sufficient floor space so that an electrician can work comfortably and safely on ini-
tial installation and repair.
g) Adequate illumination and ventilation.
lj
f! .
I '
I
:w-Nf!.L..
41 • •
'-'• A 8 G ''
_0
..
'
I
I
I
).
I
~
I
; ~
I
l ~ I
~
.
I
I
~f) I
)
I
I
/'.. I
~ ~
.' ~
I
eUI•T-IH
t.\EGHAN IGALJ..Y ~
.
)o
HELD "-"NTACTZ>R
N ~- ~- - --....
--- - ~ . - ---. I
I
~-
l
,
I
-~ I
... ,
I I
I ~,.- I
ST"A,ON• ~
I I
LODBY ANO
} GORR.IOOR L!fiHTINe
.
r I
~
,
I
I j
~
I I
------------ ------------'-
I I
8. EQUIPMENT LAYOUT
Wiring devices, principally comprising receptacles and switches, are located as re-
quired by the known equipment to be served and by the anticipated area use. All 15
amp and 20 amp. Convenience receptacles must be of the providing type.
Switches for control of lighting or receptacles are normally placed on the strike side of
the door. Other devices such as plug-in strip on walls and special purpose receptacles
are shown and identified. Signal outlet locations are often noted but generally remain
uncircuited on floor plans, a riser being utilized to show interconnections. These in-
clude firealarm equipment, telephone and intercom equipment, radio and tv outlets,
thermostats, and so on.
141
It is suggested that lighting fixture outlets are placed on one sheet and the receptacles
on another. M otors, heaters, and other fixed and permanently wired equipment are
shown and identified on the receptacle drawings (called power drawings) .
General Rutes:
..
a) Overcurrent devices must be placed on the line or supply side of the equipment be-
ing protected .
tt
~
WRG>Ne
WAY
! tOiliZEC.T
WAY
142
c) All equipment should be protected in accordance with its current-carrying capacity.
CAPAC. IT'(
-o~ 80 .11'11) )rn~ xr ltum f~
NO -. AW& T'YflE RHW lNSULAT16N,
Cr: AS A)IIWS AU.DW.ABLE 0\f'~ I TY
~ ..,_.-JM -~)
IU
~ m.ax tmum ~Jrz:Ilt b~r
'Z
~
d) Conductor sizes shall not be reduced in a circuit or te1p, unless the smallest size-wire
is protected by the circuit overcurrent devices.
Main Supply
~ ~
set of Fuses, which limits the current
25' (8.00 m) Max on the tap to the wire capacity.
~ % capacity ~O
1
45 amp. (40 A Fuse Limits current on 4'> A
g ~ - -4 capacity wire)
~ · Use No.8 AHW, Minimum
40 amp.
fuse
a) General Purpose branch Circuit Supplies outlets for lighting and appliances in-
cluding convenience receptacles.
b) Appliance Branch Circuit. Supplies outlets intended for feeding appliances. Fixed
lighting not supplied.
SIZE RE~UID ~
FOR ITEM FED
In its simplest form, a branch circuit comprises only two wires. However, multiwire
branch circuits carrying 2 or 3-phase wires plus a neutral are also widely used . General-
ly, each branch circuit should be sized for the load connected to it, plus the load expan-
sion that is expected .
144
Rules to be followed:
a) In all but the smallest installations, connect lighting, convenience receptacles, and
appliances on separate groups of circuits.
b) General purpose branch circuits should be 20 amp and wired w ith No. 12 AWG
Wire. Switch legs may be No. 14 AWG if the lighting loads permit.
c) Limit the circuit load on 15 amp and 20 amp circuit loads as shown in this Table.
A) Loading gives approx. 25% spare B) Loading gives approx. 50% spare
capacity. capacity.
15 amp cct at 120v: 1 5 amp cct at 1 20v:
1440·1150 2~0 1440- 960 = 50%
11 50 = 11 50 = 2 5% 960
at 277v: = .:4~0-3;oO
3000
= __
1440 --=..,_ = 48%
3000
d) Use only grounding type recep'tacles on 15A and 20A branch circuits.
Since lighting and specific devices are circuited according to their nameplate rating, the
only circuitry item left to the judgement ·of the designer is the number of convenience
receptacles per circuit (cct) . The NEC specifies that plug outlets (convenience recep-
tacles) be counted, in totaling loads, at 1. 5 amp each unless included in the load for
general lighting. Thus following the guidelines stated in the Table below, of 9 and
Ramp loading on 15 and 20 amp circuits, respectively, we would have qy the method:
. . 12
20 amp Circuit TI = 8 outIets per cct
145
These figures must be used judiciously . The devices to be energized are small, these
quantities may be used. Such would be the case in a drafting room where only erasing
machines (50va) or a desk lamp ( 1 OOva) would be plugged in . However, for laboratory
tables, office machine, or assembly benches, no more than two or three receptacles
should be used or a 20 amp. circuit.
Receptacles should be arranged, if at all possible, so that the loss of a single circuit
does not deprive an entire area of power.
That is for t he sake of reliability, circuitry should be alternated to give each space parts
of different circuits.
...
BRANCH CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS
BRANCH CIRCUIT SIZE
15 amp 20 amp 30 amp 40 amp so amp
Minimun Size Conductors No. 14 (2.0) # 12 (3.5) # 10 (5.5) # 8 (8.0) # 6 (14)
Minimun Size Taps No. 14 {2.0) # 14 {2.0) # 14 (2.0) # 12 (3.5) # 12 (3.5)
Overcurrent Device Rating 15 amp 20 30 40 50
Lampholders Permitted Any Any Heavy Heavy Heavy
type type duty duty duty
Receptacle Taring Prermitted7 15 amp 15 or 30 40 or 50 amp
20 amp 50
Maximum Load6 15 20 30 40 50
NOTES:
1 . Wiring shall be types RHW, RHH, T, THW, TW, THWN, THHN, XHHN.
2. On lS amp circuit, maximum single appliance shall draw 1 2 amp. on 20-amp, cir-
cuit maximum single appliance, shall draw 1 6 amp. If combined w ith lighting or
portable, appliances any fixed appliance, shall not draw more than 75. an1p on a 15
amp circuit, and 10 amp on a 20-amp circuit.
3. On a 30-amp circuit, maximum single appliance draw shall be 24 amp.
4 . Heavy-duty lampholders are u nits rated not less than 750w.
5. 30, 40 and 50 amp circuits shall not be used for fixed lighting in residences.
6. When loads are connected long periods, actual load shall not exceed 80% <>f the
branch circuit rating. Conversely, continuous type loads shall be figures at 1 25% of
actual load calculations.
7. A single receptacle on an individual branch circuit shall have a rating not less than
t he circuit, for example 1 5 amps on a 1 5-amp circuit, etc. 1 5-amp receptacles on
20-amp circuit shall not supply a load greater than 12 amp for appliances. 20 amp
receptacles on 20 amp circuit shall be limited to a 16-amp load.
The usual wiring system· is a radial or ''Tree" type system in which conductors of prog-
ressively smaller size emanate radially from distribution points . These distribution
146
points are the switchboards and panelboards throughout the system. which provide
overcurrent protection for each of these radiats. Note that at each step, power is tap-
ped off in a smaller " package" and in accordance with the principles of overcurrent
protect ion an appropriately sized protective device is placed at the point of tap.
LOAP I TEM S
147
Such an arrangefl'!ent is shown below. The advantage of this system, in addition to
the advantages inherent in a surface raceway wiring system, is that by eliminating
branch circuit wiring, installation costs are reduced, voltage drop and energy losses
in branch circuit conductors are negligible, and loads are individually protected.
To
Unit heater
II
ceiling
II
11
II
Lightin!) SWI!CheS
~ 200amp
,.- I m ;11n
1 I' disconn ecl
_.. I I
. I
.l I
)
1 II
I .
~ Power hand .
I tool ori separate
breakers
Ma1n feeder
in concrete
slab
Typical room layout using the feeder tapping wiring technique. The room feeder is tapped
from the main feeder and protected by the 200 amp main disconnect that is either a circuit
breaker or a fused switch. Beyond this point, tflE~ room feeder is run in surface raceway and
is tapped at each device with a circuit breaker, which feeds an individual outlet. Overhead
loads - such as the heater (shown} and lighting (not shown)-are fed from raceway circuit
breakers.
a) The NEC requires for residences sufficient circuitry to supply a load of 3 W/sq.ft. in the
building, (30 w/sq.m.) excluding unfinished spaces such as porches. garages, and
basements. This requirement of 3 W/sq.ft. works out to 800 sq. ft. per 20-amp circuit
(2400W) or 600 sq. ft. per 15 amp circuit (1800W}. 80 sq.m per 20-amp circuit (2400W) or
60 sq.m per 15 amp circuit {1800W).
148
w .. vJ w
I= --amp
v
W = 20 (120) = 2400 watts
= 15 (120) = 1800 watts
Good practice, however dictates a load of not more than 1600w for a 20-amp cir-
cuit or 1 200w for a 1 5-amp circuit. This gives 1 5-amp circuit, 1 200w max. 400
sq .ft. max.
(40 sq .m.)
20-amp circuit , 1600w max. 53 0 sq. ft . max.
(53 sq.m. )
bl The NEC requires a minimum of two 20-amp appliance branch circuits. To feed all
the small appliance outlets in the kitchen, pantry, dining room, and family room,
and only these outlets. Furthermore, all kitchen outlets must be fed from at least
two of these circuits.
These receptacles should be circuited with preferably two, but no more than four,
such outlets on a 20-amp. circuit, and the circuits should be arranged so that the
kitchen has part of at least two circuits feeding its outlets.
149
c) Additional circuits similar to appliance circuits should be furnished to supply one
outlet in each bedroom of a house that is not centrally air-conditioned. Such outlets
are intended for window air conditioners.
.for Ac.
d) The NEC requires that at least one 20-amp. circuit supply the laundry outlets. This
requirement satisfies good practice. If an electric clothes dryer is anticipated an in-
dividual branch circuit should be supplied to serve this load, via a heavy-duty recep-
tacle .
.LAUNDRY
OUTLET
e) Lay out convenience receptacles so that no point on a wall is more than 6 ft. from
an outlet. Use 20 amp. grounding-type receptacles only. Do not combine recep-
tacles and switches into a single outlet except where convenience of use dictates
high mounting of receptacles, as above counter spaces.
150
cs f ) Circuit the lighting and receptacles so that each room has
parts of at least two circuits. This includes Basement and
garages.
h) Supply at least one receptacle in the bathroom and one outside the house. Both
must be GFCI type as (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter). An additional conveuience
is switch control of the outside receptacle from inside the house
i) In rooms without overhead lights, provide switch control for one-half of a
strategically located receptacle that is intended to supply a lamp.
HDT
WALL SWITCH
Safe way since the receptacle is mounted w ith the grounding pole at the top
151
j} Provide switch control for closet lights. Pull chains we a nuisance (cheaper) . .
k) In bedrooms supply two duplex outlets at each side of t he bed location to ac-
comodate electric blanket, clocks, radios, lamps and other such appliances.
I) Since receptacles are counted as part of general lighting and no additional load is
included for them, no limit is placed on the number of receptacle outlets that may
be wired to a circuit.
For good practice they should be limited to 6 receptacles on a 1 5-amp circuit and 8
on a 20 -amp circuit .
c -~ IS amp
C-7 Zi>.amp
m) Kitchens should have a duplex appliance outlet every 36 in. (0.90m) of counter
space, but no less than two in addition to the normal wall outlets.
152
n) A disconnecting meahs readily accessible, must be provid-
ed for etectric ranges, cook tops and ovens. It is better
practice to utilize a small kitchen panel recessed into a
corner wall to control the large kitchen appliances and to
provide completely safe, accessible disconnecting means.
o) Perimeter lighting, inside switch controlled, can do much to lessen vandalism and
discourage prowlers, in addition to illuminating the house of night .
-¥:______________ --;;r
.---------
I
I
I I
1I
II
\1
It
II
1\
I\
I. \
l-?-
1
I
I
153
....... Living Areas
~ -------------------------------------------------
Workshop (P) 1500 115 2 # 12 20A 1 or more 5-20A Separate circuits recommended.
Portable (P) 1300 115 2 #12 20A 1,
- 5-20A
-
Should not be connected to circuit serv-
"
LIVING ROOM
K
&ASIC HO\JSE -FIRST FLOOR
ELECTRIC PLAI'i; (o)
EOUII'MEI<lT ANO Oi:VICE LAYOVT
1. Swirch and outlet for t:ld\turt ten, s-,..,Stch
WRfl mld. above lJnk btkk.$1)11111h. Outltt
With b'1nk (0\.ot!r mounted idjaceont to
Symbol Lost t-.n .....u OCM"nKl;. ~.te -~ rn.~y bt
ornitt-cl if fan is WPOtted with ln1-or•1
See Fog. l7.16d h'lilC'h.
2. Oi-Ulwasher tt«<tiiC't wall m,Cf, behet\d
unH, 6 " AFF.
3. A¥tqt and 0¥1'0 ourltf boxes w-alt m cd .•
35- AFF. F'-ldblt " O,I"teCtion l D unefl.
•. Surbe. r~ys. outlet boJIIft to bt lly,lh
mounted w'th 11uill OOYtt,. suhaOI• for
e»tntif1g or Oth•r wall f)n;~ .
155
LIGHTING f'lXTUI'E SCHEDULE
48" L X 12" W X 4" DEEP ·NOMINAL, 2 LAMP/FLUOR€5- 8R ifE-L ITE CO. 4 ~ DEPTH MAXIMUM
A CENT, WR ~ P - AR OU ND ...CRV I.IC LENS. f 40 WW/l.AMPS. CAT. # 2140/ KfF
SURI'...CE MTD. OR EQUAL
24" L. t LAMP 20W FLUOR. FIXTURE, WI'AP-AROUNO BR ITE-LITE CO. MAX. MTG. HT.
B Wl-11TE DIF FUSER. WITH SINGLE-SWITCHED RECEPTACLE. CAT. #l1201BFF 78'" TO'(;
MOUNT ABOVE MEDICINE CABINET. OR EQUAL
HOMELAMP CO.
ADJUSTABLE HEIGHT PENDAN T INCANDESCENT,
c 3-75 W MAX., 8UI LT-I N 3-POSI TION SWITCH. .CAT . #3/75/DRP
OR EQUAL
.£...
H)" 0. DRUM- TYPE FIXTURE, WHITE GLASS DIFFUSER. BRITEI.ITE CO. 6"' MAX. DEPTH .
D CENTER LOCK-IJP, 2-$lW IN CAND. MAX., SURF. MTD. CAT. #2/60/HF
OR EQUAL
12" D. ORUM FIXTURE. CONCEALED HINGE ON OPAL DENMARK LIGHTING NO SUBSTITUTION
F GLASS DIFFUSER FOR RELAMPING WITHOUT GLASS SPECIAL UN IT WILL BE ACCEPTED.
REMOVAL. 2- 75W INCAND. MAX . SURFACE MTD. m..a21
156
IASIC HOUSE - 8-"SEME"'T
CIACVtTlD ElECTRIC PlAH.
157
Load, Circuit and Receptacle Chart for Residential Electrical Equipment.
NEMA
Typical Circuit Outlets Devicec and
Connected Breaker on Configuration
Appliance Type Volt:Amperes Volts Wiresb or Fuse Circuit See Fig. 16.41 Remarks
.Kitchen
Range IF) 12,000 1 15/230 316 60A 14·60R Use of more than
one outlet is not re-
..
commanded .
Range top !Fl 6,000 115,1230 3 110 30A 14-JOR May be direct con-
nected.
Range top IFI 3,300. 115/230 3 #12 20A 14-30R May be direct con-
nected.
Fryer (PI 1,300 115 1 #12 20A 1 or more 5-20R See note a.
Coffemeker !PI 1,000 115 2 #12 ~OA 1 or more 6-20R See note e.
Freezer !Sl 350 115 2 112 20A 1 or more 6-20R Separate circuit
serving only refri-
gerator and
freezer is recom-
mended.
Laundry
Hend iron;
(PI 1,650 115 2 112 20A 1 or more 6-20R
Ironer
158
HOUSE WIRING SYMBOLS
SIGNAL SYSTEM
159
,ANE L SCHiOUt.£ FOR I ASIC HOUSE
~ {
1 ~ {
13 30A 1l •• JOA
ELECTR IC CLOTii ES D RY ER RA!'«iE 14
21' IS • • 2P
.PANEL OATA
MAINS, GNO. 8 US: 150A loi NS., OOA GH O. SUS VOLTAGE 120/240 I Pli.
MAINC/ 8150/100 ~
BRANCH C/9 INT. CAP. 5000 AMP.
MOUNTING -~ / RE CE S
REMARKS: FRONT SUIT A BLE FO R PAI NT ING
i6J
160
13. LOAD TABULATION
While circuiting the loads, a panel schedule is drawn up which lists the circuit numbers.
load description and wattage (actually volt-amperes) and the current rating and number
of poles of the circuit-protective device feeding each circuit. Spare circuits are included
to the extent that the designer considers them necessary and consonant with econo-
my, but normally no less than 20% of the number of active circuits. Finally, spaces are
left for future circuit breakers, in approximately the same quantity as the number of
spare circuits but always to rounci off the total number of circuits.
Panels are normally manufactured with an even number of poles. Thus for a 21 pole
panel with spares, designer would probably require 3 spaces to give a 24-circuit box .
..
.
205 207
16' 20'
'
~ typeG All type f, 150w
lOOw
(~) •
a) Here alternative methods of circuiting are shown in a). Room 205 shows the actual
junction box location, with flexible connections 'to the box at each fixture. Room
207 shows circuit numbers and switch, designations only; the placement of junc-
tion boxes is understood, and conduit runs are omitted for clarity, and because they
most often are not representative of actual installation. From 209 shows an outlet
box at each fixture, with schematic conduit connections. All these systems are in
common use.
)!1;-Cl
I
(1>1 1 Exec. office
11 _ _ n
"
- ---
... ,
~- .._'-Q;-_-f/11" -~
b) Typical circuiting of several rooms in an office-lab building. Lighting and power {re-
ceptacles are shown on separate plans Ia) amd (b) to avoid crowing. Lighting in offices is
recessed; lighting in labs is surface mounted for flexibility. Note the double circuiting of
the Type 0 receptacles.
161
ELECT. PANEL- LP - 1 120j208 v Js* ~w
l.OAO IN WATTS BRANCH CARCUIT
"""
S£RVES ..... .8 •c Pales Frame Trip
I l.iqhtino !OSO I 50 20
2 Liohtino /OSO
3 Liahtina 1450
4 .l.i_qjlting IOSO
5 Lighting 1100
6 Liqhtinq 1200
7 Liohtina 8 00
8 Liqhtinq 1100
9 Liah!ifl(l - Corri dor 700
~
10 Liqhting JOSO
11 liqhtinq 1000
12 liqilting 1 ~0
13 Recepto ck: s S@t.S omp 900
. 14 Reaptacfe - Corrid or ( sinqle pole) 900
15 Receptacle 900
16 Receptacle 900
17 .Span: 1200
18 Spo r~ 1200
19 S IX1 ~ 1200
20 \. Receptacle -Corridor 1 1000 1 2
!J 2•pole port ion) /000 I}
21 Spct~ i 1200 2 y
22 l 1200
0!3-26 Spaces on ly I 50
8260 8 25 0 7901)
. Phase totals
Note in Room 207, t here are 5 fluorescent No. @ 15.Qw = 750 w and 2 @ 150w· =
300w totals 1050w No. 1.
I == -
w W == l (v) (see page 12)
v
W == 7 .5 ( 120v) == 900 watts
162
~A '"" 8 ,200 watts
2
1 = 8 • 00 = 69 or 70 amp . each (more or less equal}
120
NOTE in the Schedule for lighting Panel LP-1that 2-pole loads (208 single-phase) ap-
pear in two columns. Similarity , 3-phase loads would appear in three columns. Also
note that the phase loads are not equa l. It is the responsibility of the designer to circuit
the loads so that the phases are as closely balanced in load as possible. If this is not
done, one phase will carry considerably more current than the others. Since the panel
feeder must be sized for the maximum phase current this may lead to an oversized
feeder and therefore a waste of money:
Having tabulated and balanced the loads and totaled them by phase, the maximum cur-
rent is calculated. A portion of the spare capacity available in the branch circuits is add-
ed to the above total, as the basis for the calculation of the feeder load. (something bet·
ween 25% to 50%).
Storage:
3000 sq.ft.@ 0.5 w/sq.ft. = 1,500 watt
300 sq . m.@ 5 w/sq. m. = 1500w = 1.5 kw
Total Load = 86 .5 kw
Minimu m ·Feeder capacity 100% + 25% = 1.25
125 x 86.5 = 108.125 kw
163
Looking at the Table of Recommended Branch Circuit load. Column B, we utilize anini-
tial branch circuit loading of 13 00w per cct, since the building is of good grade office
construction, and we anticipate 40 to 80% expansion.
Number of cct = 86 · 5 = 68
1300
Because of the size of the building, three panels are required to keep branch circuits
.below 100ft. in length in practice, additional circuits are provided for receptacles and
spares.
Receptacles:
First at 400 sq. ft. 10 receptacles
next 16,600
@ 110 sq.ft. per 1 51 receptacles
161 receptacles
164
Thus with initially three (3) panel locations, we proceed to circuit the lighting and
receptacles according to the actual tenant requirement in this case use 108 kw. as
solved.
Assuming even distribution of load, and actual load greater than minimum
I= 62 kw = 172 amps
0.360
_w w
OR l -ffi; 1 =~
165
SIZES MAXIMUM NUMBER OF CONDUCTORS IN TRADE SIZES OF CONDUIT
Metric English 117 . 314" 1" 1 1/4" 1112" 2" 2112" 3" 3112" 4"
mm 2 AWG TW THW TW THW TW THW TW THW TW THW TW THW TW THW TW THW TW THW TW THW
MCM
8 8 2 1 4 3 7 5 12 10 17 13 28 22 40 32 62 49 84 66 108 85
14 6 1 2 4 7 10 16 23 36 48 62
22 4 1 1 3 5 7 12 17 27 36 47
30 2 1 1 2 4 5 9 13 20 27 34
38 •1 - 1 1 3 4 6 9 14 19 25
50 0 1 1 2 3 s 8 12 16 21
60 00 1 1 1 3 5 7 10 14 18
80 000 1 1 1 2 4 6 9 12 15
100 0000 . 1 1 1 3 5 7 10 13
125 250
150 300
175 350
200 400
250 500
300 600
380 750
500 1000
166
PtNSICAL PROPERTIES OF BARE CONDUCTORS
1.32" I i
18 0.041 1.016
32 32 ·...---
16 2,580 .!&ar H 0.050 1.291
~-·
32 16
14 4,.109 ..2..ar i..
16
0.062 1628
32
t2 6,530 ..L.i. 0.080 2053
16
2" ......
10 10~38 11'
!!' ~ore 0.101 2.588
·- ----
0·125
~-· - 2.-f Of l2"
8 16.510 0.150 3.708
16 16
6 26,240
_:i_• 0.187 4.674
16
3.8 0237 5.843
4 41.740
. - _£'
16
16 Of
f «-;r
,. 0.250
-
~-
2 66,360 .U"
16 or ¥' 0.293 7.417
I 63,69Q ¥" or ~
~
0.332 8-433
() ct> 105,600
6"
16
3''
T 0. 375 9.447
~ l
00 <i> Il 133,100 ~·
8
0412 10.617
1
000 ( .!.)
0
167,600 u·«
8
~ or-L
8 2
0.475 \1,938
! I
150 MCM I 250,CIXJ e 4.0" I"
or 2 ClllCI--8
4.6" 0500 0.575 14-605
- I
EXAMPLE •
MCM: ~:
2
(<'i?/lterf 3 t 5001 - 2P&W'O : 250 MCM
1000 I 1000-
ln heno:solld ~eta -f1n diameter is 500 MILS; sinQt I incb IS IOOOcireulor mils. 167
ALLOWABLE CURRENT
AMPERES
CARRYING CAPACITY
TABLE 1 TABLE 2
not more than three conductors Single Conductor 2
in raceway or conduits Free Air
METRIC ENGLISH
Thermoplastic Type Thermoplastic Type
SIZE SizeA.W.G.
Types T and TW THW Types T and TW THW
mm2 orM.C.M.
2.0 14 AWG 15 15 20 20
3.5 12 20 20 25 25
5.5 10 30 30 40 40
8.0 8 40 45 55 65
14 6 55 65 80 95
22 4 70 85 105 125
3 80 100 120 145
30 2 95 115 140 170
38 1 110 130 165 195
60°C 75°C
When all devices are circuit ed an d p anel s are located and scheduled, we are ready t o
prepare a riser diagram. This show the vertical relationships. A ll panels, feeders, swit~
ches, switchboards, and major c omponents are shown up t o, but not including, branch
c ircu iting. This diagram i s an electrical version of a vert ical sect ion taken through t~:e
building .
.168
ELEVAmR5 MA(; HINe R<»M
LP
..
4th
169
EXAMPLES:
Feeder F-1 o serves lighting panels 1 A , 2A, and 3A. Calculate the required feeder size,
considering loads, future expansion-and voltage drop.
SOLUTION:
Taking into consideration that the loads on these panels per floor have been already
computed individually, and are:
170
order to separate to the largest extent possible the motor loads (Elevators, air-condi-
tioning equipment, basement power, etc.) from the lighting. Such a procedure mini-
mizes lighting fluctuations resulting from motor starting and yields simpler main-
tenance. Also the size of the main switch is reduced. This switchboard would be of
the metal clad dead-front type with switches or circuit breakers, as desired.
Other considerations and general rules affecting service equipmenJ. are listed below.
a) A building may be supplied at one point by either a single set or parallel sets of ser-
vice conductors.
b) Service drops may Qf$nerally be not less than No.8 AWG and service entrance con-
ductors or underground service conductors not less than No.6 AWG.
c) All equipment used for service including cable, switches, meters, and so on, shall
be approved for that purpose.
d) It is recommended that a minimum of 1 00-amp. 3-wire, 1 20/240 service be pro-
vided for all individual ret¥dences.
e) No service switch smaller than 60-amp or circuit breaker frame smaller than 50 amp
shall be used.
f) In multiple occupancy buildings, tenants must have access to their own disconnect
means.
g) All building equipment shall be connected on the load side of the service equipment
except that service fuses & metering, fire alarm, and signal equipment serving emer-
gency systems may be connected ahead of the main disconnect. (see typical power
riser diagram).
The emergency system includes all devices, wiring raceways, and other electrical
equipment, including the emergency' source that is intended to supply electric power to
the selected loads. These loads normally include egress lighting (stair, corridor, and exit
and lobby lights); signal equipment such as public address and fire alarm that must re·
main functional during an emergency, and one or more elevators as required by Code.
RECOGNIZED ARRANGEMENTS:
171
a) Where all emergency loads can be supplied with d-e direct current, this arrange-
mentis used.
tENTRAt..
1---484-TTERY
TS AUT<>MATIG
TRA.NSFER SWITCH
NORMAL AG PC..
I i \I
172
c) When the emergency Equipment is entirely separate from the normal equipment
and is normally deenergized, the system below is used. (For egress lighting
only). The contactor is activated when it senses power loss.
-o.~_r
NORMAL- ~ t ------+-r---r
, l-.--..I1
l ~ 1 1
EMS~N"f N<'N SMER6ENC't
l
SO.TER'!tiJ~-r1
I
:
I
L - - ...
PANEL
CONTACTOR
2) When Emergency loads are larger than can be supplied economically by batteries,
and where the 8 to 1 5 sec. start-up time is tolerable, a generator set is employed.
(Hospitals} The prime mover may be gasoline, diesel, steam or gas.
The system can be arranged with a single transfer switch that senses normal power
loss as in fig. (2al or it can use multiple switches, each one of which will sense
power loss at its downstream location as in (2-b).
r-~.EGNCV
NCaW..
)
/ B) The transfer switches are smaller,
thus reducing the chance of a single
equipment. Failure faulting out the en-
tire emergency power system.
173
3) Many codes permit ~he use of two separate electric services in lieu of a normal ser-
vice plus an emergency source provided that the two sources are independent, that
is, come from different utility transformers or feeders, enter the building at dif-
ferent points and preferably from different directions, and use separate service
drops or laterals. The point is, of course, that the type of reliability desired can only
be obtained by minimizing the possibility of a single event interrupting both ser-
vices.
The usual arrangement is for one service to be "normal" and the other " standby"
as in 3-a figure. A much less frequent case utilizes both feeders as "normal". each
carrying part of the normal load and each ~cting as a standby for the other, as in
3-b. ~
c"""'0---
NORMAL
- - +-0
STANDBY ~-+0
i rrrr
4) The least reliab le arrangement is one in which the emergency loads are connected
ahead of the main disconnects and are so arranged that a downstream fault within
the building will not affect these items. This situation as shown in this figure, where
174
) )
MAIN
-..---.IIIII----... 5WIT~ BOA~
-~ FA I
.,.__ __.~ l LPSE= .,
STAIR/. OIT
PANEL
INCOMING SERVtCE
the stair and exit panel, which supplies egress lighting, and the fire alarm panel are
connected ahead of the building main disconnect and protected with their own
fuses . This arrangement can do nothing in the event of a power outage (brownout) .
A portion of a typical stair and exit riser is shown below. Circuits connected to this
panel are not switched, being of the constant burning type. Emergency system Wir-
ing must be kept entirely independent of all other wiring and equipment and should
not occupy the same enclosure or conduit as normal system, except in dual fed
units such as transfer switches.
LIGHTIN6 ~Nt:L )
( 86.SEMENT EMERGE.'NC)'
175
;·
.,d
;
i,.~
•·
(•
I
L.- - - -- - -- - - --·- -r ~- y -.:·~'
!
·-··· ·· · ... .. - . . .. . - ··-· . ... .... _/
L_ --4 - -- - --- ··- - -- - ---. -- - -- -- -- -.. ------- · . ._-- _.•,,_ _
LIGHTING
SCALE
LAYOUT PLAN
I:SO
176
:------------
I
- - - - -~ - ·- - - - - ------- ------.;
! BALCONY II
u--
; :
LtVIN$
177
ELECTRICAL LBEND
~ POWER SERVICE ENTRANCE CAP WtRES IN CONOUfi._t«> HASHMARKS
~ TELEPHONE SERVICE CAP lNOfCATE TWO Wt<ES
~ MAIN KILOWATT HOUR METER BRANQt QRCUIT ~E TO
® ELECTRIC KILOWATT HOUR METER PAtELBOARD
(SU8- Nf'1'EIII) -1'- TEl..EPHOt£ CR:UIT, RJN IN CON-
B MAIN DISTRtBUTION ~ELBOARD WIT CONCEALED
CJ AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SWITCH lN~B_ Ul T RUN IN CONDUIT
•
- IC -
?WIER AND LIGHTiNG PANELBOAAD
D SAFETY SWITCH RATING AS - a- GROUND WIRES BARE COPPER
INDICATED STRAND SIZE AS INDICA1E>
~ : f=:t8= ~t
LIGHT FIXTURE
COIERED
t::().::l c 1-40 watt FU>URESCENT COVE
UGHT FIXTURE
100 watt PINUGHT LAMP OUTLET
CEJLif(; MOUNTED
o. lOOwa" INCANDESCENT LAMP
CEILING MOUNTED
•Sa TUMBLER SWITCH SINGLE POLE
oSab TUMBLER SWllCH SINGLE POLE
TWO GANG
•sa bc l\JMBLER SWITCH SINGLE POLE
TRREE GANG
oSSa TRREE-WAV TUMBLER SWITCH
DUPLEX CONVENIENCE oun.ET
WITH ONE OF THE OUTLE'TS ON
SWITCH CCM"ROL AND THE
OTHER OUTLET ON CONSTANT
• 3 PRONG GROUNDING TYPE
DUPLEX CONVENIENCE OUT~I, ••
WAL \U.TAGE N~-lTERCMAn
GEABLE PLUG- TYPE WITH PROfER
WL.TAGE MARKINGS
:@CI.. CLOSE TO CEIUNG CONVENIECE
OUn..ET FOR SIGN PROVISION
:§ 'IP WAlERPRO<F DUPLEX CONVE-
NENCE OUTLET
:®~t ELECTRIC RANGE OUTLET, SINGLE
250v, 50a
-@o SPECIAL PlR'OSE OUTI..ET, SINGLE,
0-DRYER-,TP TRANSFER PUMP,
DEEP WELL PUMP
(i) GB£RAfOR STAND-BY
~ TEl.EPt«lNE "TERMINAL CAB1t£T,
WITH TERMINAL BLOCK, SIZE
AS INDICATED
o:.Ll IN IEROJM TERMINAL CABINET
SIZE AS INDICATED
-t> -i> 1"6bTfl!?N~Wu'tJiR<n.
0 I!J ELECTRIC OOOR CHIME OR OOOR
PANEL E£LL 220v/ 12v TRANS-
FORMER
G PUSH BOTTON
I!! FIRE ALARM MANUAL STAllON
® FIRE ALARM BELL
ffie:1 FIRE ALARM OONTR<l... PANEL
WIRING IN Cc:t.IWT CONCEALED
IN WALL, OR CEILING, HASH-
MARKS INDICATES NUMBER
178
ELECTRICAL
~-·.
NOTES
-··-··
I. ALL !LICT!ItiCAL WORKS AND INSTALLATION SHALL COMPLY WITH TME PROVISIONS OF THE
LATEST !DITtoN OF THE PHILIPPINE ELECTRICAL CODE WITH THE RULES AHD REGULATIONS t#
THE NATIONAL AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONCERNED IN THI INFORCEMEHT otr ELECTRICAL
LAWS AND RIGULATlO~S OP' THI UTILITY COMPANIES CONCERNED.
2 SIRVICI VOLTAGE TO THI 8UILDIN8 SHALL IE 110/220 VOLTt, 410 -ItT%, SIN8LI PHAft •
S THE CONTRACTO!It SHALL VEIUP'Y AND ORIENT n4E ACTUAL LOCATION 0111' CONa.TE Tl:ltMINAL
~LIE frOR CONNECTION TO THI POWI!It SUPPLY AND TILIEPHONIE SERVICE.
4 ALL INSTALLATION SHALL II CONCEALED lll'ftOM YEW, WIRINt SHALL K INCAS! IN POLYY!HYL
CHLDRIDI! f PVe, fllll'll!: SCHEDULE 40 EXCEPT POWER AND Tl!:LIPHONE SDVICE WtUCH SHALL
• RIIID I,_.L CONDUIT C RIC) OTtDWISI: NOTED.
t MINIMUM WIRE AND CONDUIT IIZI SHALL • NO. It Mlt8 TYN TW AHD Ua"e PVC TltADIE
SIZI , RISNCTtVELY UNLI. . ontt:RWISI ~fiECIPD •
8 PULL lOX IS 0, APPROMIATI IIZI SHALL BE PROVIDED • EVEN IP' MOT INDICATED '" DRAWINGS
TO ACCOMMODATE THE NUMBER OF SPLICES OF WIRES.
1 ALL fi'LOURESCENT L.AMPS SHALL. 8E PROVIDED WITH POLVESTER- FILLED PRE-HEAT • THEftMALLY
PROTECTED, HIGH POWER BALLAST.
I ALL MATERIALS TO BE USED SHALL BE IC£W AND APPROVED TYPE APPROfiRIATI FOR BOTH
LOCATION AND INTENDED USE •
9 LltMT CONTftOL SWf'R:HES SHALL BE RATED IOo 300 wott• AND SHALL NOT CMRY A LOAD
8REATER THAN eo omJJ•· •
10 DUPLEX RECEPTACLES SHALL BE RATED IOo • 2:50 volt•, RI)UNDt:D SLOTS Fa. ~20 "lt1 ANQ !'OR
PllRALLEL SU>TS FOR 110 ~'*, AND SPECIAL OUTL£TS SHALL 81 RATED ISo OR 2:50 volta
AS REQUIRED.
IJ. trOR EACH SPARE CIRCUIT JN PANEL. BOARD, PROVIDE EMPTV 3/4"• RISER TERMtNATIN8 IN A
11
2-1/8" DEEP BY 4 OCTAtONAL. BOX A80VE CIJLING .
fl. ILICTIUCAL IMST#ILLATIOMS SHALL IE 'UNDER THE DIRECT SUPDvtSION Otr A DUL't LICENSED
ELICTRfCAL I:NGINEER, OR A REGI8TI!:Iti!:D MASTER ELECTRICIAN.
13 OUTLET BOXES SHALL II AS JfOLLOWS :
179
LOAD SCHEDULE
ce..an LJIHT .J:J/JitY
cmD8
IWtTCH RATING RATitUr WlltE CoetDUIT fi'ROT&CTION 1MPUn
NO ~ IOU'n..£'1 ... 82W WATn VOLTS 81ZI: ~za AT AI'
I
• '· • IOOW IJOY l s.oMalTw ISIIIM • 15 100 Z..OAMPS
• s eoow • ...too
...
2 I dOY IJjljlljl. . . ISMN tS I.IO.U.S
I
• .oow 118/dOV s.eMMTW
2
,,., IS 100 .........
.. ltANeE eooow 115/ZSOV
I
t.OMMTW IOIIIN. 40 too a.DeAMf'S
"tt1aL Ia
• I II I 8,100W IIS/UOV ..14:.);:
RISER DIAGRAM
CKT4 WIRE RUN UNO£R FLOOR
L _ ___ _j
CIRCUIT BREAKER
180
.. .
HEATING
chapter VENTILATING
AIR CONDITIONING
COOLING
HEAT AND MOISTURE IN THE
ATMOSPHERE AND HUMAN
COMFORT
1 . METABOLISM
Food taken into the body may be thought of as fuel that is subject to a low-grade burn-
ing process sufficient to maintain a body temperature of 98.6 °F (37 °C~. ThP.re is a
wide variation in metabolic rates, dependent on physical activity. For an average size
man, the met unit corresponds approximately to 360 British Thermal units per hour
t8Tuh); women tend to have maximum levels about 30% lower.
METABOLIC RATE at Different Typical Activities:
METABOLIC RATE IN
ACTIVITY
MET UNITS
182
The term Environmental comfort has taken on a broad meaning. they include items
such a$ aesthetics and acoustics. Factors that can be controlled by air-conditioning
systems include:
a. Temperature of the surrounding air.
b. Mean radiant temperature of the surrounding surfaces.
c. The relative humidity of the air.
d. Motion of the air.
e. Odors.
f . Dust
3. REGULATION OF THE
THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
AIRTEMP. '
7S.'F ~
Heat loss by convectfon. Differential between the average skin and clothing tempera-
ture and the room air temperature is usually about 1 0 °F at any selected air temperature
in a space, with fixed air motion, air particles in contact with the body, are warmed.
They become less dense and r!Je:'to be replaced by cooler particles that follow in turn .
If the air temperature ris..H" as a result of this, the optimum, then the selected
temperature must be restored within limits of 1 or 2 degrees. In the cold season, this
may be done by controls that reduce the output of the heating system. In mild weather
cool outdoor air may be introduced. In summer, mechanical cooling may be necessary.
The most recent standards call for a temperature related to the activity but not to the
season. For this reason, year-room air conditioning is essential under conditions of
dense occupancy and significant activity.
Heat loss by r•dlatlon is the transmission of energy through the air from the warmer
human body or its clothing to the cooler surfaces that are "seen" by the warmer
sources. This expression is chosen to emphasize that the energy cannot go around cor-
ners or be affected by air motion. The surface temperature of the human body and its
clothing less to MAT of the surrounding surfaces is the determining differential in this
radiant transmission.
183
Mean radiant temperature MAT, reflecting the thermal nature of people's indoor sur-
rounding environment is usually between 70 and 80 °F. Since either is less than the
usual average of skin and clothing temperature of about 8 5 °, heat radiates frorn the
body to its surroundings. In the (winter) cold condition as illustrated. Surfaces (a) (c)
and (d) are about at room air temperature 172 °F). The mean however, is affected by a
higher temperature (b) due to lights, and a lower one (e) reflecting outdoor conditions.
Although the MAT usually lies between 70 and 80 °F and tends to stablize at the room
lJit t emperature, it is sometimes affected by large glass areas , degree of insulat ion,
lights and so on. Recent trends have tended to stabilize the MAT at a temperature close
to that of the air in the spaces. These trends include more insulation, lower lighting
levels, and smaller glass areas.
The use of ·ci rculated air brings several advantages to occupied rooms. The motion
tends to unify the thermal conditions necessary for·comfort. A lso as air gently passes
the occupants, it carries away accumulated warm air and the humidity given off by the
body. This results in a feeling of freshness, and comfort by assuring uniform conditions
in the space by clearing out stuffy spots.
184
The rate of circulation relates principally to the heat to be carried to or from the room
and it generally results in air speeds that lie between 70 and 1 0 feet per minute {fpml.
In setting dry-bulb standards it is usual to take into account the slightly cooling effect
of moving ai r.
ASH RAE Standard 90-7 5 was adopted by the A merican Society of Heating, refri-
gerating and air conditioning engineers in 197 5 w ith energy conservation as its prin-
cipal t heme.
Indoor design Conditions
W inter (cold December) 72°F {22°C) dry bulb . . up to 30% maximum relative
humidity if humidification is provided.
Summer 78%F (25.5 °C) dry bulb where comfort air condi-
tioning is required or used.
Pounds of
Operation
Moisture
185
Cooking From Food From Gas
<$. TJ-+E STOVE IS NOT MERELY J('i b) THE CON\t€CTOf? STRIP MOVES
THE WRONG PLACE. IT ACCEL-E· .AIR UP TO WARM THe GLASS
RATES 1li E '' OOWNS up"'CF COLD AND PROVIDE$ LOCAL RADIANT
AIR F="ROM iHE GLASS. WARMTH.
Of the numerous building materials, glass is the most senitv~ to weather changes and
poses some of the major problems in maintaining thermal standards. It has taken some-
trme for architects and .air-conditioning engineers to develop solutions to the problems
that large glass areas can create in winter and In summer.
186
d) 6<X>D FACING.
SOUTH
HI&HANDLOW
~ 6000 FACING PI.ANT~G
EASTOR WEST
•
..
,
A sudden increase in the number of people occupying a space already adjusted to pro-
per thermal conditions can put a tax on sluggish air-conditioning systems. it is essential
that installations be arranged to prevent the uncomfortable temperature increase caus-
ed by sudden increase in population density.
Finally it is important to know that building, have a large thermal lag. If the temperature
in a building that is normally maintained at 70°F, it may be days before the MAT
returns to its former (higher) value. During that period the occupants will experience a
radiant chill that may not be compensated for by an even further rise in air
temperature.
187
When within tl'le prescribed levels, the air is termed acceptable outdoor air. In many
major cities those levels are met when this outdoor air is subjected to the minimal treat-
ment, including such processes as seen in this figure.
AIR ---+
---·
q ELECTROSTATIC AIR
-0~ -~:= Al..TERNATE NEGA"TlVt:!
PI..ATeS <9ROUNt>EO
CLEANER
(PRE C. I Pl TATORS) DETAIL OF C
AIR FILTRATION
DEVICES
In recirculated air systems, the requirements for quality apply to the air entering the oc-
cupied space. When air in that part of the system qualifies and has had additional
special treatment, the actual rate of outdoor air can be reduced to as little as 15% (If in
addition to temperature control, high efficient absorption or other odor and gas removal
equipment is employed) to 33° of the specified required ventilation air quantity (if ade-
quate temperature control is provided, in addition to filtering equipment, so that the
maximum allowable concentration of particulates entering the space is less than:
188
Specification
72_F DBT (30_) w inter
7B_ F DBT, summer
lNF\l..TRATION
SUPF\.Y
i
rt~ r~· .,_-~'T\JRN1
large savings in energy accrue from such reduction in the use of outdoor air. In w inter,
to quote approximate values, outdoor ventilation air at a low (0°F) temperature would
need at 120°F rise to join the 120°F air delivered to heat the space. In contrast, recir-
culated at leaving the space at 75°f would require a rise of only (120-75°F). a 45°F
differential.
In summer, if indoor cooling were provided, outdoor ventilation air at 95°F would re-
quire cooling to 60°F for delivery to the conditioned space, at differential of 35°F.
Recirculated air would only require cooling from 75 to 60°F a 15° F differential.
In mild seasons, densely occupied buildings tnat require cooling can be cooled by high
flow rates of the relatively cool outdoor air. Quality of the air entering the occupied
space is still a matter of concern. A ir-cleaning equipment, must "Qua lity condition" the
air to t he requirements of standard 62-7 3.
189
9. IMPORTANCE OF HEAT CONSERVATION
One of the requirements for t he comfort of people occupying indoor spaces during cold
weather is a const ant temperature of room air reasonably higher than that of the out·
door air. Heat supplied to the room for this purpose is constantly dissipated by
Transmission losses through the surfaces of the enclosure. It is lost also by the escape
of warm air through minute openings, such as the cracks between window sash and
frames. The air is forced out by cold outdoor air infiltrating through similar openings on
the opposite (windward) side of the room . Loss of warm air may occur also when con·
trolled ventilation operates to change the air in the room at established rates . Since
valuable energy must be used to offset these losses, a ca reful study if infiltration, ven·
t il ation, and transmission rates is part of every architectural design. ....
Among t he criteria for the selection of exterior construction, t hermal t ransmission is
one of considerable importance because every square foot of material carries a perma-
nent upkeep cost for fuel over the years. The index for comparison is t he u-coefficient
of transmission. The method of establishing this value for selected walls in developed
in the following sections in the following figures, u-coefficient is defined here as the
number of British thermal units per hour that pass through 1 sq. ft. of wall, floor. or roof
under actual conditions at the building when the difference between the inside and out-
side air temperature is 1°F under a steady rate of heat flow.
,,
r 10
o.zs
WOOO SIDING .
\VOOO SHEATI~
5)2'' 1NSULAT J6N
~ .lj 7C~. PlA~ Te R ( .1'37)
8 T~NSMI 9)2 TIMES
A~ FAST AS A .
(A) B
190
GLASS SINtae MUl.TIPI..S
WITH AIRS~E'
U::.1.13
E F c. TRANSMITS HS.:AT
3 TtMES AS FAST
AS e.
It should be pointed out that while glass is quick to lose heat under critical conditions,
including the absence of sunshine, it is most receptive, when correctly oriented, to the
passage of solar energy into the building during sunny hours.
191
10. NATURE OF HEAT FLOW
Beginning with the combustion of fuel in boilers or furnaces, heat flows by various
methods to warm the occupied spaces and hence minimally to outdoors by transmis-
sion through exterior room surfaces or by the loss Of' expulsion of warned air through
openings in the building.
The analysis and evaluation of the transmission through a combination of building
materials leads to the finding that the rate of heat flow is related to the passage of heat
through these assembled materials by:
a. conduction
b. convection
c. radiation
d. combinations of them
It is evident that a reduction in the rate of heat loss can be achieved by the use of in-
sulating materials having slow conduction rates and conversely. high thermal re-
sistance.
a. Conduction - the inside of a concrete watt which has one side exposed to outside
winter temperature feels cold to the touch. Heat is being conducted from the side of
higher temp. to that of lower temp. to prevent heat loss by conduction, we must use
materials that are poor conductors .
~ - ..
'<!) . •.
COLO OUTSIDE
.......;_. 4:
.
;., , • .L
192
c. Convection-when air is heated, it expands and begins to circulate. During the cir-
culation, it comes in contact w ith cooler surfaces, some of its heat is given up to
them. It is therefore important ~o t.r:v ~o prevent air cur~ents (convention currents)
from being set up in the walls and ceilings of our bu ilding.
To prevent heat from the inside to escape to the cold climate outside, or to prevent the
transfer of hot out side temperature In summer to the Living space within the building
we use THERMAL INSULATION MATERIALS such as: blankets and batts, boards and
slabs, loose fill.
193
When the higher temperature is at the Top
of a horizontal air space the warm air is
trapped at the top and, being less dense
than the cooler air at the bottom, will not
flow down to transfer its heat to the
cooler surface . This results in little flow by
convection.
LOWe"" "TEMP
AN AIR 5"PAGe' IN A FL..Oefl
..
LOWER
17~- ~- -~MP .
Example of Heat Loss:
( 1a) ( 1 b) ( 1 c) - by conduction at varying
rates in different mate-
rials.
The following figure compares the condutiv~es of a dense and a light material. It also
shows the method of computing the thermal resistance, R of an inch of material. A is the
reciprocal of conductivity. This is LIK and is stated as the number of hours needed for 1
BTU tQ flow through the material. For thickness other than 1 inch , the conductance C
decreases (K/ X) as the t hickness increases .
194
The resistance R increases directly ~. with the
increase in thickness. In each case X stands for the
th ickness of the material in inches.
( R
..
( 1 IM. IN Tt-ltS
EJ.AMPLE)
\IN
( -4 IN . IM 1lUS
E~Mr-L.)
~ 1-- 1 Itt.
195
EXAMPLE OF CONDUCTIVITIES (K)
196
5. MASONRY
MATERIALS
Cement Mortar 5.0 0.20
Sand and gravel 12.0 0.08
Stucco 5.0 0.20
6. MASONRY UNITS
Brick common 5.0 0.20
Clay tile, hollow from
3 inch to 1 2 inch from 1 .25 to
0 .4 0
Concrete blocks
4" 1.40
8" 0.90
7. PLASTERING
MATER IALS
Cement Plaster 3/8" , 3 .3
3/4" 6.6
8. ROOFING
Asbestos - Cement 4 .76
Shingles
Asphalt roll 6.50
Asphalt Shingles 2.27
Built-up Roofing 3.0
Slate 20 .00
Wood Shingles 1.06
9. SIDINGS
Shingle (same as
above)
Wood 1.27
Aluminum 10.00
Arch'l glass 10.00
1 2 . AIR SPACES
Air spaces may be introduced into the structure to reduce the U-coefficient and to aid in
retarding heat flor from the building. Unlike conventional batt of "fill" insulation, the
resistance of an air space is not related primarily to thickness, but is determined by
many factors includ ing position of the space, direction of heat flow, and the nature of
the surfaces lining the space. Radiant transmission across the space is much reduced
by the use of shiny material such as aluminum foil. It is sufficient to u se such material
on only one of the sides. Using it on both makes for very little improvement because the
reflective material will accept or emit only a small amount of heat relative to that
transmitted by the common rough build ing materials. Thickness of the air space are
generally evaluated for 0.5 and 0. 75 inch .
to I
HEAT FLOW
197
13. EFFECTS OF AIR MOTION
When a wall or roof is in place to enclose a room under conditions resulting in heat loss
from the space, the gentle motion of the nominally still air within the room and the more
active motion of the wind outside of the room both act to increase the rate of heat loss.
The room air is of course, higher in temperature than the inside surface of the room.
The convection currents within t he room cause the warmer air particles to collide with
the cooler surface. The resulting surface conductance, called hi (i for interior), is least
on the floor and increases slightly for the walls and ceiling. The outdoor air temperature
~s less than that of the outside surface of the structure. When the wind blows these
cooler air particles against these warmer exterior surfaces, the heat loss rate is increas-
ed. This conductance factor is called ho (0 tor outside). The factors are for the number
of Brit ish Thermal units per hour passing through 1 sq. ft. of surface f or 1 °F difference
in temperature. Thickness is not involved.
198
Total Resistance At
~ = ~-: = 0.04
-:z. '' LOW DE~TY
P~rma.,e
,. = .s;
t) •
8(WW ~ = 0.~4 = ~.70
At= 3.74
For heat gain, the process of calculation is the same as for heat loss. It begins with
areas, linear footage (edges). and cubic feet per minute (for infiltration). These values
are multiplied by the heat transfer factors for the corresponding items.
However, a number of differences must be noted.
a) The heat gain is based upon a temperature difference of 25 °F, since summer indoor
air is designed for 75 °F and outdoor air is 100 °F. The loss is related to a winter in-
door temperature of 7 5 °F and outdoor temperature of plus °F (70 °F different heat
transfer factors.
7S°F ~
I00°F
7.S~F /
+.SoF
INDOOR ~TDOR IN POOR. ~OUTDat
~-
SUMMER WINIER
199
Hollow core & storm 47.5 44 .3 41.2 38.0 19.0 15.8 12.7
door
Solid core ( 1 3/4" l 36.0 33.6 31.2 28.8 14.4 12 .0 9.6
Solid core & storm 23 .3 21.7 20 .2 18.6 9.3 7.8 6 .2
door
Walls
Frame- no insulation 18.2 16.9 15.7 14.5 7.3 6 .1 4.9
Brick - no insulation 20.0 18.6 17.3 16.0 8.0 6 .7 5.3
-with insulation 2" 8.6 8 .1 7 .5 6.9 3.5 2 .9 2.4
3" 6.1 5.8 5.3 4.9 2.5 2.1 1.7
6" 3.9 3.6 3.4 3.1 1.6 f.3 1.1
6" aggregate con-
crete
block no insulation 42.6 39.8 36.9 34.1 17.1 14.2 11 .4
with veroniculite 27.0 25.2 23 .4 21.6 10.8 9.0 7.2
Ceiling
Pitched roof
6" insulation 3.9 3.6 3.4 3.1 2.1 1.8 1 .6
8" insulation 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 1 .6 1 .6 1 .4
1 0" insulation 2.4 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.3 1.1 1.0
1 2" insulation 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.1 1.0 0.8
Hipped or Flat
6" insulation 3.4 3.2 2.9 2.7 3 .1 2 .6 2 .1
8" insulation 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.1 2.4 2.0 t .6
10 " insulation 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.9 1.6 1.3
1 2" insulation 1.8 1 .7 1.6 1.5 1:7 1.4 1. 1
FLOOR:
Double Wood and
Crawl Space
2" insulation 4.8 4.5 4.2 3.9 1.5 1.2 1.0
3%" insulation 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.6 1 .3 1.3 1.1
6" insulation 2.0 1 .8 1.6 1.5 0.8 0.6 0.5
Slab on Ground
1" insulation standard duct system
66 .8 62 .3 57. 9 53.4 000000000000000000000000000000000
35.8 33.1 32.6 31.8 ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
200
16. NON-RESIDENTIAL HEAT GAIN
CALCULATIONS
The previous sections discussed the application to a rather special problem-the cool-
ing load for a residence. The cooling load for a residence is by no means typical of the
diverse problems in heat gain that would be encountered by the average architect or
consulting engineer. It has been been stated that the major components of the cooling
load include:
1. Transmission through walls and roof
2. Transmission through glass
3. Occupants
4. Infiltration or ventilation
5. Appliances
6. Lights
Transmission through structure and shaded or unshaded glass is determined by a
number of f.;;ctors.
EARTH'S
ATMO.SPHE~ SOLAR RADIATION AND TRANSMISSION
201
17. REFLECTIVE INSULATING GLASS
The solar ban 490, window unit by PPG industries has attained a high degree of perfor-
mance. It is a double glazed unit said to have the highest energy saving potential of
their extensive inventory. It consists of two panels of clear glass separated by a dry air
space. A gold-toned, metallic-reflective coating is applied to the inner surface of the
outdoor glass panel. Transmitted light is a soft bluish-gray. On a typical summerday,
the assembly is said to reduce the peak solar heat gain by 86% compared with the con-
ventional 1/8 inch clear glass.
TRMIS MlTTED
RERADIATED ANO
(.ONVEC.TED
COMDUCTED
~ -.: -.
.!
~-
REFlECTIVE' COATIN'
DRY AIR S'RI\CE
202
SOLAR ENERGY AND ENERGY
CONSERVATION
The growing popularity and respectability of solar-energy systems stems in part from
the price of oil which goes higher every year. The prices of natural gas and coal have
also increased, and reserves of all thr~e fuels have dwindled, forcing economists to
look ahead to the day when they might be unavoidable at almost any price. "We even-
tually will have very little left but solar energy". Therefore we must learn to be frugal
..
and convert solar energy into every kind of energy we use in our daily lives.
Solar power has many attractions . 11 produces neither pollution not radioactivity. It is
inexhaustible; the sun is expected to burn with undiminished brightness for Billion of
Years. Finally, it is abundant, though diffuse and difficult to collect. The amount of
solar energy reaching the earth averages 126 watts per sq. ft. or about 1,260 watts
per sq. m. Even in a northerly location, the amount of solar energy is equivalent to 10
bbl. of oil per day, while that hitting a roof is in most cases more than enough to meet
the energy needs of the building below.
Solar Energy is being tapped in many strange and wondrous ways. However, there are
two ways of heating or cooling a building utilizing the solar heat.
1. The " PASSIVE" Solar design is so called because it employs no sophisticated col-
lectors and no expensive technology to harness the sun's energy .
2. The "ACTIVE" SYSTEMS require expensive and energy consuming equipment to
operate Electric water heaters and air conditioners. In short they are techno-
logically designed solar buildings. The awesome energy of the sun's radiation is
harnessed, absorbed, transferred and stored for building heating and cooling. Us-
ing this system, the temperatures inside a house will stay at 68° to 70°F during
even the coldest days.
"PASSIVE" Solar Oeaign
This is used for an " energy-conscious" building. It is low-energy consuming build-
ing which uses solar power for air conditioning and other methods which use little
or no energy at all, and at usually low cost.
"ACTIVE" Solar Design
In addition to the thousands of ways in which the sun's energy has been used by
both nature and man throughout time-to grow food, to see by, to get a sun tan,
to dry clothes- it has also been deliberately harnessed to perform a number of
other 'chores'.
Solar energy is used to heat and cool buildings, to heat water and swimming
pools; to power refrigerators"; and to operate engines, pumps and sewage treat·-
ment plants. It powers ears, ovens, water stills furnaces, distillation equ ipment,
crop dryers, and sludge dryers. Solar system in a house meets most of the houses'
space and hot water needs and cuts energy bills by about 75°. Powered by solar
energy, wind is used' to generate electricity and mechanical power, and solar con-
verted, eletricity is used both on earth and in space. Stoves and cars run on solar-
made methane gas, power plants operate on organic trash, and sewage plants
produce methane gas.
The sun powered evaporation/rain cycle, in combination with gravitv. powers
machines and electric turbines. Solar electrolizers convert water to clean hydro-
gen gas (a Fuel).
To comprehend these uses we shall study the basic principles of solar energy.
203
Most of the energy we receive from the sun comes in the form of light, a short-
wave radiation, not all of which is visible to the human eye. When this radiation
strikes a solid or liquid, it is absorbed and transformed into heat energy; The
material becomes warm and stores the heat, conducts it to surrounding materials
(air, water. other solids or liquids), or reradiates it to other materials of lower tem-
perature. This reradiation is a long-wave radiation.
BLAGK~CIN/SM, SO
5aAA AAOIATION AND ~f:A
WAn=R IN PIPE.
l I
L..-JIN SUL.ATED B'ACKJN6 AND :; IDES
L .... __...JVAR:JR BARRIER (Ftt.YTriEt..ENE.srtEE TS)
(OR ASPHALT FE LT J=l.o\PER).
I
I
I
I
SEt-.~Of<! I
C:::ONTltOL .i ~
Pl.lMP TD ( rl.i
G li<a.J L.A'TE I
WATER I
Glass easily transmits short-wave radiation, which means that it possess little inter-
ference to incoming solar energy. but it is a very poor transmitter of long wave radia-
tion. Once the sun's energy has passed through glass windows and has been absorbed
by some material inside, the heat will not be reradiated back outside .
Glass , therefore, acts as a heat trap, a phenomenon which has been recognized for
sometime in the construction of greenhouses, which can get quite warm or sunny
days, even in t he middle of ' winter; solar collectors for home heating, usually called
" Rat plate collectors".
205
Almost always have one or more glass Covers, although various plastic and other
transparent materials are often used instead of glass.
Beneath the cover plate, collectors commonly have another plate which absorbs the sun's
rays hitting it. This absorber plate is usually made of copper, aluminum, steel, or another
suitable rr.aterial and is usually coated with a substance - black paint or one of the more
sophisticated selective coatings available-that will help it absorb the most heat, rather than
reflect or reradiate it. Once the heat is absorbed, it can be picked up and used. The glass
cover plates help to reduce the loss of heat through the front white insulation reduces heat
loss through the back.
From the absorber plate, heat is transferred by conduction to a transfer fluid usually a liguid
or air, which flows by the absorber plate, often with the help of a pump or blower. The
liguids (water or a non freezing fluid such as ethylene glycol) flow over the back surface of
through tubes. Incorporated into the absorber plate. If air is used it is blown across the sur-
face of the absorber plate, which should have many small irregular surfaces with which the
air can come in contact.
Because most systems cannot handle long·periods of cold, sunless days, a solar heat-
ing system therefore, almost always requires a full-sized, standard heating system as a
back-up. The same is true fOf solar cooling systems.
In most cases, the conventional system and the solar system can be efficiently integ-
rate~. To do so may require some rather unconventional adaptations of the conven-
tional system. For instance, solar systems are most efficient at low operating tempera-
ture: The collectors ·gather more heat, and losses from the heat storage and transfer
luids are lower. A conventional hot water heating system, however, operates at
relatively higher temperatures. The optimum system, then will require an overall lower
operating temperature and a slightly different approach to the whole heating system for
this reason, it is usually difficult to ·" plug in" a solar system to an existing conventional
system.
206
The heat from solar energy can be used to cool buildings, using the absorption cooling
principle operative in gas-fired refrigerators. Presently available equipment, however,
usually requires 'extremely high operating temperatures, far above those for efficient
solar collection.
For solar energy system to be efficient, the building itself must be thermally efficient
and· weiHnsulated. Its siting, orientation, and window openings should take advantage
of the sun's cold and Hot weather sun angles. The solar collector panels should be
oriented to best take advantage of the sun's radiation, and located so as NOT to be
shaded by nearby structures , terrain, or trees.
Solar collector panels normally are integral parts of a building's roof or wall surfaces,
and therefore strongly influence the building's overall form.
207
The Building as Storehouse
HEAT COLLECTION
INTERIOR FINISH
BERGLA>S )N~LATJor-.1
eXTeRIOR FINISH
208
As the air or water is heated by the sun, it expands and rises through the collector. This
movement draws cooler and denser air or water from the solar heat storage or from the
solar heat storage or from the building.
HOTAIR~
A damper controls overheating of
space during mild and hot weather.
It can be designed to operate
manually or to operate automatically
according to indoor and outdoor con-
ditions.
~HEAT
mobia•~ ~ nte NOIZ-1'»
.ilr::E OF THE &l.A~
209
Venetian Blind Solar Control/Collector Device Positions
/ '------
1 3
DIRECT 50LAA HEAT
~IN, MI\XIMlJM ~RALS. TO L.ET'S SC>ME
~l.AS EX POSlltw.. L!GHI RAYS. LIGHT AND HEAT IN.
HEAT STORAGE
By avoiding transport systems of ducts, pipes, fans, and pumps, as well as heat exchangers
and complicated controls, significant amounts of money are saved, the operation and
maintenance are simplified and reduced in cost, and comfort and efficiency cc:m actually be
incteased .
210
INSUI.A1lON
(OP1TONAL) "?-'~ <-rl+"~._ •....,..,, ...~., PES8LEP HE.bi.T
N~ f;U~FA<:S
1-"+t;~., .....,.. T ttS'AT STC~E WALL
1'\.~-t,;o S~ TO ~GIEY' SL.I.I>JNG
JNSUl.AT~ ~tUjTER
The addition of the heat storage wall to the thermosiphoning, vertical solar collector. As the
sun hits the backened surface of the wall, the concrete in this case absorbs some of the heat
while some of its simultaneously heats the air which rises and enters the room. The heat in
the concrete migrates slowly inward. and when the sun has set, radiates into the building
while warm connection currents continue inside between the black concrete and the
transparent cover.
srx LA)SRS OF
EX~ND t.il:iT.AL
~IZEP
211
HORIZONTAL SYSTEM
~OVASL.E
5I-lUTTER
INS.UI.ATINGo
r-
=
4•
---- --
8UILDIN6
SUMMER C(X)UNG
"BIOSPHERE"
A Biosphere is an integration of a house, a greenhouse, a solar heater, and a solar still.
This was conceptualized by physicist Day Chahroudi. the space between the solar col·
lector and the heat storage wall is large enough to be used tor growing food .
.
HOUSE
212
When the thin membrane is cool, it transmits about 95° of the solar radiation which
strikes it at right angles. When it is a warm, it is almost totally opaque. This results in
high solar heat gain into the greenhouse during sunny, cold water of December weather
and in almost no solar heat gain during excessive summer heat (enough radiation will
penetrate to nurture plants).
The North wall of the greenhouse stores the heat and serves as the south wall of the
House.
By using many additional layers of Transparent membrane, each spaced an inch or so
apart, the "wall" is also a good insulator.
The heating of water for domestic uses (bathing, cleaning, etc.) presently accounts for
about 1 2..,. of the energy consumed nationally for residential and commercial pur-
poses.
An average person consumes from 28 gallons to 41 gallons if with a bath tub. So that
the use of solar energy for heating w ·a ter involves several specific issues. On of the first
concerns variations in the amount of water to be heated. In general one third of total
daily water consumption in a home will be hot water and the maximum probable hourly
demand will usually be one-tenth of this total.
A c:orollary to the issue of hot water. consumption is that of conservation. Even though
a SHW heater is an energy conservation device in itself, resources are requi~ for its
manufacture and for auxiliary heat. Additional savings, however, can result from the
prudent use of hot water, in contrast to the more common use patterns of waste and
causal consumption.
Simple changes, in habits can produce significant reduction is demand: using a basin of
hot water rather than a steady flow from the top to rinse dishes; taking showers rather
than baths; providing spray nozzles on faucets rather than the conventional steady
stream nozzles; washing clothes in warm (or cold} rather than hot water; or using
"suds saver" washing machines that recirculate hot wash water rather than disposing
of 1t. These and other methods used by water-and-energy conscious individuals will
reduce hot water demand, .simplifying the cost and design problems of SHW systems
and saving both water and energy.
213
Another aspect of SHW heater use is that of user participation. For example, a simple
and satisfactory solar hot water consists of a shallow through of water with a
transparent cover sitting in the sun. But this heater has to be filled in the morning and
drained in the afternoon or early evening . Someone has to fill the tank to cover it if the
sun clouds over, to decide when the water is sufficiently hot, and to drain the hot water
tor use.
214
TYPfCAL DESIGN R:f'( COMMERCIAL SOLAR HOT
WAlER HEATER (PRESf.UR.IZED)
VENT
215
HEATING
COOLING
VENTILATION
1 . ENERGY SOURCES
a} Natural Materials-
Wood can be a renewable energy source as a product or by-product of the proper
management of our forests. Peat from the bogs of Ireland, through not renewable,
is still a prime source for heating in that country. Natural oils such as whale oil and
seal oil served earlier generations in Alaska.
c) Hydroelectric power
Within limits this could be considered a renewable source.
d) Nuclear Plants
However, environmentalists, and the general public, largely oppose the rapid in-
crease in nuclear installations. Fusion looms as a future possibility.
f) Solar Energy
The use of Solar energy is our great hope for the future. For houses, where the
energy demand for heating is relatively light, it can replace 40 % to 60 % of the
energy required for a season' s heating.
g) Geothermal Energy
The earth's crust is must thinner than most of us realize. Whether or not the enor-
mous heat o f the earth's center can be trapped and utilized on a large scale is not
y et established. Steam can be piped from a geothermal plant at 6 70 °F, 7 500 ft.
below the surface.
h) Trash-
Type of trash from incinerators has a heating value of 8,500 Btu/ lb. This value is
58 % of the comparative value of anthracite coal.
Values of Trash and rubbish range between 8, 500 and 6,500 Btu/lb. Recovery of a
large portion of this energy is now a possibility. Recovery plants are now in opera-
tion. The following figure shows an adaptive design which can retrieve much of the
heat of the trash and rubbish by recovery in a heat exchanger that produces steam .
216
STEAM
OAUhl A80RT
ST At. ~
·~Ui'!l C · ~ I P
o~jCH!Ff> l () ~
' "Aniline
~ ~ li8 l '
t-·- - - ·- - · j
PLAN VIEW
~( .\ 1 o
< vL L Eu · ' • l~
I NC!Nf F'ATOFl
(;1<.4.HGI I'oll,;
AS C:f t ,,\ ~ l v
-
INCINERATION WITH HEAT RECOVERY
(by Syska & Hennessy, Engineers no West 50t h
Street, Ne York, N.Y ., 1002 0 }
217
For use in univers1t1es, hospitals, large offrce buildings, and residential complexes.
Where it is feasible, it will save fuel and pay for itself in a short time.
The feasibility in each individu al case must be demonst rated by a detailed study which
includes among other parameters; a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the
waste, collection methods and costs, heat load profiles of the complex including re-
coverable heat integration into them, equipment location, as well as all pertinent labor
and environmental factors, legal codes and ordinances.
2 . ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
for Heating Commercial
and lnstitutionat buildings
A few items that make the requirements different from that of houses can be noted.
Dense human occupancy often provides body heat that is much more than that re-
quired to heat a space, even in critically cold weather. By means of heat pumps, ther-
mal gain is frequently interchanged with the lesser energy content of cooler areas. It is
nonetheless a credit item in the annual heating fuel bilL Computers and other business
machines are similar credits . Until recently, high foot-candle levels of general office
lighting had effects that displ aced some of the f uel that would otherwise operate heat-
ing units in such buildings.
Smaller windo ws and the effective heat barrier of reflective insulating glass are again
changing the scene. Fossil Fuel heating now becomes only one item in the general
energy picture. The yearly energy study in commercial and institutional buildings has
eecome a trade-off budget in which each item must justify its value and cost in Energy.
3 . COMBUSTION, CHIMNEYS
AND FUEL STORAGE
As fuels burn to produce heat, they require oxygen to support the combustion. Since
oxygen is only about 1/ 5 of the volume of air, reasonably large rates of air flow are re-
quired. The air should be drawn in from outdoors at a position close to the fuel burner or
led to this location by a duct. For residences and other small buildings a lower about
twice the cross-sectional area of the flue should prove satisfactory . It should be arrang-
ed to remain open at all times. If an attempt is made to draw this air from the general
space of the house, modern tight construction may retard the effort. If the air rate is
sufficient by the use of this scheme, it is likely to result in undesirable acceleration of
cold infiltration flowing in to replace the air that is used.
The most important combustible element in t he chemical make up of fuels is carbon. It
may be burned well or poorly, when burned poorly it can cause great energy losses and
sooty operation. For success, much depends upon the proper selection of well-de-
signed boilers, furnaces and burners. This, however, is only part of the story. Ad-
justments of primary and secondary air rates of flow and of draft (flow of air and gases
through the boiler) are important responsibilities of the engineer and the heating con-
tractor. Carbon may burn to carbon monoxide {CO) or more completely to carbon diox-
ide (C0 2 ) with greather heat production.
It is important that chimneys with their high-temperature flue gases be safely isolated
from combustible construction to prevent the possibility of fir e. Conventional stan-
dards for houses call for a terra cotta f lue lining surrounded by 8 in. (. 20 m) of brick,
with an additional 2 in. (0. 5 m} of space between t he brick and any wood. The space is
usually filled with incombustible mineral wool. The size of the flue will be dictated by
the specification for the boiler or furnace selected for use. Its height had been tradi-
tionally 35 to 40 feet ( 10 to 12 meters).
218
rrrrf
rrrr
ROOF - HUN G
PREFA8
@5-IO FT
C.0MBU5T\O
A\R IN,(OPE
aASEYIENT
WINDOW
E8
The function of providing a draft, for which chimney height was an important con-
sideration, is no longer as necessary as it previously was- because fans are used now.
For example, oil is injected under pressure, accompanied by air, and forced in by a fan.
Often a draft adjuster in the Breaching (smoke pipe} that carries the flue gases to the
chimney is arranged to open slightly to reduce the normal stack draft. If increased draft
should ever be required, an induced draft fan that puts a suction on the flue side.
Of the fire is usually chosen instead of greater stack height. Draft hoods above gas
burners prevent downdraft from blowing out the flames.
Prefabricated Ch imneys are replacing wit h increasing frequency the bulkier and heavier
f ield-built masonry . They offer a number of advantages and may be easily supported on
a normal structure.
011
circulating -;~=l,1
Oil supply ~-DI:H
Steel "hold-down''
r"""'_ _,.....__ _ straps
219
4. WARM AIR HEATING
The use of air for hedting has certain advantages. The motion of air in space helps to
assure uniform conditions and reasonably equal temperatures in all parts of the house.
It is possible to clean both the recirculated air and the outdoor air by means of filters
and other special air-cleaning equipment. Air may be circulated in nonheating seasons.
fresh air may be introduced to reduce odors and to make up the air exhausted by fans
in kitchens, laundries and bathrooms. Central cooling can be incorporated or introduc-
ed if ducts are designed originally for this cooling sometimes calls for greater rates of air
circulation. Humidification may be achieved by a humidifier in the air stream and, if
cooling is included in the design, dehumidification is accomplished in summer.
CLEAN AIR
INSIDE ROOM
i(fXHAUST FAN HOOD
,__..r-
Q ~ 1. • • _, • •
rf f
"'~( r=AUIOUT
FILTER
J
·-- FRESH AIR It{
For both heating and cooling, a good arrangement is to place the supply registers in the
floor, below areas of glass. This is important for winter operation. Return grills should
be on interior walls at high locations. This is especially advantageous if cooling is part
of the scheme. Hlgh Grills pick up the warmer air for recooling at the equipment.
WARM AIR I
PLAN
~GISTER
In planning warm air systems, good balance is achieved if the heating furnace is located
reasonably close to the center of the house. After the system is designed, a furnace
must be selected. It should be capable of burning fuel at a rate suitable to make up the
hourly heat loss in the house. The rate of air delivery must be correct to transmit this
heat to the house at the air temperature rise that is planned.
Finally, the motor and blower must be powerful enough to overcome the friction of air
against metal in both the supply and return duct system as well as the friction of air
flowing through the furnace, filters, registers, and grills. Minor adjustments can be
made at the furnace to adapt to the demands of the system and the house.
220
~A Suction
~B Pressure ~
A. FURNACE-a typical furnace as shown below embraces within its housing the fan
(blower). motor, filters, oil burner and heat-transfer surfaces. A humidifier can be
added to this assembly. Arrows indicate the direction of the air. In passing through
the blower the air enters at the end of the cylinder opposite the pulley and is forced
into the warming chamber by a cylindrical impeller unit .
Old principle of the warm-air heating furnace. Or U-path flow of air. Other styles have the
elements "in-line" or "straight-line flow" or vertically upward, norizontal, or vertically
downward (counterflow).
2.21
B. DUCTS- constructed of sheet metal or glass fiber- either round or rectangular.
Ductwork will conduct noise unless the following suggestions are followed:
1 . Do not place the blower too close to a return grill.
2. Select quiet motors and cushioned mountings.
3. Do not permit connection or contact of conduits or water piping with the blower
housing.
4. Use canvas-asbestos flexible connection between bonnet and ductwork.
DUCT SIZING
Example: The main duct in the low velocity, warm air system of a residence delivers
1,600 cubic feet per minute (cfml select a size for this duct.
Solution: The table below indicates that 800ft. per minute (fpm) would be an ac-
ceptable velocity. The area of the duct in square inches would be
OUTDOOR AIR
lntakesa 500 500 500
Filters a 250 300 350
Heating CoiJsa-b 450 500 600
Cooling Coilsa 450 500 600
Air Washersa 500 500 500
Fan Outlets 1 ,000-1 ,600 1,300-2,000 1,600-2,400
Main ductsb 700-900 1 ,000-1 ,300 1 ,200-1 ,800
Branch ductsb 600 600-900 800-100
Branch risersb 500 600..700 800
MAXIMUM VELOCITIES, FEET per minute
Outdoor Air
in 800 900 1,200
F 300 350 350
H 500 600 700
c 450 500 600
A 500 500 500
F , ,}00 1,500-2,200 1 1700-1 ,800
222
M 800- 1,200 1 , 1 00-, 600
f 1 ,300-2,200
B 700- 1.000 800-1,300 1 ,000-1,800
b 650-800 800-1,200 1 ,000-1 ,600
a These velocities are for total face are, not the net free area; other velocities are for net
free area.
b For low-velocity systems only.
at pen meter
belowgla$$
Controlled /
fresh air
supply
This system with supply reg isters in the floor under glass and interior, high return re-
gisters is suitable for heating or cooling.
C. DAMPERS - these will be necessary to balance the system and adjust it to the
desires of the occupants. Splitter dampers are used where branch ducts leave the
larger Trunk ducts. Each riser can have its flow controlled by an adjustable damper
in the basement at the foot of the riser. labels should indicate the room's served.
- ·~
a. Air Adjustment by Opposed-Blade Dampers
223
------r--"-- - -~ -1-
;
f I
______,r--
(c)
--
(d)
224
a. A 2 Y.." x 12 in. Floor register (dif-
fuser). One of many sizes and shapes. Damper
It has diverting vanes for " spread" adjustment
and an adjustable damper.
(a)
Aspiration
(b)
225
E. CONTROLS-the burner is started and stopped by a thermostat, which !s p l ace~ in
or near the living room at a thermally stable location that is protected from cold
drafts, direct sunlight, and the warming effects or nearby warm air registers. A cut-
in temperature of between 80 and 95 °F is selected for the fan switch in the fur-
nac~ bonnet. After the burner starts, the fan switch turns on the blower when the
furnace air reaches the selected cut-in temperature. Burner and blower then con-
tinues to run while heat is needed. When the burner turns off. The blower continues
to run until the temperature in the furnace drops to a level a little below the cut-in
temperature of the fan switch.
If, during operation, the temperature unexpectedly exceeds 200 °F, a high iimit
switch t urns off the burner in the interest of comfort and safety. As in all auto-
matically fired heating units, a stack temperature control in the breaching turns off
the fire if ignition fails.
OPeN F\RE
st:FORE J900
226
Very gradual changes had culminated by mid century to produce systems. The improve-
ments included:
In 1961 ' s t he basement began to disappear. Subslab perimeter systems were popular
·lor basementless houses. In general, t he above features were retained and air was
d?.!;vered upward across glass, to be taken back at high-return grills.
SECTION .....
Plrimew llld
e·
c . c
Garage
Clos.
e
Bedroom ~ Option a l,
Bath
(no return)
d
-tr PLAN
FORCED WARM-AIR, perimeter loop system adaptable for cooling. (No returns from
kitchen, baths, or garage).
227
legend:
a. Downflow air furnace (see detail next figure)
b. Supply plenum
c. Eight-inch (plus) subslab supply ducts (encased in concrete)
d. Eigth-inch perimeter duct (encased in concrete)
e. Floor register (adjustable for direction and flow rate)
f. Return gri ll
g. Return plenum
Retum air in
Filter
Blower
Oil burner
t
Warm air\ t
Heat
transfer
~ 6*
diffuser
I
wrlace
AIRFLOW PATTERN
Lennox
Supply air out Industries
Inc
DOWNFLOW (Counterflow)
Furnace and its relation
to the perimeter system
228
In the 1970's oil and gas became scarse. The adoption of electricity resulted ir.
numerous changes. Necessities such as combustion, chimneys and fuel storage be-
came nonessential . Horizontal Electric Furnace• began to appear in shallow attics or
above furred ceilings. Air was delivered down from ceilings to warm exterior glass and
taken back through door-grills and open plenum space (see next Figure, zone C Duct lay-
out) .
There are no f ixed rules about designs. The principles of efficiency, comfort, cost and
conformity to the architectural design are paramount.
VJtW 10 photo.
Ftg. &.25 (bl
.
.......--..
...__._
'
Hall
Classroom 1
18 X 18 Tr. G<.
\18 x 18 Tr. Gr.
low 1n door
Classroom 2
l0111in door
2 12 · x s· 2 12· " s-
registers ••aist•rs
'/Jew lfl photo,
~ ' ............
Fia. 6.25 (a I \ ' ........ ,.
\ .... ,
\ ........
\ ................
\
2 12· " s·
rectsters
z 12". ~ - \
r~a;s.te \
~- -~ \ - - lfl1t o-f
10•1 , •• ,. .., e·.o· ...~ ~ lumne
1. Oil-FIRED Steel boiler- A refractory chamber receives the hot flame ot the 011 fire.
Combustion continues within the chamber and the fire tubes. Smoke leaves through
the breeching at the rear. Water, outside the chamber. receives the heat generated in
the combustion chamber. If the domestic hot water coil is connected for use, a larger
capacity boiler is selected. An aquestat (water thermostat) turns on the burner
229
whenever t he boiler water cools off. Thereby maintaining a reservoir of hot water
ready for heating the house.
-:•- .·...:.·r:..
....~ .
~ rxtly
-~ · ! . "'IY .
.. ·~
·..
~ ·
...... . .. . · . ...· . ,·
2. GAS-FIRED, Cast iron hot water boiler Cast iron sections contain w ater that is heated by
gas from below the unit. Output is related to the number of sections. It may be con-
sidered a "package " unit because the connected circulating pump stands ready to move
water through convectors or baseboards.
230
3. Oil-fired Cast iron hot water boiler primary and secondary air for conbustion may be
regulated at the burner unit. Flame enters the refractory chamber and continues around
the outside of the water-filled cast iron sections.
4. HIGH-OUTPUT, package-type sell boiler. For large buildings using steam as a
primary heating medium, one or several such boilers may be used. The relative ligtlt-
ness of this boiler type makes this package type suitable for use on upper floors of taU
buildings.
Skld~
231
6. ELECTRIC BOILERS - For hot water heating are of high capacity output. Electric steam
boilers are also commonly used in large buildings.
,•:
.·.·.
. -!~·_;
........ ··..
· X.·
·' .
·:..
. . ·:' .....
M•IIP water iblet-""'·,. ...,.·--....
.· ~ .. :;:: .
.. . ~ ': .
Boiler 3
t 4
232
This series loop system usually run at the perimeter of the house. The... water
flows to and through each baseboard or intube in turn. Obviously the water at
the end of the circuit is a little cooler. Values at each heating element are not
possible since any value would shut off the entire loop. Adjustment is by a
damper at each baseboard, which reduces the natural convection of air over the
fins. For long runs or lengths of water circuit, the pipe size can be increased.
2. One-Pipe System
This is a very popular choice. Special fittings, act to divert part of the f low into
each baseboard. A value may be used at each one to allow for reduced heat or a
complete ~hut-of to conserve energy, an advantage that the loop system does
not provide. However, this one pipe system uses a little more piping and is thus
not as economical to install as the loop system in which piping is minimal.
Legend
(a} Boiler (f } Control valve
(b) Compression tank (g) Air vent
(c} Circulator {pump) (h) Baseboard heating unit
{d) Hot water main · (i) Special return fitting
(e) Runout (branch)
233
3. Two-Pipe Reverse-Return
Considered the classic method, though not too often employed and indeed not
always necessary. Water nearly at boiler temperature is supplied to each base-
board without being cooled by passing through a previous baseboard as in ( 11
or accepting the cooler return water as in {21 equal friction, resulting in equal
flow, is achieved through all baseboards Nos. 1 to 5, by reversing the return in-
stead of running it directly back to the boiler. This equality is affected by equal
lengths of water flow through any baseboard together with its lengths of supply
and return main. More pipe is required for this than for system (1) and {2).
2 •·
l (: I &oiler
''T
L ..,-·~T
#I .
~
. Jrl
.
3
.I
•
1 s r
·-r...::.-:=:=.:.J-1--
.4:==:::..
4
234
B. SPECIAL FITTINGS
Cabinet
convector
(or baseboard)
Fin-tube
element
Air w:nt
I
t Supply
branch
Return
branch t
Special fitting for one-pipe systems. Venturi-type jet tee used here. In the return
branch connection to the main it induces flow through the convector by retarding
the flow to force water into the supply branch and producing a jet to reduce the
pressure in the main following the return branch.
Automatic,for piping
235
D. HYDRONIC AND ELECTRICAL CONTROLS
Hot Water heating systems are fully automatic and operate as controlled by
methods described in the figure . Makeup water is added as required, the air level in
the tank is regulated by the air control, fittings, and the circulator and burner
operate as controlled by the aquastat and thermostat. If the air vents in the piping
are not automatic they will require periodic manual "bleeding" of unwanted air.
-===-Watpr
-"m'- Electficity
LEGEND
A . Compression Tank- Accommodates the expansion of the water in the system.
B. Air Control Fittings- Vent out unwanted air in the boiler and maintain the level
in the compression tank.
c. Pressure Relief Valve- Usually set for 30 psi. Initial cold pressure about 1 2 psi
relieves excessive system pressure.
D. Ott Burner-Responds to acquastat or thermoastat.
E. Stack Temperature Control- Senses stack temperature and stops oil injection
if ignition has not occured.
F. Dra'n Valve-At low point in the water system.
G. Aquastat- Maintains temperature of boiler water by starting the oil burner
when temperature of water drops below the acquastat' s setting set at 1 80 °F.
236
H. Remote Switch-At a safe distance from the boiler so that the plant can be
turned off in case of Trouble during which the boiler cannot be approached.
I. Junction Box and Relays- General control center.
J. Thermostat- When the room temperature drops below its setting, it turns on
both the oil fire and the circulating pump.
K. Electrical Power Source-Operator from a separate individual circuit at the
power panel.
L. Hot Water Supply-Copper Tubing to convectors or baseboards.
M. Hot Water Return-Copper Tubing from convectors or baseboards.
N. Draft Adjuster-Regulates the draft (combustion air) over lhe fire.
0. House Cold Water Main-From which water is fed automatically into boiler.
P. Flow Control Valves-Prevent Casual flow of water by gravity when the cir~
culator is not running. •
Q. Temperature/Pressure Gauge-Indicates water temperature and pressure.
Sometimes supplemented by immersion tnermometers in supply and return
mains.
R. Pressure Reducing Valve- Admits water into the system when the pressure
there drops below about 12 psi. Has a built-in check valve to prevent backflow
of boiler water into the water main.
S. Shutoff Valves- Normally open. Can be closed to isolate the system and per-
mit servicing of components.
T. Circulator-Centrifugal circulating pump that moves the water through the
tubing and heating elements.
E. CtRCULATING PUMP
A centrifugal pump is selected to overcome the friction-of-flow in the piping and fit-
tings and to deliver water at a rate sufficient to offset the hourly heat loss of the
house or buildings.
Electronically
hardened
thrust
Motor collar
237
FIREPLACES
A home without a fireplace does seem to lack something a certain something, that
is the heart of the home. There is always an element of security in known you
could have a fire if necessary. Although fireplaces are no longer necessary for survival, a
working fireplace with a cheerful fire blazing away exudes an atmosphere of happy con-
genital living and contributes to the feeling that this ls the good life . The mind always en-
visions the image of a crackling f ire and enjoys the atmosphere of hospitality. rest and
repose that is in the mind's eye. A fireplace suggests the comfort and contentment of
quiet evenings before a blazing hearth . ..
TYPES OF FIREPLACE
1 • CONVENTIONAL MASONRY FIREPLACE
This is often used where there is wide space and you can afford it. But conven-
tional fireplaces are about 10% efficient. That is, 90 percent of the fire's heat
goes up the flue.
I L~
i 6_ .- - -· -~ - ~ - - - ~ ...
+] .
['- ~- · -· _··_··:J .
' . .907. HeAT 1- SHAPE.
'· 60ES UP
( ,
\.... .......- ~- ~
101. HEAT GOES tN
/ CORNER
FIREPLACE
238
BARBECUE
RAlSEO HEARTH
COM'Br~JATlN UN IT PROJECTED MANTLE.
FREESTANDING
239
OU(:.T TO
OTHJ;R ROOM5
~c t· -·
~y ~ ~= = ~= = = ~
FI~EBR IC:K5
'
11\\5 RePLACE THE FIREBOX,~ -~
DOME AND DAMPER . MAYBE ~ON· ·~ ......, . .:·----..
VENTIONAL OR A HEAT- C.\R- ·· ...
CUlATIN6 ONE BY PROVIDING
GR ILLS .
240
b. "FREESTANDING METAL FIREPLACE" this is an obviously attractively
metal, with striking an unusual shapes available. (Wrought iron or copper is
preferred).
DESIGNS IN METAL
HOW A CONVENTIONAL FtREPLACE WORKS
Masonry Fireplaces are about 5,000 pounds (227 kilos)-usually are found on the
ground floor, through can be stocked one above the other in two storey buildings.
241
11
.SIDe SPLAYED 3•TO.S
~ EAat FOOT OF DePTH
OR AT ABOUT 15• L..
PROPER FIREl30X ANGLES MAXIMIZE REFLEC.TED
HEAT TO ROOM
RAINWATER WILL
AL!UMULATE
HERE
CRIGKET OR SADlLE-
SD THAT RAINWATER
-
) WILL NOT AC.CUMUlATE
· AT THE SACK OF T*"iE
F1Re Pl..AC.E.
A SADOL..E WILL
DIS Pf!.R5E TH~
WATe~
.242
2. COAL HOD OR WOOD CARRIER-to carry and hold fuel.
Ell-OW
H~RE ~-QI"' R
ORDINARY PIPE WILL DO
METAL HOODS: Decorative and Functional
Copper sheets joined with standing Prefabricated metal hood makes for
seams make up. This attractive fire- easy installation.
place hood. Steel-lined but uninsulated,
the warm metal effectively improves I the
fireplace's heating efficientv
245
GOOD PROPORTIONS:
246
STAGKito.ICS FIREPLAC.E6
[\
... ~;
OPE!N
R.ACe
1[ BRtC<.~NO
OUTSIDE FCRM0
247
ALWAYS
VERTICAU..Y
~4
AL.I6NEO b
I"'UTURI!
Pt..YWOOO
I"''RM -ro
I I(ONCfU:Tf!
The" F'AQ~
\ WALL.
FORMWORK - con~tru the plan by using 1 %" x 2" wood. Then by consulting
the dimension table next page, use plywood to encase the form.
When in place wrap around with Firebricks.
I
/ ' '
,'
( f\ -
I
- - - - - - --·- - -- - i! ;
'
'
~ ·ri r · I \
I '
I I I
'
lI I'I
II
r-"
f
I
I
i
•'
.'
.. ~
I
I
:
i
i
~
1- D
..I
I CONCRETE.
HOLLOW
k Bl...OCKG
PLYWOOD
" FORM
-j5RlC.KS
A
~
PLAN OF COH VENTIONAL FIRI!PL.Ace
248
1
PLAN 0,.. BUlLT IN": PftE l!tUU..T
PI RE! Pl.ACe
DIMENSIONS
Finished Oponu1y Rouoh Masonry
A B c D E F G H K
Wtdth Ho;ight Depth Back TllfOCit Width D&pth Smoke Smoke Vertical Standard Mod u l t~r
Shelf Chamber Bac;k flue Lining Flue Lining
H t~igh t
0.60 0.70 0.4.0 0.40 0.225 0.75 0.475 0 .&0 0 .275 0.35 .2 11 X .2 11 .20 X .30
0.70 0.70 0.40 0 .50 0.22 5 0.85 0 .475 0.80 0 .275 0.35 .211 X .2 11 .30 X .30
0 .110 0 . 75 0.40 0 .60 0.225 0 .~5 0.475 0.85 0.2 7b 0.3'/6 .211 )( .325 .30 )( .30
0 .90 0.775 0.4 5 0 .675 0.225 1.05 0 .625 0.90 0 .275 0.40 .325 X .325 .30 X .40
1.00 0.775 0.45 0 .775 0.225 1.15 0 .525 0.90 2 . 2 75 0.40 .325 X .32 5 .30 l( .40
1.10 0 .80 0.45 0.875 0.225 1.25 0.525 0.925 0.275 0 .425 .325 )( .325 .30 X .40
1.:20 0 .1:10 0.50 0 .95 0.225 1.35 0.575 '0.925 0.375 0.425 .325 x ·0.45 5 .40 x .50
1 .30 0 .825 O.!iO 1.05 0.225 1.45 0.575 0.9'/5 0.380 0.45 325 X 0.45 5 .40 X .50
1.40 090 0.50 1:15 0 .225 1.55 0.575 1.025 0 .380 0.475 0 .475 X 0.45 .50 l( .50
1.50 0.90 0.55 1.225 0.225 1.60 0 .625 1.025 0.380 0. 475 0 .45 X 0.45 .50)( .50
249
8. HYDRONIC HEATING DESIGN AND ZONING
For hot water (hydronic) heating systems the following design concepts are recommend-
ed.
Total equivalent length. The length of the longest circuit through which the water is cir-
culated plus a length equivalent to the resistance offered by the fittings, boiler, etc.
Pressure drop in the pipe. This drop due to f riction expressed in mil-inches of water per
foot of pipe, is the difference in pressue caused by friction in 1 ft. of pipe and re-
presents the static height of water in thousand of an inch capable of being sustained by
this difference in pressure.
Total Friction Head. Expressed in feet, this head is the column of static wat&f'that could
be sustained by the difference in pressure in the entire system owing to friction. Thus if
a system were 300 ft. long and had a unit frictional resistance of 300 mil-inches/ft.,
the total friction head would be ;,~ ;~ = 7.5 ft.
Required Flow. The water flow in gallons per minute to be circulated to make up the
hourly heat loss and the selected drop in the water temperature.
Required Volume of Expansion Tank. This is related to t he volume of water in the
system and the over-all rise in temperature from cold water supply temperature to
boiler water operating temperature.
Pump rating. The pump size is selected on the basis of the required flow and the total
friction head.
Flow-control valves
Based on the one-pipe principle in multiple circuits, each having its own pump and flow-
control (check) valves, hot water systems are very well suited to zoning. This in-
stallation comprises three separately heated areas, 1st, 2nd, 3rd floors. Each can be
250
heated to different temperatures as called for by thermostats in each separate apart-
ment. For example, if the thermostat serving the second floor (Zone B) calls for heat, it
turns on pump B. Flow-control valves B open, admitting hot water from the boiler
header to main B. Flow-control valves A and C remain closed, preventing flow in mains
A and C. Any or all of the zones may operate at one time.
The boiler keeps a supply of hot water continually ready to supply any zone upon de-
mand. This is achieved by an aquastat immersed in the boiler water. When the boiler
water drops below the prescribed temperature it turns on the f iring device, such as an
oil burner or gas burner, which brings the water up to temperature. If an overhead main
supplies downfeed, as in the first floor of this installation, special downfeed supply and
return fittings are necessary. For the second and third floor zones, one special return
Tee is sufficient.
Each system in the following figures can be operated by thermostat in each room. This
procedure permits a method of operation that can contribute to the saving of energy.
Temperature in rooms that are not in use, can be lowered or the room units turned off
by means of a switch. Thus the rooms actually occupied would be the only ones to
draw full energy. Baseboard and drop-in-units have a fast response.
The electric-radiant-ceiling method in this figure has largely supplanted the earlier ra-
diant heating that employed hot water coils in ceilings or floors. The radiant-heating
cable is installed ready for completion of plaster ceiling.
White coat
plaster
~ .. brown coat
of plaster
Bottom of
junction boA
for thermostat
52.. to 60..
above floor
CEILING METHOD
251
Floor-Type
RATINGS
WATTS BTuh Width Length
350 1194 7 3/4 inch 14 inch
750 2559 7 3/4 in. 30 in.
2000 6824 7 3/4 in. 62 in.
FLOOR
Baseboard Type
DETAILS OF HEATING BASEBOARD
252
1 . REFRIGERATED COOLING FOR HOUSES
a. AIR-TO·AIR COOLING
Unlike the technique in large buildings and in district cooling. where distance makes
tne use of chilled water most convenient for thermal transmission. houses are cool·
ed by .a rather simple arrangement of the refrigeration cycle. The circuit of a
refrigerant in compression, condensing, and evaporation, in which the condenser
heat is carried away by water and the evaporation process draws heat out of water
in another circuit to produce chilled water.
Thus the heat is moved to a heat rejection location outdoors . In t he following figure,
is shown a schematic diagram of an air-to-air (in distinction to a water-to-water) re·
frigeration device.
OUTDOORS INDOORS
1_ .............. - .............................. _ ., .... .............. ·--·--·· ... - ..- --:
r---··· · · ·- -- · -·~ - 1
; CONOf:.NSER COtL (HOT) NEE. OS . · CIRCULATING rAW '
![. ............ COOLINO BY OUTSIDE A IR
........·--·-··-··. ····-· _
AND MOTOR
..,._ _ .. __,_ _ .... .................. _, .• ___..,i
J
f cOL: ·- ~EH;Fleo ~;
!"''-···- --·--··········--···- ..............,......,_,, __
~ - . ! (SOME FRESH) SERVES !
~ li:)T AND HUMID AIR 1 - ·: I THE ROOM ----J
---·--···-
0 .~ 0\SCHA RGE D
WINDOW UNIT
Air instead of water can be used to cool the condenser, and indoor air can be cooled
directly by passing it over the evaporator coil in which the refrigerant is expanding
from a liquid to a gas. Thus heat is moved from the indoor air to the outdoor air by
the step-up action or heat pumping, nature of the refrigeration cycle. When indoor
air is cooled directly in this manner by the expanding refrigera nt, the process is
usually known as direct expansion. One recognizes this assembly as the conven-
tional window ur. l~. (or through the wall unit}.
254
To allow more flexibility in the placement of the heat rejection side of the cycle, air-
to-air equipment is now obtainable in which the condenser and its somewhat noisy
companion, the compressor, can be placed in a remote location outside of the
house and beyond the exterior wall.
Liquid ..
~
Heat Rejection Cooling
Compressor Evaporator
Air-cooled condenser , (Direct expansion)
••$;.
t Air to system
warm or cool
Return air
255
An evaporator in the duct circuit of a warm air system employing horizontal, in-line
stowaway heating elements that can be used compactly in basement or attic. ·
--- ---
-- -----------
;;
\'
..
l
II
·!I
F11ter and
blower
In large, dense ly occupied buildings, critical conditions may obtain that would require
relief. An example would be a very large theater for the performing arts. In solving such
problems, a knowledge of the classic methods of air conditioning is essential, to be
used with energy-conscious discretion. Complete air conditioning requires a source of
heating such as boiler or furnace, a method of cooling such as the refrigeration cycle,
equipment for introducing moisture and for removing it, filters or airwashing devices to
clean the air and, for proper air distribution, flowers, ducts and registers. Fresh air is in-
256
traduced on the intake side of the conditioning equipment so that it may be treated
before entering the space. An equal or slightly smaller amount of indoor air is ex-
hausted from points of odor concentration such as kitchens, toilets and smoking room.
f=lfUV4 Q.
(a)
%"' perimeter copper
loop-underslab
High pressure
Discharge valve vapor
Low pressure
Q:lmpressor
Warmer water vapor
returns --
~ J
Suction
valve
Chilled w•tor
-
Q:lndenser
SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT
The means for doing this is the liquification and evaporation of refrigerant, usually
Freon, during which processes it respectively gives off and takes on heat. The heat
257
that it gives off must be disposed of (exposed in the heat pump) but the heat that it
requires is drawn out of the circulated water known as the chilled water, which is
the medium for subsequent cooling processes.
Freon, a gas at normal temperatures and pressures, must be compressed and li-
quified to be of service later as a heat absorber. In order to liquify it, (as shown in
the figure above), it is first compressed to a high-pressure vapor; then, by means of
cool water, latent heat is extracted from the Freon, which condenses it to a liquid.
This product, high-pressure liquid Freon, is a potential heat absorber since, when it
is released through an expansion valve, it springs mechanically to gaseous form. In
this change of state it must take on latent heat, by drawing heat out of the cir-
culated that the refrigeration cycle pumps the heat out of the chilled water. systems
into the condenser water system, indeed, by special (Reverse Cycle) arrangements
of the water systems, a heat pump is the result.
The piston in the figure suggests a reciprocating compressor, type often used in
smaller compressor sizes. Larger chilled water "packages" usually employ cen-
trifugal compressors such as shown below.
Centrifupl
compressor
b. UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
A ton of refrigeration is the cooling effect obtained when 1 ton of 32 °F 16 melts to
water at 32 °F in 24 hrs. Since the latent heat-of-fusion of 16 is 144 Btu/lb, the
cooling effect or rate of ton of refrigeration (200 lb) is'taken as 144 x 2,000 =
288,000 Btu/day of 24 hr. or 12,000 Btuh. The requisite capacity of a refrigera-
ting machine in tons may therefore be found by dividing the total heat gain in a
building in Btuh by 12,000.
258
c. COOLING by ABSORPTION
Another form of water chiller is the refrigeration absorption machine. Suitable for in-
stallations up to 1,000 tons capacity, the external connections of this device are
similar to the centrifugal-refrigeration. It produces chilled water and has a cycle, of
the condensing water that must be cooled. Its motive power is steam, but instead
of driving a turbine to run a compressor, the steam is used in regenerative process
to strengthen a salt solution.
Although similar in external connections, its interior functioning is very different
from the compressor-type refrigeration machine and the steps of the process is
sl'own in the following figure. The absorption machine has become very popular. It
::· often economically tompetitive with the compressive machine, has few moving
parts, is quieter, and demands somewhat less attention.
259
2. EvapOrator coli and Pump Added-This refrigeration effect is utilized by putting
a coil in the evaporator tank. Water from this tank is pumped to a spray header
which wets the coil. The spray's evaporation chills water in the coil as it cir-
culates to the refrigeration load. Solution pumped ·to spray in absorber raises et-
ficienty.
3. Solution Pumps and Generator Added-In an actual operating cycle, the salt so-
lution is continuously absorbing water vapor. To keep the salt solution at proper
concentration, part of it is pumped directly to a generator where excess water
vapor is boiled off. The reconctentrated salt solution is returned to the absorber
tank where it mixes with the solution sprayed to absorber in step 2.
4. Condenser and Heat Exchanger Added-Water vapor boiled off from the weak
solution is condensed and returned to the evaporator. A heat exchanger uses
the hot, concentrated salt solution leaving the generator to preheat the cooler,
weak solution coming from the absorber. Finally, condensing water circulating
through the absorber and condenser coils removes the waste heat.
611 Ventilation
Heat and moisture
gain here
'
Air and
vapor
Waw
Water pump
Conditioned Roaf
air
I
Room
I
I
ICondenser
1 water Flue
I
t
I
I
I
Filter J
/
Refrigerant
Cycle
The function of the cooling tower is to dispose of the heat carried away from the
condenser. The condenser- cooling water is pumped to the tower where it is drop-
ped through a rising current of air. This effects a vaporization of some of the water.
Latent heat necessary to this change of state is drawn from the remaining water,
261
cooling it for reuse in the condenser. Makeup water must be added to the tower
since some of the water is lost in vapor.
A cooling tower serving a large building. Condenser water ~ delivered to this untt by pumps.
3. PSYCHROMETRY
262
.: ...
~( .
··:......
~·;.:
', ~ .
.· ·: ·M otc;r aorH
.....~RDUNPS
<· &n.a
Relative Humidity (RH). The ratio of the partial pressure of the actual water vapor in
a mixture to the pressure of a saturated mixture at the same temperature. The quan-
tity of moisture showing 40% RH at 40 °F would only produce about 13% at 75 °
Dew POint (D.P.}. The temperature at which an air-water vapor mixture will become
saturated and begin to yield drops of condensed water. The moisture collecting on
the exterior of an uncovered cold-water pipe indicates that the pine surface tempe·
rature is below the dew point of the surrounding mixture. This phenomenon usually
called sweating would more correctly be called condensing.
Humidity Ratio (HR). The weight of the actual water vapor in a mixture per pound of
dry air.
Enthalpy. The total heat in the mixture measured above 0 °F and including the latent
beat of the water vapor .
Speclflc Heat. The number of british thermal units required to raise 11 b of a
substance 1 °F. For air 0.241 Btu may be used and for water vapor. 0.444 .
Latent Heat. A term used to express the energy involved in a change of state.
Density. For approximate calculations 0.075 lb. per cu. ft. may be used as the den-
sity of air.
263
lit
1\ )
.
i ~
!
!!!
Ill i ...t:fj
II ' t;.
•
I
' ~
a ~
.~
• • ;, •
• , LAo
-·
.
~
I s;- ;
"' ... ,, . I /
<!>
(r
'
li! ~
..,
i~
~
~
-"
~
c
s 0
I.J!. •
PSYCHROMETRY CHART
264
c. COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN
The use of the psychrometric chart in computing the relationships of heat and air
flow when planning the cooling processes of a central station air conditioner is very
useful and is best left for problem solving by the air-conditioning engineer.
SUMMER
CHILLED WATER
~s .. t=
II Jl
•l
tt
n
.,
II
r:d~
~
1\
COM PRESsa"t
WINTER
u
Q
COMPRESSOR
265
An air-source heat pump that produces chilled water or hot water for indoor cooling or
heating. By an arrangement of values not shown in this imple diagram, tha routing of
the refrigerant can be reversed to switch the evaporative and condensing processes
between coils that remain fixed.
'TEMP
CD
a panel set forward of the exterior wall
line allows the pump to inhale and exhale
outdoor air around the panel edges. In
summer it discharges warm air and, in
winter, cool air.
266
5. THE INDUCTION METHOD
A small amount of outdoor air, representing the required air ventilation, is tempered
{cooled or heated , humidified or dehumidified, depending on the season. and delivered
at high velocity through a small circular duct. At the cabinet it is attenuated (slowed
down and silenced) and blown through jets to induce room air into the flow pattern.
The fresh air plus the recirculated air then passes over finned tubes within which is cir-
culated cool or hot water as required. The water, heater can be a conversion unit that
warms the water by heat transfer from the building steam.
·secondaty
room air
APPARATUS ROOM
• General distribution Systems of the High-Velocity
Induction Method of air conditioning. Conditional fresh air (once-through, not recir·
culated) provides ventilation, controls air quality and humidity, and induces, through
jets, the secondary circulation of room air. The air flow at the cabinet is warmed or
cooled to selected temperature by hot or chilled water at controlled rates.
267
~S.E UNIT REMOVABLE.
PANt; I-
( JN.tlPE- 1511iE .:~L ~EGnON)
ASSEMBLY
ROOM UNIT
can installed as part of book-
shelf arrangement
Perhaps the simplest of all air-conditioning devices is the through-the- wali conditioner
shown in the figure window unit lAir to air cooling in No. 1). It uses non-conducted air
taken from the room and blown over the evaporator coils and returned directly to the
room, passing up across the glass or generally upward toward the ceiling to avoid caus-
ing draughts on occupants. Air for condensing the refrigerant is taken from outdoors
and blow across the coils where it picks up the heat rejected by the unit and is then
returned to outdoors.
A baffle separates the two circuits except for a small opening to admit fresh outdoor air
for ventilation. Through-the-wall units have largely replaced window units, which
operate on exactly the same principle. With the addition of a back-up heating coil , they
are now adopted for use in large buildings and are known as incremental units.
268
Uo{SIVE' iHIS I~ TH~ ROOM "'R
CJRC.VL-"'T\ON AND 'ELE.CTFt.IC.
~e;-SI5TA,NCE H~A.TUJG
(
G"l..eME"NT
OVTSIPE
LOUVER
WALL &OX
IN.S!OE 'Tlil$ IS ~E" ~U:C.Tl{
COO\...ING CHASIS
Adjustable
Continuous discharge
grille
Opaque glass
3
Insulated
panel
Aluminum
frame and
louver
assembly 3
4
Marine
Fimshed
caulking
floor
compound
5
1. Clear glass. 2. Inside sill. 3. Insulated
black glass. 4. Outdoor louver. 5. Floor line.
269
7. DUAL-DUCT. HIGH-VELOCITY SYSTEMS
If an air is delivered at a velocity of 3,000 or more fpm (Feet per Minute} instead of the
more usual 1 ,000 to 1,500 fpm, ducts can be much smaller. Obviously fans must be
more powerful and problems are faced concerning noises that could be caused by this
fest-moving air. These are solved by routing the air through a box performing a function
similar to an automobile muffler. These units lined with acoustically absorbent material
reduce the sounds to acceptable levels before the air is discharged into the room.
The dual-duct high velocity system solves a lot of general problems that had existed in
tall buildings as well as in building of moderate size. In addition to the much smaller size
of ducts, it has the unique characteristic of making both heating and cooling available in
different (often closely adjacent) parts of a building. The need for this can octur when,
on a reasonably mild day of about 40 °F, sun through East or West glass can make
cooling necessary while the north (sunless) glass can lose heat so rapidly that heating
will be required.
Another instance is at midwinter on a very cold cloudy day. All perimeter elements are
providing heat. Concurrently, in a crowded interior conference room or auditorium, the
heat and moisture gain from people can require cooling to maintain comfortable condi-
tions. These selections can be made when cool air is delivered at all seasons together
with warm air at room temperature in summer and warmer than this in winter. This is
done by a Thermostat and implemented by the high-velocity attenuation and blending
units, each of which delivers air at a temperature called for by the local tht;rmostat that
controls it. Thus small zones are created that deal with localized heat gains or losses.
Vertical return ducts, also of conventional size, carry the air, usually through the build-
ing core, to the return air fan. From there it is recirculated or exhausted. A characteris-
tic of modern air-conditioning systems is the flexibility possible in the flow rates of
fresh outdoor air, recirculated air, and exhausted air.
Round ducts offer small frictional resistance and are commonly used in this system.
The flexiJ>ility of those serving the interior areas allows for office-t:hanges with easy
relocation of ceiling diffusers. Two common methods of air delivery are the ceiling dif-
fuser, which creates a plane of conditioned and induced air at the ceiling without
draugths on occupants, and the floor registers near exterior glass for delivery of air to
cope directly with solar heat gains or losses.
Low velOCity
air in duels
:.~ Jtner
¥ea~
All of these are controlled and checked by a central control panel, which interrelates the
various elements. These parts include boiler, refrigeration, cooling tower, and air handl-
ing, as well as the controlling elements in and near the conditioned spaces.
271
LEGEND :
1. Exchaust Fan Controls
2. Pump Controls
3. Cooling Tower Controls
4. Refrigerant Circuits
5. Compressors
6. Chilled Water Circuits
7. Fans
8. Heating Coils
9. Hot Air
10. Cooling Coils
11. Cold Air
12. Air Blending
13. Fuel Oil System
14. Fuel Oil Gauge
15. Draft Over the Fire
16. Flue Temperature
17. Automatic-Damp Controls
18. Lights come on to indicate operation of Major Air Zones
19. Temperatures - (Outdoor Air, Recirculated Air, Hot Air, Cold Air, Chilled Air, Con-
densed Water I
20. Switches: Water-Summer
21 . Chilled Water Temp . Regulator
22. Blower Control
23 . Air-Compressor Pilot Lights
272
VENTILATION
~
~
Typical rooftop installation ........_ ............___
of outdoor model ~
I
·· ~
>;;.
f'?
"t ,,/
......... ~
/
Indoor heaters or weatherproof outdoor heaters can be installed for warm·air de·
livery to balance the exhaust rates and thus cancel the effect of infiltration, permit·
ting the buildings' main heating system to maintain comfortable air temperatures
throughout the building.
b. Energy Transfer
The mechanism shown in the following figures has function to recover the sensible
and latent energy of air exhausted from heated buildings and to cool and dehumidify
the fresh air entering a cooled building. Seals and laminar flow of air through the
wheels prevent mixing of exhausted air and incoming air . A further precaution in the
process purges each sector of the wheel briefly, by using fresh air to blow away any
unpleasant residual effects of the exhausted air on the wheel surfaces. Fresh air
qualities, except those of heat and moisture, is negligible. This system offers great
economies in the conditioning of makeup air.
273
Exhaust air
~\
·u-··- -
---fl--Air
A•r -~ ~ ~ \~ I /
Rota .ti On\~ _/ ;' '' etail Of COrrugated
' '"'''0
gy-exchanger "wheel"asbestOS
that ener-
con-
stricts air to oxial (laminar) flow.
Rotation
of wheel
a) Summer Operation
274
Heat and moisture
exchanger
( {transfer wheel)
Hot moist
outside _,., Cooled and
air dehumidified
Warm moist -T-----i outside air
exhaust to room
air Cool dry
exhaust
air
I
Rotation/
of wheel
Energy Transfer wheel acts not only to warm the incoming fresh air in winter but
also to cool the incoming air in summer.
ID 3
AOOEO HEAT
GoiNG UP!hlo\RD ....
1---------
\0
(___ -
10
5
10
tO
'
1
-·-·- t
10 --1---
SAME H~T
We are, however, heading toward natural summer ventilation as cooling and me-
chanical ventilation become greater drains on our energy budgets. Operable sash
permit more air-leakage than sealed glazing. But then in winter or cold season. we
may again need to deal with greater cold infiltration through cracks at the top
stories on the windward faces of tall buildings.
275
chapter
SIGNAL SYSTEM
SIGNAL SYSTEMS
Under this rather vague tit le is subsumed all signal. communication, and control equip-
ment, the function of which is to assist in effecting proper building operation. Included
are surveillance equipment such as fire and interior alarm; audio and visual communica-
tion equipment such as telephone, intercom, and television , both public and closed cir-
cuit; time equipment such as clock and program . These systems are no longer limited in
application. Clock and program equipment, which once were the exclusive-interest of
schools and some industrial f acilit ies. are now incorporated into building mechanical
equipment control systems. Closed circuit TV, which was once limited to classroom
and college use. is common place in m ercantile areas as part of surveillance systems.
The hundreds of signals generated throughout a large fa cility are logged . c hanneled,
and applied by means of specially programmed comput-ers. A ll the signal systems that
once were sepa rate and distinct are now frequ ently combined and serve multiple pur-
poses.
1. GENERAL
Mode rn private residences ut ilize a variety of signal appa ra tus that greatly enhance
their f unct ional value . The following figure shows a residence that has been provided
with what would be co nsidered adequa te by no means excessive sound and signal
equipment f or a house of t his size.
r ".,.J
'
! :
14 )
? lfMP O€TECTO!I. FtXEO TP,1P.. 18~ C 3 PREWt!l€0 PHO"E OVTLET. FtX~D WAll OUTLET 60'" AFF.
275
-~ SMOit.E O€TECTOR ..,,rH R~SlAB l ~ ;.xeo TfMP DETECTOR. <@ 1
IWIERCOM OUTleT. OUTOOOII. W.P .. &0" " ' '·
CDI INTPUSIOI< DHEcCTOR. MAGN ~ T•C DOOR SWITCH 2 ' " TE RCOM OUTleT, MASTE. R STATION '>0" AFF.
;><TA<.JSION O£HCTOR; I'IAGNEToC I'IIN00\\1 SWITCo<. 3 INTERCOM OUTlET. REM O I ~ S•ATION 60" Af< .
l INTRUSION OHECTOR; H 6CTRONIC, MOTION DeTECTOR. 8 PREWIRE:> T\1 ANTE~ OUTlET. 12" AFF.
(<)
Diruf'll Aoom
Kitchtn
(b)
• (a) Electrical plan. lot.er {l(l;el. •ignal de<icn (b) Electrlctll plan. upptr le!:~ signal det;ir.es.
(~) S!fmbo4 fqr signal equipment. (d) Notes fur •ignal system.; (on~).
1. The fire detection, smoke detection, and intrusion alarm device all operate from a
sir>gle control panel, the alarm bell is common. The annunciator indicates the device
operated and its location .
2. The connection between the signal control panel and OLCP !Outside Light ing Con-
trol Panel) activates all .outside lights when a signal device trips. Selected lights in-
side the house can also be connected to go.
3. Two l4 in. empty plastic conduits, extending from 2 to 4 in. boxes in living room wall
down to family room and terminating in 4 in . flush boxes. Boxes to be 18 in. AFF and
fitted with blank covers. Extend a Y• in. plastic EC from one 4 in. box in living room
to 12 in. speaker back box recessed in dining room ceiling locate in the.f ield fr om the
second 4 in. box in living room" extend a l4 in. empty plastic conduit to an empty 4
in. box in the master bedroom. 18 in. AFF finish with blank cover.
4. Provide television antenna amplifir, recessed in wall box with hinged ventilated cover
18 in. AFF. connections to antenna and to all television 9utlets by television and
antenna subcontractor. Provide 1'20 v outlet at the amplifier, with switch to discon-
nect.
279
In general, all signal systems require a source of signal. equipment to process the signal
including transmitting it, and finally a means of indicatin g the signal , either audibly.
visually , or on permanent record " hard copy". Circuits vary as to f unctions . but t ne
basic line of signal initiation, transmission - and - process, and reception remains un-
changed. The T able below illustrate the three-fold classification of the Lists of equip-
ment and systems found in the sampl e of the residence above . Note th at the fire alarm,
smo ke detection, and intrusion ala rm systems have been combined into a single
system. This simplifies operation and avoids unnecessary equipment duplication .
Int rusion alarm Door and w indow Control cabinet Bell s, buzzer
switches, motion annunciator
detector
- - -- · ---·· ---- -
Door bell Push Botton Transformer Buzzer, chime
- - ---- -- ·
• TV antenna TV station and Amplifier TV Set
house antenna
a ) General
If properly designed and functioning normally. the system should provide sufficien t
time for the evacuation o f the residents and then for appropriate countermeasures
to be initiated. The elements of the system are the various alarm-init iating devices,
the w iring and control panel, and the audible alarm d evices. Systems utilizing
automatic sensing equipment are ref erred t o as automatic fire alarm systems. even
if manual sig nal units are also used.
b) Alarm devices
The most common residential alarm initiating device is the temperature detector,
sometimes called a thermostat . T hese detectors are of two types; the fixed
t emperature unit and the rate-of-rise unit. The former operates a set of contacts
when a present (nonadjustable) t emperature i s reached. The latt er operates when
the rate of ambient temperature changes exceeds a predetermined amount, in-
dicative of an incipient fire. The rate-of-rise unit is normally combined with a fixed
t emperature unit in a single housing. The f ixed temperature unit is avail able in a one-
t ime nonrenewable design that utilizes a tow melting point alloy plug and an
automatic resetting unit of design ·sim ilar to a thermostat. For most applications. the
resettable unit is preferred. Two typical units are herein illustrated.
280
FIRE ALARM TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
FUSIBLE
PLLIG f ~SPN6 (a)
a) Fusible plug melts out at predetermined temperature. Unit is indicating and non-
renewable.
(b)
6LE.ED VALVE
IS" MIN.
5EALSO CHAMBER
281
c) Rate-of-rise unit comprises an air chamber wit h restricted bleed valve . R(!pid
temperature rise unit comprises an air chamber with restricted bleed valve.
Rapid temperature rise causes expansion of bellows befo re loss of air by
bleedin g and con sequent alarm . Unit is combined w ith bimetallic fixed
temperature unit.
Illustrated below are two types of residential Alarm Units -both completely self-
co ntained.
!\
I I I r oRfSEl
! @j
14:,...
~ ;;;;_..,
c) Control Unit
The function of the central panel is to energize the audible devices (bells, buzzers,
and gongs) upon receipt of a signal from the detector, which will continue to
sound until the emergency condition is cleared or until they are manually silenced
at the control panel. Other fun ctions that the panel may be designed to serve are
shut-off of oil and gas lines, shut-o ff of attic fan to prevent fire spread, and turn-
out of lights, both inside and outside. In order to assure system operation even in
the event of a power interruption, most systems are provided with a standby bat-
tery.
282
A single control panel can serve a multiplicity of residential systems. Typ!cal units
of this type are shown in the following illustrations.
1111111
.. ..
·[]]]] [ill] •
b) A modern control panel and annun-
ciator unit shows the -zone and ac-
tual device which operated. On a
plan of the house, a light indicates
the location of the tripped device.
(use different color light).
283
.---- - -- ----------{f ATnc
WP
'---a.ninls!Of1 «t~:lf"S
C.ON~L PANEL ~-.srnou uta.rlotS
FIRE. SMOKe ~.-,Timp . det«tots
INTFIUSION '-----lf.lllotton d~ior;
ltvin,g t"l'(Jm
UF"Pef;> LEVEL
120 volt
tnr~o
Sm61(e
'itmP. o.t~rs
ktu~r.s
detu1ots
J l.o'MI!r
ltv•l
~10 Mt~ t.tmdy
LLMER LeveL
The audible devices comprises conventional belts, gongs, buzzers, and horns,
some of which are illustrated below. Most commonly used is the a-c vibrating bell,
since gongs are normally only used in coded non-residential systems. A weather-
proof external bell, to alert neighbors and passersby, is also desirable.
: : : ~ : ·..
• • .. • • .. • • 0 • ~ • • • ,
.. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .- ..
..
----- - ------·-
INDOOR TYPE OUTDOOR TYPE
284
e) System Design
Detectors are rated by temperature and coverage; for example, 135 °F and 200
sq.ft. and are normally located on the ceiling in all rooms and stairwells, including
the attic and the basement. Because of high ambient temperatures, the units install-
ed in the kitchen, attic and the basement. Because of high ambient temperatu res,
the units installed in the kitchen, attic, and basement-near the heating unit are nor-
mally rated at 190 to 200 °f, whereas the units in the other rooms are usually set at
135 °f. Smoke detectors are normally placed adjacent to the house heating unit in
the bedroom area, in the kitchen, and occasionally in the garage and in unoccupied
areas such as the attic.
f) Circuit Design ..
A system which is normally deenergized and carries no current except when func-
tioning is called an open circuit system, such a system is the simplest and most
econo mical type but has the disadvantage of not indicating a broken wire or other
malfunction that will render the system inoperative.
a) Wiring of an Open-ci rcuit fire-alarm system. The figure below shows a closed
circuit system. This arrangement will set off the alarm bells in the event of trou-
ble in the equipment, but since this type of "False Alarm" is to an extent
undesirable, a further refinement in the form of a trouble bell and (or) light can be
added (at approximately 50% cost increase} that will then indicate to the oc-
cupants. an equipment failure without singing the fire alarm bells. This feature is
known as supervision, and such a system is known as supervised system. This
system can utilize open or closed circuit devices. depending upon circuit ar-
rangement. Furthermore, by special wiring and circuit design, the system can be
arranged so that a single break or ground in the wiring to the devices will not pre-
vent the operation of the system.
INSIDE. ~K
IN.
·~
0 0 ~ 0 0 • WI MIL'( ~ t.:R
~ PJI\TIO
M-\STER ~NEL •~HIL'R.&?NS 5 .f(
IN HITatEN DJr:
~8E.PRDOM
. r:lOOA SPeAKER
AT ~NT t:« SWE. ~
~ IN GAIUil;E.
In residential work, the telephone company normally follows the route of the electric
service, entering the building overhead or underground as desired. In both cases a
separate service entrance means must be provided; if aerial, a sleeve through the wall;
if underground, a separate entrance conduit.
Wiring of telephone instruments when installed after completion of the residence con-
sists of a single surface mounted 1/ 8 inch diameter, 4-conductor cable that, even if
skillfully installed, is unsightly at best and completely objectionable at worst. Prewiring
consists of running the cables on the wall framing and into empty device boxes. This
results in a completely concealed installation that is desirable from the owner's view-
point and, depending upon the number of outlets, cheaper for the phone company to in-
stall. Instruments can be wall or desk type, the latter also being available for jacking in·
to outlets around the house.
287
5. Bell, Single-Stroke
A device whose gong is struck Or'lly once each time operating energy is applied to
the bell. This item is usually called a single-stroke gong .
6. Breakglass
Refers to a false-alarm deterrent available in fire alarm stations; a glass rod is
placed across the pull-lever and breaks easily when the lever is pulled.
7. Coded Alarm Signal
An alarm signal t hat represents a 1, 2, 3, or 4-digit number indicative of the loca-
tion of the fir e alarm station operated.
8 . Coded System
One in which not less than 3 rounds of coded alarm signals are' transmitted, after
which the fire alarm system may be manually or automatically silenced.
9. Control Unit (Fire Alarm Panel)
Compromises the controls, relays, switches, and associated circuits necessary to
( 1) furni sh power to a fire alarm system (2) receive signals from alarm initiating
devices and transmit them to indicating devices and accessory equipment. and (3)
Electrically supervise the system circuitry.
288
1 7. Positive Noninterfering and Succession Coded Station
A fire alarm station that once actuated, will transmit not less than 4 rounds of cod-
ed alarm signals without interference from any other station on the circuit. One or
more of these stations, if subsequently operated, will transmit not less than 4
rounds of their coded signals without interference with each other or with the first
station actuated.
1 8. Presignal System
One in which the operation of an automatic detector or the first operation of a
manual fire alarm station actuates only a selected group of alarm indicating
devices for the purpose of notifying key personnel. A general alarm may be sound-
ed on these some indicat ing devices and on an additional group of devices from
any manual station, to warn all occupants.
1 9 . Proprietary Fire Alarm System
A system with supervision by competent and experienced observers and
operators in a central supervising station at the property to be protected.
20. Recorder (Punched Tape)
A device for tape recording the actuation of a fire alarm initiating device. The sta-
tion or code is punched on the tape may be1used with a TIME STAMP.
21 . Remote-Station Fire Alarm System
A system of electrically supervised devices employing a direct-circuit connection
between alarm initiating devices or a control unit is protected premises and signal-
indicating equipment in a remote station . such as a fire or police headquarters.
22. Selective Coded System
A system in which each manual f ire alarm station and each group of automatic
detectors has its own individual code, which sounds on all alarm indicating
devices in the system when the manual station or automatic detector is actuated .
23. Station. Fire Alarm
A manually operated alarm initiating device; may be equi pped to generate a con-
tinuous signal (non-coded station) or a series of coded pulses (coded station)
24. Supervised System
A system in which a break or ground in the wiring which prevents the transmis-
sion of an alarm signal will actuate a trouble signal.
25. Trouble Signal
A signal indicating trouble of any nature, such as a circuit break or ground. occur-
ing in the device or wiring associated with a fire alarm system.
2 6. Zone Coded System
A system in which the building has been divided into zones. Alarm initiating
devices in each zone activate a zone code that indicates only the location of the af-
fected zone.
289
1 . NONCODED MANUAL STATIONS
In contrast to the automatic detectors that constitute the most common alarm initiation
devices in residential systems, the manual station is operated by hand. The detector
monitors automatically and is therefore best applied in buildings with sleeping residents
and in unoccupied spaces in other buildings. Manual station serve to spread the alarm,
which has already been detected by other means, either human or automatic.
If it is desired to know which manual non coded station has been operated, an annuncia·
tion panel can be added to the system. This is equivalent to using each station as a non-
coded indicating zone. Because of wiring costs, such an annunciated system becomes
expensive. Beyond 10 stations, coding should be considered.
,l-M ,±-fi -,
I
F IRE Al..ARJ-1
PANEL
r-±--F
FtA ~" ~ -· I
-..a
',~-r I
!,. - - _ .. ~ -r
L- --- -.J
ANN.UNCIA'T'l:IR
P-ANEL
ANUCITO~ WI~NG
290
Wiring of noncoded fire alarm manual stations. An additional set of contacts in each
station provides annunciation for that station.
Whe n the system design is such that immediately aural identification of the operated
station is necessary, a coded station is used. The code sent out by the station is receiv·
ed at the control panel, processed and then transmitted audibly on the system gongs.
Not less than 3 rounds of code, and normally 4 rounds are transmitted .
The. :-;ode usually comprises 3 or 4 digits, for example 2·3·2 with a pause between the
ring1ng groups and a longer pause between the rounds. The first 1"1\Jmber may identify
the building floor, the second digit the wing, and the third digit the individual station.
Establishment of codes is left to the user. Wiring of coded stations is similar to the non·
coded system. Stations are place in the normal path of egress from a building so that an
alarm may be turned in by a person as he or she exits.
It is imperative therefore that stations be well marked and easily found . Architects who
place fire alarm stations in nooks and corners and in camouflaged cabinets because,
they spoil the decor of the lobby are defeating the purpose of the system. Similarly,
placement of bells inside hung ceilings because they are unattractive is not only foolish
but dangerous, and should never be done, regardless of the circumstances. Loss of
property and even of life may result from such ill-conceived aesthetic considerations.
3. SPRINKLER ALARMS
Various circuit arrangements are possible by use of water f low switches that are placed
in sprinkler pipelines and operate ....-hen a sprinkler head goes off as shown in the
Figure.
291
In electrical terms, a water flow switch is a set of contacts, similar to a temperature
detector . It can be used to t rip a coded transmitter, setting off a sprinkler code to stiow
up on a sprinkler annunciator board called a sprinkler alarm panel, or to act as a zone in
a noncoded system. Wiring of water flow switches is the same as for stations as
shown below.
4. FIRE DETECTION
There are four (4} basic types of fire detectors; - Temperature, -Photoelectric,
-ionization particulate and -Fiamo Type .
a) Temperature Detectors
292
These detectors are best applied where fires, either active or incipient, produce con-
siderable quantities of smoke and gas. This is the case with many types of smolder-
ing fires, such as those caused by burning of plastics and fabrics.
c) tonization Detectors -
These devices all purport to react to "products of combustion." In reality, they
operate by detecting ionized particles in the air, hence the generic name- ioniza-
tion particulate detectors. They do not detect smoke. Fires that produce heavy
smoke but few particles - such as many types of smoldering fires, alcohol fires,
and plastic fires - are not detected by these devices until they are about to enter
the active flaming stage. On the other hand, even very small fires that do produce
particle matter and rapidly detected.
Photoelectric Units and Ionization Detectors are generally classed as early-warning,
smoke-detection de~ics.
d) Flame Detectors
These are of two types - Infrared (IR} and Ultraviolet IUV). Infrared reacts to IR
radiations and UV reacts to Ultraviolet radiated from active flames. Applications are
generally industrial and are highly sensitive.
All of these detectors, though complex of themselves, can be used to sound a
general alarm, a coded alarm (by tripping a code transmitter in the panel), and per-
form other functions such as shut down the building fan system.
293
ALARM T~OUBl.Ei
BEJ,..L.. SELL
5. NONCODED SYSTEMS
These are continuous ringing evacuation types using manual and automatic alarm in-
itiation. If desired, the devices can be zoned and, if sufficiently large. annunciator can
be provided . Audible device are continuous ringing vibrating bells and horns.
TRMP&~\12E
®@0
DBTSGTION 1 1'11'\AN \JAL
~t:ODE STATIONS
AND SMOk"&:
r--
~
r--
't, ZONe:
IF
•
AN,.UNQ4TM
IF DSS.!IZEO
lrt>IGAT~
1:&~2>.
BSL.~
~ [](}
I-IOftN
294
ANUCI~ MOPU'-'=
tr.:=-1~fl ALARM ANO l'RbUBUi
LI~HTS
TROL MCPULE
PoWER SUPPL.YANP
AU PIBt.l'i AlA FtM MOIU.ES
This system also called common coded and fixed coded, generates 4 rounds of code.
When any signal device operates. It utilizes a single code transmitter at the panel. Nor-
mally, the system stops after 4 rounds of code, although it can readily be arranged to
sound continuously thereafter. When the code is set to ring the bells at an even 108
strokes per minute it is known as "march time" because of the rhythmic cadence. This
beat aids in the rapid panic-free evacuation of a btiilding and therefore is frequently
used in schools.
295
ALARM IN111AT1N.- DEVI$S
IFA ~NEL l Q
COMMON CODE
TRANCiMITTER
A
Q
e
As with all coded systems, 4 rounds of coded signal are sounded after which the
system is silenced. In all coded systems. It is advisable to include a device that records
in plain English all alarms, including time of receipt and the code sounded.
296
8. DUAL CODED SYSTEMS
This arrang ement is a combination of non coded and zone cod ed systems. W hen an al8rm
device operates it initiates two separate functions - an identifying coded alarm and a con-
tinuous ringing eva<:uation alarm . The alarms are sounded simultaneously; the coded ala rm
in t he buildings maintenance office and the evaluation alarm on separate audible devices
throughout the building. A requisite to the application of this system is continuously manned
office in which the coded indentifying signal can be received and acted upon.
SJN<;LE ~E.
Q
6(:>N~ FOR
GO.Oe-D SI6NAL.S
eu.s , ~ GEN.
e YACUATIOt-J
.SI6NAL.
This is a fully coded system in which all manual devices are coded and all automatic
devices are arranged to trip code transmitters at the panel. Each manual station can be
immediately identified by its distinctive code. A utomatic devices may be grouped in
any f ashion desired, and annuciated if desired. The combinations and circuitry are en-
tirely in the bands of the designer. In large sy st ems, which fully selective coded
systems usually are, sprinkler transmitters and smoke det ectors operate as integral
subsystems of the main fire alarm panel .
297
ALARM IN1A~ CIE.VICI:6 ALARM ~EL Aua&.E DEVICeS
EJl:J[;l; Q
000 F t-------+-IX-MITTER
®0 0 F 1-"NXh!IT't~
e ee ~ l---l-----·
WF~-
WATER
Ft.I:MI
f)SElECTIV"e coa:t'J 1'"11?1! ALARM &Ys.TJJ"" WITH EI.C:Ttli~Lcy OPE R'.AlEP C:::OOEO
STATIONS THAT AGT AS. $U8MAS1'fllf<IS TO tr"reCTOR Cl~GIJiS. UFTCC.TORS
TRIPPING EL.ECirttGAL..LY
Q
F F F F L
I
Q}
EJ)J
.SUIGU!' S~
~ al C:::HIMI!'.S
~ a:lPISD
p~'
g
seus R:lR
298 E:V.ACUA.TICN
ALA 2M.
When it is desired to alert only key personnel a system ca11ed presignaling is used. Small
bells or chimes are activated only in ·their vicinity. Since these systems are always
selectively coded. The personnel alerted can immediately investigate and, if necessary,
manua11y t urn in a general alarm by key operation of a station. (See above illustration).
Because of the delay involved, this type of system is used only in buildings where
evacuation is available to immediately investigate the cattse of an alarm.
The usual differentiation between intercom and private telephoJle is interface with
phone company equipment, which is found on the latter and absent on the former.
Masters and remote stations are frequently ca11ed administrative and staff , respective-
ly, and their functions are the same. Instruments may look like telephones in addition to
a number of other functions.
299
system that will handle up to 500 lines and trunks, 4 operator consoles. and 140 +
simultaneous conversations plus full intercom facilities. occupies a cabinet 2 ft. x· 2. 3
ft. x 6ft. high (.60 x . 70 x 1 .80 m) . The controls are completely automated. and at-
tendants do little more than route incoming calls and provide information typical of this
type of equipment are the two stations illustrated herein operational features of this
system include:
1. Direct internal and external dialing .
2. Consultation hold, that is, ability to hold an outside call while making an inside call.
3. Conference call capability, includ,ing internal and external units.
4. Call transfer and camp-on feature.
5. Automatic Call back .
6. Call forwarding .
7. Distinctive ringing for different functions.
8. Paging, executive priority, dictation access, personnel location, plus other options
as desired.
300
NUMBER a= STATION OR GEntlE PEil.MilS ATTEND-
TRUNK TC WtiiGH ATTEND4NT ANT TO BREAK INTO A
IS CO~I!T5D <:'ONVE~10
(OVEIZRIDE CAL~ AREAl.-
WA~ F'REC:Et:ED 13)1'A WA~I
ATTe:NI:W'lT K~ CONNeCT
ATTE.NMN\ WlTH AU. TllUNk
AND STAT\ON LINES.
SR.IT ENABt.e; ATTE'NDI'NT CLASS OF S~VI<:l; CF
SPitTlON OR TYpe OF-
TO TALK ~nay WI~
~f.( To WHic::H AnliNO-
El-mER Of" 1\tt; 1WO P~ES ANT IS GoN~TEO
IN/\ CALL
LINE INDlGA.-re>RS GIVE
STAllJS OF" CALL GON- Got.l~f'IE IS LlSS>
NECTEO TO .ATTENUANT ~ 5ETT1 Nc;; UP TH
KEY BELOW y.q..y a,NR=~tEH:GI&U.S f34.Q:: lia'lo£S' ATTEN04NT
PlllEGT AC.CESb TOA
VOICE PA'I~ ~M
3 '- 31]
oooo:rno 00
DOD
DOD
DOD
Among the most important signal functions in this type of facility is the protective one.
Although the control point may be a common one, these systems are varied and per-
form separate functions .
301
Typical Security door hardware. Audible
alarm is sounded locally and annunciated
at the control panel.
302
f. I
"9..._c.__,·...-, l B.-
Li__r~!·:8JE
303
.~ ......~: .~
.
~
.
...;_. ··'··
The next level requires the encoding of a 3-digit number, simultaneously with
presentation of a card, this barring entry to unauthorized card holders (found or
stolen cards)
The third level involves an attendant. In this figure, the attendant compares the card
data and the pElrson' s appearance with stored data displayed on an adjacent screen,
providing a triple check and negating the effect of forged cards.
c) Watchmen's Tour Equipment
When tour equipment is used, it is frequently of the combination - alarm type.
ALARM
u
combines fire and general alarm with
@ an intercom station.
GE"ERAL AI..Allllo1
PVLL FOil
FIRE AV.AM
(D
0
TELEPHONE
304
This type of station allows guards to call in, alerts them to waiting calls, permits a
g~neral a
alarm to be turned in by key operation, and is available as manual fire
aiarm signal may be of several types. An ultrason ic signal fills the area protected (in-
doors) with a standing wave pattern, which when disturbed is detected.
Another variation is a tone radar system utilizing microwave frequencies. Motion
within its antenna range causes a change in reflected signal and trips an alarm.
A third variation, intended for outdoor application, establishes a perimeter fence
comprising an electromagnetic field between antennas. When the field is disturbed
by an intruder, the system unbalances and an alarm is initiated.
Sometimes a design must be reached quickly to avoid costly delay, reruns and so on,
and so the recipient must be informed at once. Paging systems fall into two general
categories and several subcategories: They are either VISUAL, AUDIBLE, or both, and
are either common or selective.
The simplest visual and audiovisual types comprise flashing lights, which may be com-
bined with buzzers or bells, either or both of which are generally coded. Such systems
are nonselective in that they impinge upon the senses of all the building occupants -
an obvious disadvantage.
More sophisticated systems utilize a small pocket device that is carried by each person
likely to be paged; maintenance personnel, plant engineers, executives, and so forth.
By means of either direct radio transmission or of electric field s induced by induction
loops installed throughout the building, an INDIVIDUAL POCKET DEVICE can be alerted
by a BUZZ. In some systems, the alerted person then listens to the message directly.
On others, it is necessary for this person, once having been paged, to go to a phone and
call in to a central paging desk to receive the message.
Others utilize small hand-held, two-way radio transmitters with paging, to enable con-
versation between the page originator and the recipient. In any of these systems, it is
necessary to have a paging operator and a coding device at which the paging calls
originate. Often, in a small factory, paging is handled by the regular phone operator.
Industrial building systems are normally selective coded and fully supervised. Presignal-
ing is utilized in structures where for any reason evacuation alarm is undesirable. In ad-
dition to manual stations at points of egress, these devices may be used:
1. Temperature and smoke detectors in storage areas and laboratories.
2. Smoke and flame detectors in record rooms and continuous laboratories .
3. Waterflow switches or all sprinklers.
Annunciators, control panel. and alarm registers are best placed in the guard-room. If
none is available, an auxiliarized circuit should be added to allow remote supervision.
Because of high ambient noise level in many plants, horns are substituted in such areas
for bells and gongs which might be inaudible.
305
306
chapter
TRANSPORTATION
TRANSPORTATION
VERTICAl TRANSPORTATION
1. PASSENGER ELEVATORS
These are normally subdivided by application into four general classifications:
a. General purpose or commercial
b. Residential
c. Institutional
d. and Store
Ideal performance of an elevator installation provides minimum waiting time for a car at
any floor level, comfortable acceleration, rapid transportation, smooth and rapid retar-
dation, automatic at all stops. Furthermore, the system must provide quick and quiet
power operation of doors, good visual floor indication both in the cars and in landings,
easily operated car and landing call buttons, smooth quiet and sate operation of all
mechanical equipment for all conditions of loading, comfortable lighting and generally
pleasant car atmosphere.
The elevators have architectural aspects as well. The cars and shaftway doors must be
treated in a manner consonant with the architectural unity of the building. More impor-
tant though, the shaftway are major space elements whose integration into the building
is' a prime factor in composition.
2_ ELEVATOR EQUIPMENT
The car, cables, elevator machine, con1rol equipment, countryweights, shaft of
hoistway, rails, penthouse, and pit make up the principal parts in any traction elevator
installation . An idea of the functioning and orientation of these units of equipment can
be obtained from an inspection of the following figure: (see illustration on next page).
The "CARs,·: .with their equipment for safety, convenience, comfort, and furnish, are
the only items with which the average passenger is familiar. Indeed some of the
buildings' prestige depends on proper design of the car. Essentially the car is a cage of
some fire-resistant material supported on a structural frame, to the top member of
which the cables are fastened. By means of guide shoes on the side members the car is
guided in its vertical travel in the shaft. _The car is provided with safety doors,
operating-control equipment, floor-level indicators, iiiiJmination, emergency exits, and
ventilation . It is designed for long life, quiet operation, and low maintenance.
"(he "CABLES" raise and lower the car. Four to eight cables, depending on car speed
and capacity, are placed in parallel, the weight of the car being equally distributed
among them. The cables that are fastened to the top of the car pass over a motor-
driven cylindrical sheave at the traction machine (grooved for cables) and then
downward to the counter weight.
The ''ELEVATOR MACHINE" turns the sheave and lifts or lowers the car. It consists of
a heavy structural frame on which are mounted the sheave and driving motor, the gears
(if any}, the brakes, the magnetic safety break, and certain other auxiliaries. The Gover-
nor that limits the car to safe speeds is mounted on or near the elevator machine. In
most installations the elevator-driving motor receives its energy from a separate motor-
generator set (m-g-set), which is in operation during the period that the· particular
elevator is available for handling traffic.
Control end
ae1acw penel
(com!Kiblr end
lotlc pe11el)
100m
level
S.COndaty
ltwl
GO¥amor
cables
Qodcle reila
Umit
switches
and cam
Slowdown
switch cam
l.oad
eompensatlna
cables
Holttcablea
Roller
shoes
Sling
Cab Staples.
landllll
ttentduc:er
Ttetllc:
S.fety edp
Sat.t,
~sator
309
The "CONTROL EQUIPMENT", is the combination of push buttons, contacts, elec-
tronic equipment, relays, solid-state switching, cans, and devices that are operated
manually or automatically to initiate t he door operation, starting, acceleration, retarda-
tion, leveling, and stopping of the car. These auxiliaries are interrelated in such a way
that the major apparatus functions to produce the maximum of safety comfort and con-
venience. Electrical limit switches, automatically stop the car from overrunning at the
top and bottom of the hoistway. The well-known floor indicators, floor pilot lights, car
panels, lobby control panel, call bottons at floor levels, floor-leveling devices, and up
and down indicating lamps are all parts of the coordinated control equipment.
, The "COUNTERWEIGHTS" are rectangular blocks of cast-iron or cut steel plates stack-
ed in a frame that is supported at the opposite ends of the cables to which the car is
fastened. The counterweight is related to the weight of the car and its load so that the
required energy input to the elevator machine (which moves the car) is relatively low.
The counterweight is guided in its travel up and down the shaft by two guide rails
typically installed on the back wall of the shaft. Obviously the counterweight travels in
the reverse direction to the car.
The "SHAFT" is the vertical passageway for the car and counterweights. On its side
walls are the car guide rails, door frames, and certain mechanical and electrical aux-
iliaries of the control apparatus. At the bottom of the shaft are the car and
counterweight buffers . At the top is the structural platform on which the elevator
machine rests. The elevator machin.e is room which house the elevator machine is
usually directly above the hoistway. It contains t he m-g set Of solid-state control that
supplies energy to the elevator machine, the control board, and other control equip-
ment. All machinery and control equipment are designed for quiet operation.
-~ONTRL EdU~aN
----SUSVA"TDR MACH•NE
---•FIFTH P'L..OoR
I•
---
._f----t-- CO&JN11!!1R ~ItT
• I
THIRD FlOOit
I
PLAN Of SHAFT
J
I
I
...C.,.o\BL&S
I
: 3CrONO ~
~ I
..GAR.---·&JIIOUND J"'UllOt
310
(
g PIT ~MIL$
-~ ~-·'.;()JL 8Uf'PI!JtS
3. GEARLESS TRACTION MACHINES
This consist of a d-e motor, the shaft of which is directly connected to the brake wheel
and driving sheave. The elevator hoist ropes are placed around thi~ sheave. The
absence of gears means that the motor must run at the same speed as the driving
sheave. Since it is not practical to build d-e motors for operation at very Jow speeds.
this type of machine is utilized for medium- and high-speed elevators, that is, speeds
above 350ft. per min (fpm). Gearless machines are generally utilized for passenger ser-
vice, with minimum speed of 400 fpm and normal capacities of 200 to 4000 lbs.
In the range of 400 to 700 fpm, a 2:1 roping is generally used. (see Sec. 5) in the next
pages. Thus reduces motor size and increases sheave speed, thus reducting the cost.
Above 600 fpm, motor speed is high enough for 1 : 1 roping to be applied economically.
The GEARLESS traction machine is generally superior to the geared machine. Since it is
more efficient, is quiter in operation, requires less maintenance, and has longer life.
Generally, a gearless machine is chosen where rise is more than 150ft. and smooth,
high-speed operation is desired.
Autocnatic position
brake solenoid
!>pring and arm
311
5. ARRANGEMENT OF ELEVATOR
MACHINES, SHEAVES AND ROPES
The simplest method of arranging vertical travel of a car is to pass a rope over a pulley
and to counter-balance the weight of the car would move up or down and require very
little energy to move it. This is.essentially the scheme that is used on a majority of high-
speed passenger elevators. The pulley is made· in the form of a cylindrical sheave con-
tain ing grooves for the several ropes that support the weight of the car.
5 • SHeAVE
When the supporting ropes merely pass over the sheave (in the grooves) and connect
directly to the counter-weights, the lifting power is exerted by the sheave through the
traction of the ropes in the grooves. Thfs system is referred to as the " SINGLE-WRAP"
traction elevator machine.
The function of the sheave S is merely that of a guide pulley: usually it is called the
deflector sheave. Each of the four or more supporting ropes lies in a groove cut parallel
to all other grooves on the sheave.
In this next figure, the ropes from the car are first wrapped over the traction sheave T,
then around the secondary or idler S, once more around Sheave T. and back over S to
the counterweights. This arrangement is characteristic of the one-to-one, double wrap
traction machi ne. It provides greated traction than the single-wrap machine and is used
in many automatic high-speed installations.
T
PeNTHOUSE UlVEL
GW
..
ZJ ROPING (OOUeLE ~)
cw
The three types shown above have the elevator machines located at the top of the
hoistway. When the elevator machines are placed in the BASEMENT, a very different
arrangement of cables and sheaves must be utilized te secure the same results. Much
more rope is required when elevator machines are located in the basement, and conse-
quently the problems of rope maintenance are increased. These systems, however, ob·
viate the necessity for a tall penthouse; and where this is desirable for architectural or
other reasons, a basement machine is used.
l r
~13
1 %
c.w T c
2: l ROPlNG UNDERSLUNG
Msi'E~T
I
f"LOOR
This arrangement uses geared traction equipment, with speeds up to 400 fpm . The
above figure is unusual and finds application where lifting the car from the top is not
desirable. This system may be used in residential or commercial application with limited
rise (100ft. or 33 meters} and speed (200 fpm or about 66 m per minute). All the il-
lustrated ropings are applicable to full range of car capacities up to 4000 lbs. or 1,814
kg .
6. SAFETY DEVICES
The main "BRAKE" of an elevator is mounted directly on the shaft of the elevator
·machine. (See illustration of Sec. 4). When d-e machines are used. the elevator is first
slowed down by dynamic braking action of the motor and the brake then operates to
clamp the brake drum, thus holding the car still at the floor.
A safety is designed to stop an elevator car automatically before the car's speed
becomes excessive. The action of one such device is controlled by a centrifugal
"GOVERNOR". which is independent of the other elevator machinery. At normal
speeds the safety system has no effect on the operation of the elevator. On the
overspeed the governor will cut off the power to the d -e motor and set the brake. This
usually stops the car. but, should the speed still increase, the governor actuates the
two safety rail clamps, which are mounted at the bottom of the car, one or each side.
These devices clamp the guide rails by wedging action, bringing the car to a smooth
stop.
~
Governor rope-(
. f
(a}
/ Oil or spring "BUFFERS" are usually placed in the elevator pit. Their purpose is not to
stop a falling car but to bring it to a partially cushioned stop if it would overtravel the
lower terminal.
(c)
Electrical "FINAL-LIMIT SWITCHES" are located a few feet below and above the safe
limits of the elevator car. If the car overtravels (down or up), these switches deenergize
the traction motor and set the main brake. Safety arrangements under emergency con-
dition of fire or power failure are discussed in the section of Emergency power sec.
7. ELEVATOR DOORS
The choice of car and hoistway door affects the speed and quality of elevator service
considerably. Doors for the most modern passenger elevators are power operated and
synchronized with the leveling controls so that the doors are fully opened by the time a
cab comes to a complete stop at the landing. The closing time, however, varies with
the type of door and size of opening. To provide fastest closing within 7 lb. Kinetic
energy limitation, a center - open.ing door is used.
SlNGLE SLIDlN$
~·
:~
....
.::
__
ZA CAR Wlt)Tfof
.,.,___ .,
..~
1:.~
~
31-5
Also, in order t o reduce passenger transfer time and avoid discomfort, a 3 ft . E? in.
(106.7 em) clear opening is used in most commercial installations, which permits
simultaneous loading and unloading without passenger contact. When a narrower
opening is used, loading will be delayed until unloading is complete;. therefore, speed
and quality of service w ill be markedly reduced. Such small doors are applied only in
residential or small, light-traffic buildings.
A two-speed door design is used where space conditions dictate or where a wide open-
ing is required. The two-speed nomenclature results from the fact that the two halves
of the door must travel at different speeds in order to complete their travel
simultaneously. (see f ig . c).
al·
,7
single slide door 24 to
36 in. wide (.60 t o
.90) for SITlall com-
mercial building or
residential use.
(4)
3)6
b) st,dard commercial ~ two-speed 42 in.
dOor, 42 in. (1.05) (1.05) general com-
center opening for of- mercial use.
fice building use.
(41}
~17
Detection of passengers on the car threshold can be accomplished electrically by
beams across the doorway. Interruption of these beams will prevent a door from dos-
ing or will cause a door to reopen which has begun to close. All automobile elevators,
whether equipped with detection beams or not, are required by ANSI (American Na-
tional Standard Institute) to have a safety edge device on -the caF doors that w ill cause
the car and hoistway doors, which operate in synchronism, to reopen when the safety
edge meets any ob~trucln (or when the hand pushes it).
.318
The hallway car-call device, normally a push button, serves to signal the car and, when
furnished with illumination, also can indicate the direction of car motion if the lantern device
is not so equipped. Although many designs are commercially standard, architects may be at
their discretion to design the lanterns, indicates, and push-buttons to complement the building
architecture.
• ..0• I· Yl2.34tS&l.1A.
·I
•
0
0
0
.. v
0.., ..,. 0
0
0
0 I· o•••••
t2.34S6
j
• • • • • • •
9. ELEVATOR SELECTION
The selection of elevators for any but the simplest buil<{ings requires the simultaneous
consideration of several factors: adequate elevator service for the intended building
usage, the economics of elevator selection, and the architectural integration of spaces
assigned to elevators, including lobbies, shafts, and machine rooms. All three of these
factors are interdependent; therefore, in large complex buildings, dozens and even hun·
dreds of combinations are possible. For most buildings, certain guidelines can yield en·
tirely satisfactory results with hand computation instead of a computer. The criteria of
elevator service quality are:
1. Interval and average waiting time
2. Handling capacity
3. Travel time.
A. Interval or Lobby Dispatch Time, and Waiting Time. This is the average time bet-
ween departure of cars from the lobby. In an ideal installation, at least from the
riding public's point of view, a car would be waiting at the lower terminal on the
rider's arrival or would be available after a short wait. Since cars leave the lobby
separated in time by the "INTERVAL" and passengers arrive at the lobby in random
fashion, the average waiting time in the lobby should be half the interval. The figure
most used in the industry is 60%; that is,
Average waiting time = 0.61
Excellent Office building design provides a 1 5 to 18 Sec. average wait during up-
peaks, with 22 sec. considered good and 26 borderline. With Elevator intervals in
range below, riders will not be conscious of any irksome delay in elevator service,
which is a major drawback in rental desirability.
Table EL-1 SUGGESTED ELEVATOR INTERVALS
Office Building
Center City 25 to 30
Investment 30 to 40
Residential
Prestige Apartments 50 to 70
Middle- income apartments 60 to 80
Low-income apartments 80 to 120
Dormitories 60 to 80
Hotels - 1st quality 40 to 60
Hotels - 2nd quality 50 to 70
B. HANDLING CAPACITY
The frequency, or interval, with which a car appears at the lobby is one of the two
factors that determine the passenger capacity of an elevator system. The other is
obviously the size or capacity of the elevator car . The system's handling capacity is
completely determined by these two factors - car size and interval, and is indepen-
dent of the number of cars. This can be best understood by visualizing the system
as a single set of doors that opens periodically (interval) to remove a given number
of passengers (car capacity) from the waiting group whether that set of doors
represents a single car which returns quickly or many cars which take turns is im-
material. The only factors that fix handling capacity are passenger load (car capaci-
ty) and frequency of loading (interval).
He = 300 p
320
Where p is individual car leading. When the interval is 30 seconds, the system
handling capacity is 10 p.
In order to relate system capacity He to the building size, to establish a criterion of
merit of service, we establish a minimum percentage of building population that the
system will handle in 5 minutes. Thus a good system will handle in 5 minutes. Thus
a good system for a diversified office building will handle t 10 than 17% of the
bu ilding popu lation.
Percent of Population
Facility
To be carried in 5 minutes
Office Buildings
Center City 13 to 15
Investment 12 to 14
Single Purpose 1 5 to 18
Residential
Prestige 5 to 7
Other 6 to 8
Dormitories 10 to 11
Hotels - 1st quality 12 to 1 5
Hotels - 2nd quality 10 to 12
Table El-4 Population of Typical Buildings for Estimating Elevator and Escalator
Requirements
NET AREA
321
HOSPITALS Visitors per Bed
General Private 1.5
General Public 3 to 4
it)~
. 85% 85~
Applicable to buildings with 1,350 to
r--- 1,800 sq. m. gross sq. m. per floor.
ss.t 75~ ~*
r-- ~
80 1--- t- A ..
verace tnp trme as a funct•on of
75 .. no. of local floor$ --·-
--· t - - r-·· .. t-··-
9' 6' lloor to floo•
250 lpm
2000 lb car ...... ~
70 t-- f- 30 sec interval
...-
1-- _. 1-- ~ 300 tpm
I ~
--
350 fpm
-
65 ~
60
1---- t::: ~
J::-:::: ......
~ ~ t:: 400 fpm
500 lpm
55
__.,... ~ ~ \:::::: -- t- .....
~ ~ ~
50
45
~
5 6 7 8 9 10. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(a)
FIGURES EL-1 Plots of Average Trip Time for Various Car Speeder and Capacitors
with 9ft. 6 m. floor height (2.85 mt.
3.23
I I I I I I
85
A~rafe
trip time illS a function of
80 t-- t- 9no. orloors 250 f pm
' 6" floor to ffoor
-v ~
~
-
2500 lb car 300 Ipm
v v v t:: ~
-t::::
75
~ 350 Ipm
~ ~I pm
~ ~~ ~ -
v
p
v
~ :::::::: ~
1--"
~ ~
500 f pm
- --··-
55
50
F- ~ ~ ~
~ j
' 5 .6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(b)
90
- 250 fpm
9" 6" floor to floor
- L-- ~
- 300 fpm
k ---
so 3000 lb car 1-- L-- 350 f11m
75 l
T
~v ~ ~- ~ ~
...- 400 lpm
500 fpm
"'
"0
§ 70
v C:::::: ::::::: ~
1::::; I=- 1--
..... ::::
J;
65
.--- ~ ~ ~ I
~
~
55
~
' 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floor-s
lei
_1 _1
100
Averaae trip time as a function of I
95 no. of local floors -r--
90 f - ·
~
- ~Q._gr
9' 5· floor to floor
.• 1
v
l.:-::::p
250 lpm
v t::-~
··- JOO rpm
i _. 1-- I-- 400 rpm
85
~ I v ~ t:- t::::v L-- ~
~ 500 I pm
-
~
8 80
~ ~ :..- ~ ~
J!
75 l.-:::: I-- 1--
70
.........::: ~ ~ ~
'
~
65
-T
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(d)
324
105
H _l i I
Average trip time as a function of
I I i
I
100 no. local floors _I 1
- .250 fpm
95
9· 6 · floor to floor
4000 lb car
I
__.... ~- ·- 300 Ipm
-- ~ ::::: 350 f pm
,..... ~ ~ 400 tpm
90
"'0 "'c ....... ~ ~ ~
;-:::: ~ r.:- r-- 500 t pm
...
0 85
::;;::::::: F"-
~
80 .........: ~ ~ ~
75 ~ ~ ~ ~
¢P
70 i -
.
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(c)
In calculating round trip time for cars ir:1 upper zones, it is necessary to know the
time required to t ransverse the express floors . This may be obtained from figure
El-5. The t imes given therein are for one-way express runs. Thus to calculate RT
for an upper zone car, take the RT corresponding to the upper floors and add twice
the figure obtained for express run time from figure EL-5.
E. SYSTEM RELATIONSHIPS
The symbols that will be used in all elevator discussions are:
p = Individual car capacity, equal to 80% of maximum during peak hours.
h = 5 minute capacity of a single car
N = Number of cars in a system
HC "" System 5-minute handling capacity, expressed in number of persons
RT = Round trip time, in seconds
A VTRP = Average t rip time, in seconds
I = Interval :n seconds
D = Population density in square feet per person (sq. misused when con-
verted)
PHC
,_ Percent of population to be moved in 5 minutes, expressed as a
percentage figure.
Having considered the definition of interval, handling capacity, average and round
trip time, it is well to demonstrate at this point the interrelationships between the
quantities, and the other equations governing the remaining factors that define
elevator systems.
Since HC = 300 P
I
In a system comprising a single car the interval (I) is obviously equal to the round
trip (RTL In a system with more than one car, the interval will be reduced in proper·
tion to the number of cars.
Thus I = RT
N
325
The 5-min. handling (h) of a single car is then
300 p
h = AT
If we remember that for a single car, its interval is its round trip time. It follows then
that if the handling capacity of a single car ish, then the handling capacity of N cars
is N times as much.
thus HC N X h
or N = HC
h
FIGURES El-2 Plots of average trip time.for various car speeds and capacities with 12ft.
0 in floor height (3.60 m).
80
E'""" "' "•'"' ""
1\0.of local
12' o· fiOOf to lloor
•~
noor, ot
---- ~-
....-
v 250 lpm
300 tvm
65 ~ -+
I
-+
!
-
I
i . _,
v v ~ 400 fpm
500 fpm
"'
-c
~60 I i 1
.-C:~ :::::::: t::: 1-- ~
£ ~ ......... ~ ~ ~ !--
55
~
;;o-
~ p
50
~ ~ ··-
! !
45
' .s
I
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of loc:al floors
{CJ)
-
90 Average trip time as a function of
no. onocel floor
! !
250 fpm
85 12" o· floor to floor
v v
--
2500 tb car 300 fprn
80 - I-- 30 sec i nierva1
~
----
I ~ 350 fpm
.........- ~ l.,....--- ~
75
....-VL..--- ~
v v ::::: t::: ~
400 fpm
500 fpm
8 -
"'
"' 70
~ ~
-~
~
.........- --::::: .-:;:::.
v• 65
60
~ ::;: ~ ~
~,.
•
'
-;::::;-
55
~
50 - -- . -·-- r--· -·-
• ..I .
5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floor
(bl
326
95 Average trip time as a funcrn of
no. otfloors 250 fpm
~
o· !
V v
90 12' floor to floor
85
3000 lb car
jo V
. ...... v 300 fpm
350 fpm
sec inte
v _.v~ v ....t--
-
400 fpm
~
!
v v_. ~ ~ ~ r;::: ;:::::: r-- 500 fpm
-
70
I / v k:::: ~ ~ ~ ~
-r
I
~-
~
~
~ ~
I
I I
65
~ i
60
5 6 y 8 9 10 II l2 I~ 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(c)
300 trm
--
............
3500 lb car
90 ~ 30 sec interval ~ v .... 350 fpm
v
v _... v _..v ~
~ ~
400 fpm
500 fpm
85
vv I-"
~ t::;; ~ f==== ~
--- r--
"'...,0 eo
"'e ./
.X 75
./ ~ ~ r:::;~ P , I
I ·-r--
'1 0 ~ ~ ~ ~
I I
~
65
60
I ·- -··-
1-- l
s 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(d)
--
4000 lb car / 300 lpm
100 t--· -· 30 sec inttNa I 1--- ............ """'-
v
..... v _. v v 350 fpm
r::: ~
~ 400 fpm
95
..,....... v v ~ ~ ~ 500 fpm
i 90
l,../ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ 85 .-
80
~ ~ ~ ....... ~ ~
~ ~ ~
75 F-"' ·- ..
70 I
5 6 7 8 9 10 1l 12 13 14 15 16 I7 18
No. of local l1oof
(e )
327
F. CAR SPeEDS
Th will in turn give an .acceptable interval. However in order to establish a strating
point, it has been found that a minimum car speed corresponding to a given building
height, or rise,. can be established. This recommendations are tabulated in Table
EL-6 below.
Minimum
Car Capacity Car Speed• Car Travel
U$age (Pounds) (Feet per Minute) (Feer)
Office buildings 350 to 400
~
- 0 to 125
Small building 2500 5.00 to 600 126 to 225
Medium building 3000 700 226 to 275
Large building 3500 800 276 to 375
1000 Above 375
Hotels 2500
3000 As above As above
Hospitals 150 0 to 60
200 61 to 100
3500 250 to 300 101 to 125
4000 350 to 400 126 to 175
500 to 600 176 to 250
700 Above 250
f,partment houses• 0 to 75
2000 [ 100
200 76 to 125
2500 250 to 300 126 to 200
350 to 400 Above 200
Retail stores 0 to 100
3500 [
4000
250 200
to 300 101 to 150
350 to 400 151to200
5000
500 Above 200
FIGURES EL-3 PLOTS OF ROUND TRIP FOR VARIOUS CAR SPEEDS and
CAPACITIES WITH 9 ft. 6 in. (2.85 m) floor height.
_I J
JIU '
Round lr~
I 1 1 I
lime as a tuncllou of - +--+--t----11
M. loca
oors _1 1
160 1-t-+--1--+-Fioor to floor 9' 6• f---!,! ---+--+-+----b-'-1
....--1 250 fpm
2000 lb car v
i .i/ ' !!
lSO ./
140
130
.."'
....
0
llO
110
...
<.>
(j')
100
90
80
70
60 I
- I I
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
328 (cd
190 t- Ro~nd t;ip l1~e as afundtion ~f
no. of floors
180 9 ' 6' floor to floor 250 fpm
2500 lb car
170
300 fpm
160
150
·
··-t···-+-t-
i : I
350 fpm
400 fpm
140 +-+-· 1 I
·soo tpm
"' 130
"v
..
~
0
<f) 120
5 5 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1(:. 17 18
No. of local floors
tbl
5 6 a 9 to 11 12 13 14 1s 16 11 18
No. of local floors
(c)
329
• - -1 -+ -+ ~!- -+ -+
210 t- t
Round 1 I I I
trip time as a function of
i
+. .i- :- "- :,~F'!I
no. of local flOOrs i 1 ./
200 f- 9 ' 6 ' tloor to floor 1 ! I T ~ ('o /
~'
190 3500 tb c:ar
1 - ~- ! -----1- ·
tao V V1~
170 v ~
160 I ./v / v ~ ~
j tso r+ [ V /~ S~ ~
.x. 140 t- T· v v~
I ./V~ ~r- SOO !pm
130 : I/~
120 f-1--· 1 ·-t - -
~%:
110 !
!
... ~" ! : : , I
90
~ . 1 I l t ;--r J
5 6 7 8 ~ 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 \8
No. ot local floors
!d )
I I I I I I I I
*-
210 Round trip time as a function of I
no. of local floors
200 9' 6• floor tc floor
. . .L+ ~v v~ ?! . ~
/v / v...... v ~
170
l -
V/VV/ /...,...... ~
160 I
1 150 ~
J 140 v v v k ~ c( v
t/ v ~
~
120
/ ~ ~ td: ~
110
~ ~ ~
100
~ ~
P'
90
~
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. ol local floors
w)
330
FIGURES EL-4 PLOTS OF ROUND TRIP TWO FOR VARIOUS CAR SPEEDS AND
CAPACITIES WITH 12 FT. 8 in. (3.60 m) FLOOR HEIGHT.
's 6 1 s 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1s
No. of local floors
Ia I
l___j_ I I~
I I I I I I
200 t- Round trip time as a function of no. of
local floors I
190 o·
t- r-}2' floor to floor
v ~
2500 lb ear
180 IL
170
L
v v L ~
160
150 v
v v
v v
v
v
~
140 _./ / / /
v ~ ~ .,...,..
V"
/ / / /
L / v..,.... ~ v """' .,..,.
...- ~
v ~\"
vy ~ v / ~ ~
110
100
90
~
~
v; "' ~
v J/1
, ~
:;>"'
~
!
!
;
~
~
80 lt
. i
70
I
60
~
I I I I
I
i j_ _i
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(bl
331
I I I I
or
I I I I
220 '""" Round trip time as a function no. of
-
*~
leal floors 1
210 12' o· floor to floor 1 . 4>
3000 lb car · · '
200
190
'J
L
v
' v
/
' v v ..... ~
180 . /
170
' v/ v ~
/v ~r-
/
..,."'
J
160..
;:;_
// v ..... ,/ v ,..,- ./
io'
150
140 -· / v vv k--:'
.,. v r:-
/ / ~ ::::-- ~ _,;
~/"'
v~~
1--.
P< 'iJ1l ~
130
~ ~
120
110 v~ ~ ~
I"
i
I
'
I
J
l
100 ~ ~ ~
i
I
-
~
I
I
90
I
80 I
u l l I
'5 6 7 8 , 10 ll 12 l .j - 14 15 ,6 17 18
No. of lc c ~ •l !loors
(c\
100 i
'5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
No. of local floors
(d)
332
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
le)
48
I I I I I I
v~
~ r- M ...,_ lillie • a Mllliq
e»r ......_ DoeliiOt iPdude
fundioft
time for
·~
slops at llnninl1s. for nud trip.
1-- double timt fipns shllwn.
I J I v I-'
I I J /
/
~
r- Lo-speed ears
v
1'--
I .,....,..
v !-"
L_ v ~ -
v,.,... .... ,.,...r--
~
/
v ~
~
,.,...,. v
/ ...... / t:-- ~
,.
-
_.,.. .-- ~
"""
/
v
/ ~ v _.. I--- t:::: ~ ~
.... ~
8
4
~
...-::"' ~-
~
V'
l,...-o-"
~-
--::::: :=:; c::::
...-::.
-- -
;::::.. ~ ~ f.- p-
J.
5 6 7 .8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1& 19
No. of ppress ~
(CI)
333
10 20 30 40 50 60
No. of express floors
(b)
3.34
Single Car Capcity h = 300 c see table EL-2 for p)
RT
300 C16)
h = 143
= 33.5 persons
N = ~ h
=
168
33.5
= 5 .0 cars
Interval I = ___.!!!.__
N
=~ 5
= 28.3 sec.
To try other solutiOf1S, we can also try faster cars in order to reduce ~he number of cars,
or slower cars to reduce car cost we may select 600 fpm.
,335
Cat Size Depth Width
2500 lb 1133.75 kg. 7'-6" 2.25 m 8'-6" 2.55 m
30001b 1360.50 kg. 8'-0" 2.40 9'-0" 2. 70
35001b 1587.25 k. 8'-6" 2.55 9'-6" 2.85
40001b , 814.00 kg. 8'-6" 2.55 1 0' -0" 3.00
~IZ ~-
IN LI"NE
I
rn
z.co M q:
11
,,
MAY BE CLOSED
m
LJMIT OF IN L.JNE DUE
TO CffOSS TRAFFJG EXCEPT
IN OE~RTMN Sl't)RE
¢ 6- CAR GROUPS
.1
"~
z '3 4
~ I z
~
I I sc;r-MAY IE
2.obM ( '-9"~ I a.a£P
<1~
••
'
s ...
~ 5
"
d) &- CAR GROUPS
1 t. 3 +
<~
MUST ESC
O.KiNI'U>AT~
MINIMUM
C)F to'4(.5~)
laollt l=NllS
~If
s
" 1 8
d) 6- CAR GROUPS
9'-Jo' ~·
t.10-3.00M
c.w
HIGH HI'-H 1-t~H
4 s y.
I-;,~
MINIMUM •
1
\0 -6' (3a,M)
w
HI.:;H H"H H16H 1-ti~H
;- ~ 7 e
SUGGESTED CORES FOR 3-ZONE BUILDING
(Assuming machine room above each Zone)
J MR l\
D D @
D ®
ZONCI! 3
D p:;;o;= A
... ;·· .. ..... .
(. ~
......: ....... .
D
D
D ~v
2~0 ( M&OIUM) ZONE
Sa. T~RMIHAES
ZONE 2
lJ\ .-~
~il EILlLJ
(!) t1LTL up
1+!1{ Hl
31\0 F&..«. T
ttiH
@
Mj .....
ZONE 1 ~NO Pio,R. u
MIM ~rl
LOBBY
338
B. DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS
Manufacturers will supply. standard layouts for elevators including dimensions.
weight and structural loads. One such layout preengineered 2500 lb geared unit is
shown in figure EL-6. The major manufacturers have agreed upon, and publish a set
of standard Elevator layouts via t heir trade organization, the National Elevator In-
dustry, Inc. (NEll) USA. One such standard, with applications, is reproduced in
Figure EL-7 for 500 to 700 to 700 fpm gearless units in the full range of car
capacities. The NEll also publishes a recommendation for Minimum Passenger
Elevator Requirements for the Handicapped, one Section o f which is reproduced in
Figure EL-8 which is to be used particularly as regards public buildings.
As may be seen from Figure EL-6 , it is necessary, in providing for an elevator in-
stallation, to consider such factors as t he depth of the pit , the dimensions of the
hoistway, the clearance from t he top of the hoistway to the floor of the penth~ ,
the size of the penthouse, and the loads that must be carried by the supporting
beams.
The penthouse floor and secondary level floor (respectively, containing the elevator
traction machine and control panels, and the secondary sheave and selector tape
drive) are located above the shaft o f each elevator and need approximately two
stories of additional height above the top of the support beam of a given elevator
when it is standing at its topfloor location. The actual floor area required by the
elevator traction machine. its motor-generator set, and control panels is roughly
2 .0 times t he area of the elevator shaft itself. The required area of the f loor of the
secondary level is no larger t han the elevator shaft it serves. As seen in Figures EL-6
~nd El- 7 . The machine room contains the bulk of the elevator machinery. Since
some of this equipment will have to be moved for maintenance, it is advisable to
furni sh an overhead trolley beam that can be used during installation as well. The
maximum beam load will be supplied by the elevator manufacturer.
When penthouse space is not available and where a hydraulic unit is not desired, a
basement traction unit , also referred to as an underslung arrangement, can be used.
These units are low speed ( 100 to 350 fpm} and are therefore applicable where rise
is limited and traffic light to medium. Figure EL-9 shows a shaft section wit h car and
dimensional data.
I
i
I
I
IUP£11VIIORV
I CONTROL 'ANEL
j__
I
.I
~ , ~~ ~ f rl-~ j
C) 0' 2 !-
CA1!1
't G A.II& CW'I'
CAit 2 ''
~ C All a CW'I' ~
CAIU i
£ CAll& CWT
~
~ g ~ ~ jl:'
- • 0
~
% ~ ~
..j
t.>, Q.
+- -
H
$"
~
-~ ·--··---.....
t·· ---· -~· ----· . -r---.
i . ··- ... ·· r --· 't 01JID£S_
I
""ir--
.. ~
i5 iii
:z: ::
d
"" ra1't "
I
• "10" ltOUGH OPHO + 1'f " ...l : ~
.
. ,.•. ~:
:> i
0 ii:
IIC
:.. ;.. . .v:_.'!:l jl
1=----·-·-----------.. - . . --- ----- ..._____.___________..!!-,..:..C\.tAit ~!
- · - -·- - · -· · - -- - - 1TO" CLU,It ltOitTWAY
._
'LAN VIEW
340
Manufacturer's typical layout drawing.
Shown are machine room (a), hoistway plan
(b) , and hoistway section (c), for one, two,
or three 2500 lb, 200 to 350 fpm geared pre-
manufactured elevator cars. Courtesy of
Montgomery Elevator Co.
li I'
•
u
I
'
J
I
I
I
iil
...~
Qg
;
....
I
(t:)
&LaVATION VIEW
341
FIGU RE EL-7
Passangotr elevator'S,
rated speeds 500-700 fpm
.. - -
,.- -
L.- - ---..1
- -
-~
- - ~
...----- , : r
:! r-----------1 L------.J I I
1 I '
I
I
I
I II I
I
I
I l I
I
>
n
II I II
I II I
I I I
I I I ' ~
u
I II l I I I '!5
I J JI I I I t
1-
I
L-----
- -.l
- - ----J
I II I
II
~-
1..----------J
- - - ---- --..lj-··---
I I I
I I
t
~
I
..
-------------- ~ - - - - - ~ !
>. I I
__f
Hoistwav·
$;'
Hoistway
I '
(II}
t I l - ,. .,- ~
J!-'- 1 ,.....~l p-r+ ~1 ~ - . ~ ~ E1
~
j
D
•
1- -
L -c-__j
- - A ,- - -·
I
~ I .,; c ,.
II I -----
1-----G-
A
4-o.:;.c;ol-o,.....
...J
-~ oL
I f t recom.
Refer to table below for max..
car Inside area per ANSI Code.
(11)
342
SPHd• 50D-700 tpm
-Rated
Rated Max. Area
.
Dimensions Entrances
Load Car
c
Inside A B D F G Type H (Min.)
• Application: Office buildings. apartment houses, hotels, banks, etc.
I t Midline room
r '
4' 8" ~
Speed
fpm
!500
2000
24'4"
2500
24'4"
3000
24'4"
3500
24'8"
ReftHI Lo.d
4000
24'8"
5000
24'1"
!
level
eoo 25'1" 2!5'1" 2!5'8" 25'8" 25' 8" 25'1"
,: 700 2&10" 26'10'' 28'10" 28'10" 28' 10'' 21'10''
•zf
"-~0
"E
;...
.,,. , ,.,.. ..,...
Top SP"d Rated LOfld
sooo
lending l IPm
500
2000
9'4"
2500
9'4"
3000
9'4"
3600
t'4"
4000
9'4" 9'4"
600 9'4" 9'A" 9'5" t'5" 9'8" 9'6''
100· 10'3" 10'3" 10'4" 10'4" 10'5" 10'5"
Tr a~ i
(.Ill. H.,.,l IIIUiet Holalfltg ••->
Rafed RatHSJ)ftds
LCI~ 500 600 100
2000 8'6'' 8f6U 8'6"
2500 a•&H 6'5" t'8"
3000 8'6" 9'6" 9'8"
3500 8'8" 10'8" 10'6"
4000 t'6" 10'1" 10'8"
5000 10'0'' 10'8" 10'81'
lonom r-
tI lnllnt
..,.i
343
1 ,,.,
Pit
FIGURE EL-8
Altlmi'Ot locations
for c:ar Ull'ltroll
~
..
......
........
..
-· 64"t
j
(:5·1 highest
29'' ~$
1'emergency
35" t
buttunt
~-Lt sitnaing I Runniov
clearllf'lct'
L-f._
I ~ -~
---<.
7'1.!. )
~
....,.
MACKIN! IIMLL
~ INIIIAI.L f<YUWMomc:E
100M
omc. I«)TU
~ ~ 10001
A
•
• • 0"'
... ... !: ...
... TO"
,... ,.rr cr
4' II"
c r r
,
.. ...... ..... •• ..r .
0 ..._ r· 10''
,
I
· ~ · 10" •· r I'U"
Q
H ,...
10" 10..
,tcr... 10'
- ...... -
Ill'' t:r•
RIOOMMeiDU) ru.o-. IIIOOM
~·torT
,. ,,.........
•no
L
1011
IS' ,.. 11' • •
,. o•
IIIII)
344
C. STRUCTURAl STRESSES
For the purpose of structural design it is necessary to know the footpounds of
Kinetic energy that must be supported by the foundations, by structural columns
extending upward to the penthouse , and the main beams which support the pen-
thouse floor and subfloor. This kinetic energy is given for several elevators in Table
EL- 7. The weight given in columns, D. E, F, G and H include the actual dead
weights of equipment when the elevator is in motion, plus the added weight caused
by the momentum of all moving parts and passengers when the elevator is at top
speed and is suddenly caused to stop rapidly by the safety devices.
Table EL-7
A 8 c D E F G H
Traction-Machine Type, Tots! of
Hoist Motor and Rated Rise In Counter- Live Columns D, E.
Control Duty Feet Machine Car weight Ropes Load F. G. H
Gearless 1: 1 umv, 2500 lb at 420 4200 15,300 18,200 9800 8800 54,300
control 800 fpm
Gearless 2:1 umv. 3000 lb at 200 2950 6875 7975 3925 3250 24,775
control 500 fpm
Geared 1 : 1 umv, 500 lb at 130 6200 1450 1900 320 925 10,795
control 250 tpm
Geared 1: 1 a-c motor. zsno lb at 100 2600 500 600 ) 40 3tcft. 4150
rheostatic control 150 lprn
1 2. SPECIAL ELEVATORS
345
~
" } restiu~
·~ I
j
.11:
)o Apattments
e::
Ii
·~ I
1.
It
Mechanic.al
- ..... ~
I
rzz;
I Offices
~
ii
·' ·~
i i Ji "~ I
·~ ·~ I
,s; I
} Parkinc
~ ] I :i
% i Store
1 Aptttment lobby
Offict lobby
...-.
~
ObseMtiOn and
restiurant lobby
(a)
346
Splll*i IIYed with
double -de<:k elevators
f
provides 27,227 sq ft
-~itonal usable area
--18-
I
15
14 j
1
_i
i-
(o)
18 26
Number of elewt.ors
(b)
(a-3) Observation Car Elevatore
by placing the traction lifting mechanism behind the car, attaching the car at
the back, and using a glass- enclosed, observation-style, car a spectacular
unit can be constructed that becomes an attraction in itself. If the back
screen is treated properly the car gives the impression of movement without
any apparent motive force or machinery.
347
'
///
Resultant Ioree
on indi..;dual
wl~ ascendiflt
Two-speed
llcistway dOO!ll
(opj)Oliote Sid II
Open
B..·HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS
In contradistinction to the traction type, this Hydraulic or plunger elevator is raised
and lowered quite simply, by means of a movable rod (plunger) rigidly fixed to the
bottom of the elevator car. The absence of cables, drums, m-g sets, elaborate con
trollers and safety devices, and penthouse equipment make this system inherently
inexpensive and often the indicated choice for low-speed lup to 200 fpm), low-rise
(up to 75ft} (22.50 m) applications where construction of the plunger pit does not
present difficulties and where absence of penthouse is desiratsTe.
·,''
349
This system operates very much the same way as a hydraulic automobile jack ~ Oil
from a reservoir is pumped under the plunger thereby raising it and the car. The
pumped is stopped during downward motion , the car being lowered by gravity and
controlled by the action of bypass values, which also control the positioning of the
car during upward motion. Control systems normally used are similar to that for
traction types, for example, single push button . collective. and selective collective.
Similarly, door arrangements are the same as in traction types, that is, single slide,
center opening, and two-speed . Typical layout and dimensional data for standard
plunger units are given in the figures below.
Dlm•n•lon•
P'-lform Hoiahny
SPHCf
c D ltl
Cat»City
in
Poundt
'"'
Per
Atllnur.
Door A
Width
8
Depth
CINr
Hitch
0/Hr
HitCh
Clear
Opening
J
Wall to
Wall
No. of
Pa.,.ngera Application
SYir.m
lSOO 75 ss 5'-''' 4' 6.u 6'8" 13'8" 2'8" 5'3" 10 Aaaldentlal
2000 125 ss 6'4" 4'5" 7'8'' 15'8" 3' 0" 5'2" 13 Aealdentlal, 1111111 office bldg.
2500 t2S co 7'0" 5'0" e••" 17'0" 3'6" 5'9" 17 Aeatdentlat, hotel, amall office bldQ.
ss
2500
3000
125
100 co
7'0"
7'0"·
5'0"
5'6" ... ,
8'4" 17'0"
17'0"
3'6"
3'6''
5'9"
8'3"
17
20
Resldantlat, hotel. arnall ofllce bldg.
Store. smau office bldg.
3SOO f OO co 7'0" 6'2" 8'4" 17'0'' 3'8" 6'11" 23 Store, •mall office bldg.
~0 100 co 8'0" 6'2" 8'4" 19'0'' 4'0'' 6'11" 27 Store, t mall office bklg.
SS • SlnOI• llljcM
CO ,. C•nter ~"9
r----,
Tele1e0ping i I
plunger - -~1 .. i . Max.: 3 door
-~}! •"+ ; - - openings; max.
on tank _ _
and pump
r::..... ___ --···.--_
~.,_
i
~: · :. - .6
l
1
i rise: 22 ft
350
From the point of view of the construction, the major inherent advantage of
hydraulic units is the absence of overhead traction equipment. In the figure on p. 4 7
we see that only the guide rails project above the car and, if these are camouflaged,
the impression of a free-standing elevator car is given. This effect can be used to
good advantage inside large, open spaces such as exist in shopping malls and
stores; when combined with glass-enclosed, observation-type cabs, the effect is
striking.
351
C. RESIDENTIAL ELEVATORS AND CHAIR LIFTS
Although recognition of the special needs of the handicapped has only of late been
made official through legislation, and only for public buildings, the elevator industry
has been providing for the handicapped for years, on a private basis. Chair lifts,
wheel chair lifts and private elevators as shown in the figures herein are widely used
to overcome the stair barrier in private homes. All units operate on household elec-
tric current and require minimal maintenance.
~
: ·
.
.
352
.-:... ...- .-..·---a,;·
· ·- ···-··
.r
. ,.. (a ) 450 lb, 30fpm residential elevator in an open
installation . The operating mechanism is similar
.. •
•• JM ?$;,
:':•
to that of the chair lift in. The cab is rigidly at-
tached to a rolling truck that is lifted by a win-
ding drum. The track, within which the truck
rolls, 1s readily seen here, although in an enclos-
ed installation it is concealed. The power unit
and drum can be located at the top, bottom, or
center of the installation. Limit switches pre-
vent overrun. Control is manual or automatic.
as selected. Some equipment details are shown
in (b) (opposite). Courtesy. of lnclinator Com-
pany of A merica.
( a)
-~ .- ............. . .·.-.
; !".... .. .. .. ...... ~ :
·~
·''
, ~
- · ·"''
,.-·
:
(\
~ ~ : : ~\
· ~ ~: : : :. : r:
(b)
353
13. FREIGHT ELEVATORS
a) General
The prime consideration is the most economical solution to the problem of ver-
tically transporting a given tonnage of freight efficiently, economically and
quickly. If much freight is to be handed, a straight freight car is used. Factors to
be considered in freight elevator selection, in addition to tonnage movement per
hour, are size of load, type of doors, and speed and capacity of cars. These
factors are interrelated to that the actual process of selection involves making
assumptions on the basis of recommendation and then by trial, deciding on a
solution, very much as was done for passenger elevators.
- - - c....d machine
'
354
b) Freight Car Capacity
There are three load classifications for freight elevators as established by the
ANSI Code for Elevators .
Class "A" General Freight Loading, by hand truck. Single items may not ex-
ceed 2~of the car-rated load. Rated load, is based on 50 pounds per
square foot lpsf) of net inside platform area.
Class "B" Motor Vehicle Loading. Car will carry automobiles or automobile
trucks. Rating is based on a load of 30 psf of platform area.
Class "C" lndustri~' trur.k loading. Maximum loading, 1 fi.of rated capacity,
based on a figure of 50 pasf of net inside platform area.
The varying capacities shown for a specific platform size in Tables EL-8 and EL-9
are due to the varying square foot loads that are possible.
Table 24.1 Lo•dlng by H•nd or by Hand Truck Tabla 24.2 Loading by Industrial Trucks
Capacity Platform Size Capacity Platform Size
(Po11nds) (Width) (Depth) (Pounds) (Width) (Dep th )
2500 5'4" 7'0'' 10,000 8'4" 12'0''
3000 5'4'' 8'0" 12,000 10'4" 14'0''
~50<1 6'4·• B'O" 16,000 10'4" 14'0"
4000 6'4" 8'0'' 18,000 10'4" 16'0"
5000 8'4" 10'0" 20,000 12'4" 20'0"
6000 8'4, 10' 0"
8000 8'4" 12'0"
10,000• 8'4" 12'0''
12,000& , 0' 4 , 14' 0''
1. Elevator-type systems. These are vertical lift car type systems including the
common dumbwaiter and ejection lifts, which are basically automated dumb-
waiters.
2. Pneumatic Systems - These include sophisticated pneumatic tube systems
and pneumatic trash and linen systems.
355
3. Conveyor-Type Systems - These include horizontal and vertical conveyors.
4. Other Systems - These do not fit easily in.to any of the above, and include
automated messenger carts and automatic track-type container delivery
systems.
B. MANUAL LOAD/UNLOAD DUMBWAITERS
The use of dumbwaiters in various types of structures often provides the most con-
venient and economical means of transporting relatively small articles between
levels. In department stores such units transport merchandise from stock areas to
selling or pick up countries; in hospitals dumbwaiters are often utilized for
transporting food, drugs , linens and other necessary small items. In multilevel
restaurants, office dining rooms, and the like, dumb-waiters are almost ~ays used
for delivery of food from the kitchen and for return of soiled dishes.
Dumbwaiter cars are limited to a platform area of 9 sq. ft. (.81 sq. ml a maximum
height of 4 ft. (1 .20 m). The car may be , and frequently is, compartment by
shelves. Normal speed ratings are 45 fpm to 150 fpm, with a capacity of up t o 500
lb (226. 75 kg. ) Cars may be of the traction (counterweighted! or drum (direct pick
up) type. Control is normally "call and send" between two floors, although
maltibutton select or switch or central dispatching arrangements are available for
applications with more than two floors. Loading may be floor, counter or any other
specified height.
Norm al .&.ppilcahOrt
..._ ....1
Speed 41J...l00 !prr:
~
lllctior.l m
machine
I! ; Cap. !00..500 Ills.
Rise A.' Requi!ed
t! 5' - 6~
o
() Ii . i
I
Tt'l ...... .. ·r ••
2" )1}'..()"' for
_l
I
bi-perti
'1 doo•
"~
c. heipt 1
-·-t
(If) .
I
I
•--<
2'~ ·
_l ll
356
RECOMMENDED SIZES OF DUMBWAITERS
traction lyDe machine · •dr~;n t r~:>e machi"e !... ) (d) (W') (0) de~th without (D) depth with
i :l 1 0 ~1 01 ~ :1 roping l :l ropini y,:dth deoth Wld\h ca: rate car gate
400 Ill ~ 100 fpm 500 lb ~ 5J fpm ~0 I~ @ 4 ~ fpRl l' .Q'' 2' i" 3' 2'' 2'·II" ) '.( ~ ·
C. AUTOMATED DUMBWAITERS
These units are also know n as "EJECTION LIFTS"because of the met hod of
delivery . They find their best application in institutions and other facilities that re·
quire rapid sc h e du~e vert ical movement of relatively large items . Thus the device is
ideally suited for delivery of such items as food carts, linens, dishes, bulk liquids
containers, and so on, t he load can be "CART" (a) and (b) or "BASKET" fig. (c)
containing the it ems being t ransported.
a) Open ejection-lif t unit showing cart ejection mechanism. Shaftway door are
vertical bi-parting.
357
b) The unit shown above is being loaded with food carts and dispatched to t he
various floors of the hospitals later the lifts are used to return soiled dishes and
trays.
~ j
'3
Baskets can also be used in a similar system for handling smaller loads.
358
At the delivery terminal the item must be picked up and transferred horizontally to
its final destination if remote from the delivery point. Payload capacity is available
up to 1 000 lb and car speeds up to 300 fpm. Round trip time for a 200-fpm unit
with 5 loading of stations is approximately 2 min, with 1 0 stations about 2 ~ min.
Major considerations for these units are their relatively high cost and the large shaft
area required.
D. HORIZONTAL CONVEYORS
Although horizontal conveyors find their best application in industrial facilities, they
are also usable in commercial buildings such as mail order houses where there is a
continuous flow of material required. Restrictions in application stem from inflexible
right-of-way requirements, noise generation, and a degree of danger if left un·
protected or exposed to unauthorized persons. Cost in relatively low, and capacity
is virtually unlimited.
E. VERTICAL CONVEYORS
The action of this system is similar to the automated dumbwaiter in tha.t the system
transfers vertically and automatically loads and unloads, but the similarity ends
there. Vertical conveyors are constructed with a moving continuous - loop chain
to which are attached carriages that pick up and deliver tote boxes. At sending and
receiving stations the operator places the items to be moved (up to 40 lb) in the tote
box, "addresses" the box in one of several ways depending on the system, and
places it at a pickup point. The first empty carriage on the chain will pick up the box
and deliver it to its address. Drawbacks of this system are the large shaft required,
noise and cumbersome arrangements when interfacing with horizontal conveyors.
359
2. LOCATION
Because escalators are constantly moving and are generally part of a horizontal and
vertical trip, they must be placed directly in the main line of circulation. This is in
contrast to the elevator bank which, being a vertical t ransportation unit, can be set
off as an element of its own, for people to approach and utilize. Escalators must
therefore be place in, and with a total and even dominating view of the area served.
This means that potential riders must be able to immediately:
(a) Locate the escalators
(b) Recognize the individual escalator's destination
(c) Easily and comfortably move toward the escalator
Sufficient lobby space must be provided at the base for queing where anticipated ,
and most particularly, at discharge points. A restricted area here , or again a poorly
marked one, will cause passenger hesitation and traffic backup. Since the escalator
discharges continuously, backup of t raffic is usually dangerous and t herefore in-
tolerable. This is particularly crucial in theatre, stadiums and wherever traffic
backup could be disastrous. To avoid this, three design steps, in descending order
of importance , are taken:
tal Provide escalators with sufficient traffic-carrying capacity.
(b) Provide collecting space at intermediate landings so that pressure can be
relieved.
(cJ Provide a slight setback for the next escalator so that the necessary 1 80_ t u rn
can be readily negotiated.
At ·the bottom landing (or the top) an escalator should discharge into an open area
with no turns or choice of direction necessary . Where such is unavoidable, large
clear signs should make hesitation unnecessary. Landing space in front of an
escalator terminal should be 6 to. 8ft. (1 .80-2.40 m) minimum for a 90-fpm unit,
and 10 to 12ft. (3.00 - 3.60 m) for a 120 - fpm unit. ·
360
3. PARALLEL AND CRISSCROSS ARRANGEMENTS
Escalators may be installed so that the up and down stairs crisscross each other as
in Fig. Ia).
Adjacent
Plan
8iE
End Elevation Side Elevation
Separated Separated
jl~ i
l
D
1! "!~
2 1
II II II!J!III'"!II
!!!I!!!!!!!
361
Both arrangements may have the up and down stairs separated by any desired
distance. Separating the stairways gives the advantage of easier mixing of riders
entering at the various levels with riders making a continuous trip. Also, by
separating the escalators in the crisscross arrangement or by stacking them in
parallel arrangement, passengers making a multifioor trip can be forced to traverse
a specific area on each floor. This area can obviously be used to advantage for
display of imptllse-buying merchandise, and this is indeed the major consideration
in favor of these arrangements.
362
4. SIZE, CAPACITY and SPEED
Escalators are installed at an angle of 30 degrees from the horizontal. Thus the rise
is equal to 57% of the projected floor area. The Safety Code limits escalator speed
to 1 2 5 fpm along the axis of rise. In actual practice, two speeds are available; 90
fpm and 1 20 fpm. Installations are frequently two-speed, with the higher speed
utilized during rush hours and the lower speed during "OFF" hours. Where no rush
is encountered, the lower speed is utilized since the 120 fpm speed presents some
difficulty to the less agile passenger.
Moving stairways are generally available in widths of 32 in. (0.80m) and 48 in.
(1.20 m) both being measured at the hip level between the balustrades. These two
principal sizes correspond to tread widths of 24 in. (0.60 m). and 40 in. (1.000),
respectively .
All treads have a 16 in. (0.40 m• depth and 8 in. (0.20m) rise. The table below lists
the maximum and actual capacities of escalators.
5. COMPONENTS
(a) This
tross is o 3-sectWn,
built-up, welded steel
unit tluJt supporl$ the
moving stainwlj
equipment.
The TRUSS is a welded steel frame that support the entire apparatus, The tracks are
steel angles attached to the truss on which the step rollers are guided, thus con1roll-
ing the motion of the steps. The SPROCKET ASSEMBLY, chairs, and machine pro-
vide the motive power for the unit, much like the simple chain drive of a bicycle. An
EMERGENCY BRAKE located on the top sprocket will stop a loaded escalator safely
in the event of a break in the chain. The CONTROLLER, which consist of contrac-
tors, relays and a circuit breaker, is normally located near the drive machine. An
EMERGENCY stop BUTTON w ired to the controller and placed nea1 or on the
escalator housing will stop the drive machine and apply the brake (see lower left of
the figure.)
364
key-operated control switches at the top and bottom newels will start stop, and
reverse the stairway. The handrail is driven by two shaves and is powered from the
top sprocket assembly. It is synchronized with the tread motion to provide stability
to riding passengers and a support for entering and leaving passengers. Handrails
disappear at a inaccessible points at newels. The balustrade assembly is designed
for maximum safety of persons stepping on or off the escalators.
-·>~
365
6. STANDARD VERSUS MODULAR DESIGNS
EmerglCv~;z:'-
brake
Drive
madli~
Westinghouse
Electric Stairway
Traditional design 8'--0" to 60'--0" rise
(4)
(a) Operating mechanism of a traditionally designed elect ric stairway. Note that
all motive power proceeds f rom the drive at the top of the stair via main chain,
top sprocket, and stair chain.
366
For rises above 25ft. (7.50 m.l the drive motor is too large to fit inside the truss
and requires a separate machine room below the truss with attendant ventilation
problems. All of these factors combine to limit conventional design units to a max-
imum rise of 60 feet (18.30 m.) to overcome these limitations, in the face of
demands for high rises, westinghouse developed a radically new design that was in-
troduced in 1973 under their trade name, "MODULAR ESCALATORS." This
design has unlimited rise capability because it is constructed with additional drive
motors along the length of the unit, in a modular design pattern.
Westinghouse
48" Electric Stairway
1
Modular System
Unlimited rise
rise
Number of drives 20' -0"
I
MaMimum rise 40'-0"
two drive1i
(b)
(b) Schematic sectional drawing showing modularity of the newel design. The drive system
is distributed along the length of the stair, which comprises a top section, a bottom section,
and as many modular int.ermediate sections as are neC?~sary to accomplish the requisite
length and rise.
367
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:(. ~· '=~ ~ne sud.ct .dlotr
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(:.Ont,.;I'\6C .-1t~Jr f.l (t. h~t J' '. V l' •~ .t,:y fj ('
1\C tnOto·· Jo'ivt"' t'"l?. Wh «wtunNd q~·
!l!'(jye,tt ~,. iY a r : o~ M t'!f' "'119t •~ tur.,. ..
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1.-..,..,..,:ia :· ~ f '!J.l;, ~ '"'t' :':t":':': ; :r-:.. . \ ~,. . •.. ! · ,..:.
By spreading the drive load throughout the length of the unit the inherent limitations
listed above, which are caused ty a single drive locations . are eliminated.
Westinghouse
Electtic Stairway
Modular System
Unlimited Rise
roller
track
(c)
368
Note: That this distributed drive principle simplifies the mechanism considerably
and increases efficiency greatly. Chain loads are constant regardless of length, as is
truss size. The modular drive machine units are all identical and a machine room is
never necessary. Since tensions are held to low levels. Maintenance is low. Further-
more, the helical gear drive in the macular units is 10 to 1 5% more efficient that the
worn gear of the traditional design .
______________
.. ____ . 25.2 Modular E•calator Motor
Table
Escalator Size 32 in.
..... ..
Drive•
,._ - -
48 in .
-
...·- ·-·-·-- - - - - -· - - -·
Speed 90 to 120 90 to 120
Motor hp 10 10
One drive,
nominal, 30 tt-0 in. 20 ft-0 in.
max. rise
Two drives,
nominal, 60 tt-0 in. 40 ft-0 in.
max. rise
Three drives,
nominal, 90 ft-0 in. 60 tt-0 in.
max. rise
7. SAFETY FEATURES
369
8. FIRE PROTECTION
Four methods of affording protection in case of fire near escalators are available.
The
a) rolling shutter
b) smoke guard
c) sprinkler vent
One of these methods is required by CODE when more than two floors are pierced.
The figure below illustrates clearly how the wellway at a given floor level may be
entirely closed off by the fire "SHUTTER" thus preventing draft and the spread of
fire upward through escalator wells. The movement is actuated by tempes.ature and
smoke relays that automatically start the operation of the motor-driver shutters.
The shutter in this figure is shown at the third floor level, but other shutters may be
installed at the tops of horizontal wellway openings at any floor.
370
(a) Smoke-guard method of
fire protection for a 32 in.
moving stairway, crisscr.oss
type. Approximate dimensions
are shown. The escalator floor
opening {per floor) is approx-
imately 4ft 4 in . by 14ft 6 in.
( Sprinkler heads )
• • ~ • _..... • e ~Heat apron
Symbolt:
Byo-
- - - - By esc.lator $Upplier
371
The "SPRAY -NOZZLE" curtain of water is quite similar to the above smoke-guard
protection. Here closely spaced, high-velocity water nozzles from a compact water
curtain to prevent smoke and flames from rising through the wellways. Automatic
thermal or smoke relays open all nozzles simultaneously.
The " SPRINKLER-VENT " fire control is shown in the next figure. The fresh air in-
take housed on the roof contains a blower to drive air downward t hrough escalator
floor openings , while the exhaust fan on the roof creates a strong draft upward
through an exhaust duct, this ducts in tum draws air from the separate ducts just
under the ceiling of each moving stairway floor opening. Three such parts separate
wellway ducts are shown. Each duct has a number of smoke-pickup relays that
automatically start the fresh air fans. The usual spray nozzles or the ceiliiJ,Q near the
stairway aid in quenching the fire.
372
9. APPLICATION
a) Main floor locations should be chosen in the direct flow of traffic to assume
maximum use.
b) Vertical arrangements should be made to accomplish specific purposes, such as
exposure of merchandise, maximum passenger capacity, maximum accessibility to
various areas, and so on.
c) The aspect of reversibility of an electric stairway should be considered in applica-
tions where major traffic flow is unindirectionallight traffic in the reverse direction
can be handled by a normal fixed stair, adjacent to the escalator.
ESCALATOR
NORMAL STAIRWAY
ESCAL.ATO R
dl Similarly, a bank of two escalators can operate either both up, both down, or one
up and one down to handle variable traffic conditions in such areas as office
buildings and transportation terminals.
e) Exterior escalators can provide an attractive, interesting, and economical solution
to transporting people to selected entry points in a building without the necessity
of extending the building to cover the entrance.
373
....
l·
:i
~
•
±-
..
· -'
~
374
MOVING WALKS AND RAMPS
1. GENERAL
Moving walks and ramps are different from moving stairways in application, func -
tion, construction and capacity. Escalators have as their primary function the move-
ment of large numbers of people vertically, when such vertical distance does not
exceed approximately five stories.
When vertical transportation of wheeled vehicles and large parcels is required , the
use of an electric stairway is awkward, if not entirely impossible. For such functions
and others, the moving ramp may be utilized.
Unlike the elevator and escalator, the moving walk or ramp serves a dual function.
that is, horizonta l and vertical transportation th is is the combined f unction . A
" MOVING WALK" is one with an incline not exceeding .5 degrees, where the prin-
cipal function is horizontal motion and inclined motion is incidental to the horizon-
tal. A "MOVING RAMP" is a device with an incline limited to 1 5 degrees. where
vertical motion is as important or more important than the horizontal component.
The moving walks or sometimes called moving sidewalks is best used by people
with heavy baggages in transportation terminals. It is also used by big stores with a
parking space extended. The moving ramp is recommended in multi-level stores
where escalator are not feasible for persons with shopping a carts . Such stores may
also utilize roof-top parking that is made accessible to persons with a cart via a
moving ramp .
375
APPENDICES:
LIGHTING
CREATING A MOOD
Apart from its many functional applications, well planned lighting can contribute a great deal
to the atmosphere in your home. The position and style of the lamps and fixtures determines
the kind of light they give. Candle light and oil lamps have long been associated with a warm
and cosy atmosphere, and you can create an almost identical mood with modern lighting
using small spotlights or shaded lamps to make isolated pools of light around the room. The
mood may be enhanced where a dark floor or ceiling absorbs the light rather than reflects it.
If, on the other hand, you want to create a fresh, airy appearance, use reflected light from
pale coloured ceilings and walls. Ideally, lighting should be as1flexible as possible so that you
can arrange it to suit the occasion; this cannot be achieved merely by fitting dimmer swit-
ches.
When you plan your lighting, first consider the size and position of the windows and the
amount of natural light they bring to the interior. Some areas may have poor illumination and
will need subsidiary lighting during the daytime. The most efficient method of achieving the
torrect balance is with a light-sensitive switch: When the natural light level falls below a cer-
tain point, artificial light is automatically switched on. This is particularly useful in areas of
potential hazard such as stairway, wh6fe light should be thrown on to the stairs, so that the
edge of the tread is well defined . Ideally, the light source should be to one side so that your
shadow does not obscure the stairs when your are going up or down. Always avoid sudden
changes in light level.
PLANNING INSTALLATIONS
Plan your lighting first before you decorate or build any furniture into a room. Position
outlets carefully, to give you as much flexibility as possible. Place lights switches within easy
reach as you enter a room-a point to remember if you intent rehanging a door. Two way
switches are very useful placed at the top and bottom of a staircase, or by the side of the
bed. Bear in mind that light fixtures have to be cleaned and maintained, so if you need a light
in a normally inaccessible area, consider installing a flush-fitting or a recessed light that will
require less cleaning.
1. Creating atmosphere
Create small pools of atmospheric light by strategically positioning lamps at a low level
around the room. (see illustration no. 1).
2. Reeding Lights
Reading lights are provided in this bedroom, by positioning strip lights behind a batten
running across the headboard. Provide a separate light and switch for each side of .the
bed so that one person can read without disturbing the other. (see illustration no. 2).
3. Reflecting light and textures
Position your light fittings to make the most of textural surfaces in the room. Supple-
ment low level lamps by using reflected light from the ceiling. (see illus. no. 3).
378
379
380
4. Reinforcing natural light
Directional spotlights reinforce natural light from a skylight, while at the same time pick-
ing out pictures hung on the wall.
READING LIGHT
A centrally place ceiling light as in 1 is unsuitable for reading, since it casts shadows on the
page. A better arrangement is shown in 2 where a lamp is positioned behind and to the side
so -that light is thrown on to the page. Another low-level light should be used to reduce con-
trast between the well-lit page and the darkened background.
381
TELEVISION VIEWING
Low-level, indirect light adjacent to the set, 3, reduces eye strain.
382
BEDROOM LIGHTING
A reading light should be positioned to one side of the bed , or behind it, as in 10, shaded to
avoid glare. Indirect light in child's room can be provided from an adjoining area 11, or a dim-
mer switch 12.
BATHROOM LIGHTING
Position the light to shine on you-not the mirror, 13. Place the light either side of the mirror
or around the perirMter and avoid lights which will reflect in it.
383
SELECTING
KITCHEN
COMPONENTS
Of all the components in your kitchen, lighting is afford to skimp on. Not only can poor light·
ing make the cheeriest kitchen seem dreary. It can also promote fatigue and even cause ac-
cidents. A good rule of thumb; incorporate enough general, task, and accent lighting in your
kitchen so that you're never working in a shadow.
You'll likely outfit your kitchen with a combination of incandescent aml>fluorescent bulbs,
incandescent bulbs (or lamps, as they're known to the trade) are made in a wide range of
wattages, but those in the eo- to 200-watt range are your best bets fo.- a kitchen. Bulbs
typically last from 750 hours (for high-wattage bulbs) to 2,500 hours (for low-wattage and
"long life" bulbs).
Fluorescent tubes give off between two and three times as much light per watt as incandes-
cent bulbs, and are more economical to operate. Though the life-span of afluorescent tube
exceeds that of an incandescent bulh, it's shortened if the tube is frequentfy turned on and
off. Choose. fluorescents for your kitchen caretully; " warm white" tubes (rather than the
harsher "cool white" type) ar.e more flattened to food.
To light an average-size 10 x 12-foot kitchen, you'll need about 250 watts of incandescent
!ight, or 90 watts of fluorescent •ight . To combine the two, allow about 2 watts of incandes-
cent or 3/ 4 watt of fluorescent light for every square foot of kitchen space.
Of course, your particular kitchen lighting requirements depend on a number of things -ceil-
ing height, ceiling color, and your overall kitchen color scheme. Light, pale colors reflect
nearly as much light as deep, dark colors.
YOUR KITCHEN
LIGHTING OPTIONS
Since most kitchen chores take place at the sink, you'll want it especially well-lighted. If your
sink is under a window, opt for a recessed downlight that provides at least 150 watts of in-
candescent illumination, or ,fluorescents behind a diffuser panel. For a sink that's under a
cabinet or shell, choose diffused fluorescent tubes, or soffit canister lights recessed in the
soffit bulkhead or upper kitchen cabinets.
A. SOFFIT
CANISTER UQHTS
384
Of all your kitchen lighting options, track lights offer the most versalility. Fixtures come in
myriad styles, and give the look of built-in lighting without the installation hassle. Tracks
mount on ceilings or walls, for task lighting at work centers or general kitchen illumination.
For task lighting, fit track fixtures with spotlight bulbs; for general illumination, install more
diffuse floodlight bulbs.
A desk light augments your general kitchen lighting at a kitchen office or planning center.
An adjustable reading light fitted with a 50 to 75-watt incandescent bulb is adequate for all
but extended reading.
C. DESK LIGHT
385
"" .. ~ ..
. .
. .
~
·~A ..
386
~-· ·····--············-------
387
If you use a dropped fixture over your eating area, choose one scaled in size to comple-
ment your table, and in brightness to harmonize with the rest of your kitchen. Plan on
minimum of 150 watts, but also use a dimmer switch or three-way bulb to vary the light
level. Mount a dropped fixture 28 to 36 inches above the table so it doesn't obstruct the view
of your diners.
E. DROPPED FtXTUR£
Finally, a lighted r3nge ventilating hood, outfitted with at least 60 watts of illumination,
avoids shadows when you work at the range. For a range or cooktop not equipped with a
hood, achieve the same effect with recessed downlights or soft canisters.
F. LIGHTED RANGE
VENTilATING H000
VENTILATING
EQUIPMENT
Getting rid of food odors, fumes, and smoke is reason enough to ventilate your kitchen. But
removing excess heat and moisture- especially if your home is air conditioned-also saves
on the cost of energy.
Ventilation system are sized according to the amount of air they'll move in one minute. To
determine the capacity you need, measured in cubic feet per minute (CFMI, multiply your
kitchen square footage by two. For example, if you have a 15 x 20-foot kitchen, you'll need a
system with a 600 CFM rating (15 x 20 x 2).
Remember that fans differ in the amount of noise they make . Check the "sene" rating on
each unit you're considering; the lower the rating, the quieter the fan. Centrifugal blowers
usually are quieter than propeller-type fans.
The type and placement of your range hood or fan are just as important as the CFM rating in
getting the most efficient ventilation. Here are your ventilation options.
388
An exhaust fan, your least exper:tsive choice, simply draws stale air out of the kitchen.
Although not as effective as a range hood for trapping cooking odors and fumes, an exhaust
fan benefits from a wall or veiling installation as close to the range as possible.
WAUFAN
A vented (ducted) hood mounted above the range has a fan that fulls stale air and cooking
odors out of the kitchen and vents them to the outside. The hood should extend across the
full width of the cooking area, with its bottom edge 21 to 24 inches (never more than 30 in-
ches) above the range surface . When placed against a walt, a range hood should have a
minimum capacity of 50 to 70 CFM per linear foot of range. A hood mounted over a surface
unit on an island or peninsula should have at least two or three times that capacity. For max-
imum efficiency, keep ducting distance as short as p;ossible. Too many bends or variations in
duct size wilt allow grease to collect.
A non-vented (ductless) hood should be your choice only if venting to the outside is impossi-
ble. This hood contains a fan that draws air through a replaceable activated charcoal filter,
which absorbs cooking odors. A second washable filter traps some cooking greas~. A non-
vented hoods aren't able to remove heat and humidity, however.
38~
Self-venting ranges and cooktops don't need an ovemead hood. Instead, they draw odors,
gre88Cl, and moisture down into a built·in vent that' s ducted to the outside.
Some range hoods do more than just vent your kitchen. You'll find models equipped witt-.
built-in warming lamps to keep food hot. A space-saving combination microwave oven anc
range hood gives the convenience of an eye:level-microwave oven and a range hood in the
same space that a conventional 20-inch range hood alone would occupy , Choose either a
ducted or ductless model.
When you shop for kitchen ventilating equipment; consider these additional features:
• A dual-intake system captures smoke and heat at the ceiling as well as over the range.
• A removable filter and fan blade facilitate periodic cleaning grease buildup .
• A hood or fan with a work light adds task lighting to your range top.
• Variable controls give you a.choice of fan speeds.
390
INSULATING
AND SOUND-
PROOFING
HOW MUCH
INSULATION
DO YOU NEED7
Key questions about insulation are how much do you need and how much can you afford?
One way to answer them is by figuring out the "payback period ," which is how long it takes
to get your money back in lower energy bills. With fuel costs still rising, you might think that
any money spent on insulation will be repaid quickly. Not true, installing insulation is some-
times an expensive affair, so it's important to put your money where it will do the most good
in the shortest time.
The tables shown opposite will help you pinpoint the best investments for your particular
use, if you follow this explanation and work through the accompanying examples, you'll be
able to find the answers to those key questions about insulating your home.
The upper tab6e gives individual energy index numbers (energy numbers) for eight different
uses of insulation and two uses of storm windows and doors in homes in 20 cities. Under the
name of the city is the type of heating and cooling system common in that area (New York
City has two listings, for example).
The lower table works with the upper table to give you " energy payback numbers" -the
energy numbers you' ll need to repay an investment in seven years.
The numbers also include the assumption that energy costs will go up 10 percent each year
and that money you use from savings to buy insulation will cost 6 percent in lost interest.
When using the tables, keep this formula in mind: H the pay back number in the lower table
is less than the energy number in the top table, the payback period will be Jess than seven
years. If the payback number is large than the energy number, the payback period will be
more than seven years.
391
INSULATION PAYOFF INDEX
GH-Gas heat
t.)
..
..~ d."' <= .i!!
8.. I.I J ! j : ~ ~
ENER3Y "'0 ~
~ 0 "0
c
&. ~
:<: .... ~ ....
&
..•
"" • ~
i ..
~ u:
j !
~
c ! ~
~
)-
~
i
<{ 0'
INDEX
APPl.JCABlE.
~
.! zl ~ 5 .9
u"" :( ~
E
! ,!:;
:E
~
:><. ~" I CJ)
a
<0 ~
~ <I) 8 ~"
10: I
GH OH GH GH GH GH DE DE GH GH GH GH CJi GH GH GH
& & & & & & & & & GH &
- AC & GH I GH
& CH GH & & & & &
A.C AC I>C AC I>C AC AC AC AC I<C !>(; I<C K; /IC AC /IC
Cetlings/ i4490 4670 3410 2630 3170 2 200 241 0 2160 1850 3300
-
1920 2070 1610 121 70 ~ 1160 710 4500 1980 :2240i:2240
aDies
~in
5410 5600 4020 2980 3760 28'10 3870 2770 2720 2390 2850 1830 l 3210 870 o4880 2350 2560 2680
allies I !
€X1eriot
nmewaas 4260 4440 32W 2550 3020 2040 2050 2010 1630 1800 1880 1550 1910 670 4410 1880 2160 2120
('ooood. bnck
siding)
Sgm
windows 01 3800 3980 2950 . 2380 2730 1710 1320 1700 1200 1570 1490 1440 1400 600 4230 1100 2010 1900
lliple glass
Si:lim
3 100 3290 2490 2120 2.290 1210 230 1250 540 1220 910 1~ 620 480 3970 1420 1770' 1570
dlxn"
floor.;
<Mit~ 3100 3290 2490 2 12.0 2.290 1210 230 1250 540 122.0 910 1280 620 ~ 3970 14:!0 1770 1570
aawt 5paces •
Walsof
~ 3100 3290 2490 2 120 2290 1210 ~230 1250 5410 1220 9 10 12IJO 620 -4110 3970 1<43) 1710 1570
crawl spaces•
I I I
Ducts on venle<l
l 3260 .12550 1800 1880 1550 1910
4~ 4440 302012.040 2050 20W 1630 670 4410 1880 2160 2120
aaw spaoes
~o f
3100 3290! 2490 2 12.0 2.290 1210 230 1250 540 122.0 9 10 1280 620 480 3970 1420 1770 1570
basements' '
Oucts in
basemenl
5410 15600 4020 2980 3760 2870 3870 2770 272.0 3300 2390 2850 ~ 3210 3480 1160 870 -48110 2350 2560 2680
"
For a payback in S8'lel\ years. I will need an enti!II(,N index number of at least
" I have: ArC I want 1o: WI do ~ myself I I C100t81:t the 'WOO<
392
ff you add insulation to your home, the money you save will depend on the climate, the level
of insulation already in your home and the cost of energy studies show the upgrading an
older house that has inadequate insulation can reduce energy consumption by 50 percent ,
upgrading a newer. partially insulated ~orne may mean saving of 20 to 30 percent.
Before rushing out to buy insulation, find out how much you already have. The illustrations
below shows those areas in your home most likely to need extra insulation.
393
The easiest place to begin your survey is the attic. Use a ruler to measure the depth of the in-
sulation in an unfinished attic. It maybe stapled to rafters or laid between floor joist; take
care not to compact it.
Inspecting walls is a bittougher. Remove the switch plate from an outlet, and peak into the
wall cavity with a flashlight or make a small hole and patch it if you see any insulation your
house is probably in pretty good shape if it is not, insulating a finished wall is best left·to a
professional (see topic on insulating walls).
In any event don't poke with sharp objects you may puncture a vapor barrier made from
kraft paper, foil, or polyethylene, vapor barriers stop moisture from seeping into the insula-
tion.
If you have vapor barriers, they should be facing heated areas-directly under floors, walls,
and ceiling coverings.
394
INSULATING
AND SOUND-
PROOFING
Insulating your home will mean lower energy bills and better living. If both are comforting
thoughts into action. Start at the top in your attic. Because warm air rises, uninsulated or
poorly insulated attics allow valuable energy to slip away quickly, more quickly than any
other spot in the house. If you button up your attic first, things will begin to improve im-
mediately.
All attics aren't created equal. The way you insulate yours will depend 9n whether it is finish-
ed.
UNFINISHED ATTICS
In an unfinished attic that you do not intend to use as living space, place insulation in the
floor (for add to it) to prevent losing beat from the rooms below. It spots such as this, use
batts, blankets, or loose-fill insulation. Batts, made of fiber glass or rock wool, usually come
with vapor barriers attached. Spread loose-insulation between joists, but add a vapor barrier
first.
If you're working in an unfinished attic that has no floor, take some precautions. Install tem-
porary lighting so you can see what you're doing, and place boards across the floors joists to
use as a walkway.
FINISHED ATTICS
In a finished attic or in one you plan to finish, use blankets, batts, or loose-fill insulation.
If the attic ceiling is open, add rigid insulation, which consists of boards made from extruded
polystyrene, urethane, or fiber glass. Nail the boards to the undersides of the exposed roof
deck, using large-head, galvanized nails. (Roofing nails work well. I Nail on 8-inch centers in
both directions, penetrating the wood at least 1 ~ inches. Take care not to puncture the
roof.
Because much rigid insulation is combustible, be sure to cover it with gypsum board before
you put up paneling or other materials.
395
Adequate ventilation is important. Don't block eave vents when you install insulation . Ex-
tend it far enough to cover the top plate, but stop batts or blankets short of the vents. If you
pour loose-fill insulation, install baffles.
When adding insulatiol" to both walls and floors, try to crate a continuous barrier so heat
doesn't seep out at the eaves. Use a long stick to push batts into position. Cover the top
plate with insulation, and keep it under wiring wherever possible.
If you install blankets in the attic floor, unroll the insulation and cut it to the desired length.
Press the blankets between the floor joists, then staple them to the inside of the joists, spac-
ing staples every 6 to 8 inches .
To install blankets so they insulate a finished attic, start at the top plate of the knee wall . Cut
the blankets and fit them between the wall studs. Make sure the vapor barrier is facing you,
then staple the blankets into place. Don'~ try to run a continuous piece of insulation up one
wall, across the collar beam, and down the othe; side, instead , use three separate pieces,
396
o~ping the vapor barriers. If you use batts of unfaced insulation in a flnish~d attic , cut
them longer than required and wedge them into the stud space. Add a vapor barriAr of
polyethelene film.
Keep insulation away from recessed light fixture and exhaust fans. Covering them may
create a fire hazard, instead, build baffles to keep the insulation at least 3 inches away from
any motors or fixtures.
397
If you use loose-fill insulation in an attic floor, pour it between the joists to the desired depth.
(Line the floor first with a vapor barrier.) level the insulation with a wood slat or a rake as
you work.
If your attic floor already has some insulation, use unfaced batts or blankets {those with no
vapor barriers attached.) But if the 11oor is uninsulated, install faced batts or blankets. Be
sure the vapor barriers point toward the heated areas below.
INSULATING FLOORS
After you insulate the attic, lower your sights and examine another energy-waster at floor
level: your home's crawl space or basement. Once these areas are properly insulated, you'll
warm up considerably. You can do both jobs yourself; they usually don't require the services
of a professional.
398
2. Beginning at one end, tack the wire mesh or chicken wire across the floor joists, as
shown at left. Staple or nail one roll at a time in place, making sure the insulation fits
snugly up to the band joist and overlaps the bottom plate. To do the same job. You can
cover exposed joists with rigid urethane , polystyrene, or fiber-glass boards . Apply them
with adhesive to the joists. Check the local building code to find out whether you need
to cover the insulation with a fire-resistant material such as gypsum board, if the joists
are covered, as they are in a finished garage ceiling. You best bet is to blow in loose-fill
insulation.
399
3. For the walls in a crawl space, use batts or blankets . You'll need a sharp knife, tape
measure, hammer, nails, furring strips or nailers, and gloves. Where joists run at right
angles to the wall, tuck in small sections of insulation against the header . Cut longer
pieces and attach them to the sill with furring strips, as shown at left. Extend insulation
down the wall and 2 feet along the ground. Where joists run parallel to the wall , use
longer pieces of insulation and nail them directly to the band joist.
4. After you install the insulation, lay a vapor barrier of 6-mil polyethylene on the ground,
tucking it under the batts to the foundation wall. Tape the joints of the vapor barrier or
lap them at least 6 inches. Finally, secure the polyethylene and insulation w ith rocks or 2
x 4 studs, as illustrated at left.
400
INSULATING WALLS
If you're up against a wall that needs insulation, don't despair. It's possible to blow or to
spray insulating materials into finished exterior walls without ripping up those on the interior.
However, doing so is difficult and expensive. In all likelihood, you'll need the services of a
contractor who has special equipment and experience to do the job properly. {Partly for
these reasons, if your walls already have some insulation, it might might not be economical
to add to it).
If you decide to go ahead, search carefully for a reputable professional. Try to get a number
of written bids specifying A-Values, the amount of in~ulato required, and the overall cost
of the job, in a properly insulated, standard 2 x 4 wall. You can reaSOnably expect R-8 for
fiber glass or rock wool. R-10 for cellulose (both are blown in; see information at right), and
R-11.5 for foam.
(One note of Caution: Don't use urea formaldehyde foam when insulating any area of the
house. Recent studies suggest that the formaldehyde has given off by the insulation can
cause llealth problems. In fact, the sale of urea formaldehyde foam has been banned by the
U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. If you want the advantage of foam's higher
R-Value, use another kind, such as urethane.)
Don't let insulating basement walls get you down, installing boards of rigid insulation and fit-
ting in soft batts or blankets are two useful methods. The one to use depends partly on
where you live and partly on how much room you're willing to take up with the installation.
THREE ALTERNATIVES
To install insulation in a finished wall, a contractor must reach all the spaces between studs
in the wall cavity. For each space, the contractor removes the siding (he doesn't have to
strip the entire wall) and drills holes, usually in the sheathing of the outside wall, as shown
at left. Don't worry about all the drilling. A good contractor will leave no traces when the job
is completed.
If the home has a brick-veneer exterior, the same procedure is followed except that it may be
less expensive to do it from the inside of the wall.
(Blowing insulation into a vertical space more than 4 feet high requires what is called the
double-blow method. In this case, the contractor cuts two access holes for each stud.)
After drilling the holes, the contractor checks the spaces with a plumb bod, looking for
obstructions below the hole. Then special equipments blows the insulation under air
pressure through a large, flexible hose into the spaces between the studs.
If the contractor is using foam, it is pumped through a hose with an applicator. With both
methods, each wall space is completely filled. When the insulation is in place, the holes are
covered with a rectainer or plug and the siding is replaced.
Frame a stud wall in the basement by nailing the bottom plate to the floor and the top plate
to the joists. Nail in studs 18 or 24 inches on center. Tuck in batts or blankets between the
studs, vapor barrier facing you, and staple them securely. Apply gypsum wallboard or panel-
ing over the insulation, as shown on next page.
If you don't want to frame in a stud, use rigid boards to insulate basement walls. With
masonry nails, attach furring strips to the walls and around windows and doors. Cut the in-
sulation to fit, and apply it directly to the wall with mastic. Then cover the insulation with at
least }'1-inch-thick drywall.
401
402
In regions with mid winters, a rating of R-7 is sufficient. In colder areas, you'll need a
minimum of R-11.
To reach either value using batts or blankets, you first have to frame out 2 x 3 or 2 x 4 stud
walls over the top of the masonry. Then staple the soft insulating material, vapor barrier
facing your, between the studs of the new buff-out walls. Don't be stingy with the staples;
drive one every 10 or 12 inches. To finish, cover the studs with drywall or paneling.
Using rigid-board insulation allows the new wall to be as thin as possible, thereby saving a
space in your basement. Line the walls with furring (to attach the finished wall material),
then glue up or tuck in boards between it. (Rigid insulation often comes with an adhesive
already applied.)
Because much, rigid insulation is combustible, cover it with a minimum of ~-inch drywall,
even if you plan to install wood or hardboard paneling later.
Before starting either project, dry up your basement if it is wet. Moist insulation has no value
at all. However don't be concerned by mind condensation. The insulation and vapor barrier
usually will solve that problem.
Insulation becomes less important below ground level. Although insulating walls to their full
height will provide benefits, you might decide to save money by insulating only down to
ground level).
SOUNDPROOFING
A ROOM
Common household noise can be irritating. Power tools, dryers, diswashers, kitchen
blenders . and others noise-makers disturb the peace in nearly everv American home. Putting
your ear under a pillow or plugging your ears isn't the answer. Your can't eliminate all th 3
noise from your life, but you can reduce it9 impact. By combining common sense with com-
monly available materials, you can sound-condition or even soundproof your rooms.
Although your home may not be as noisy as a factory, the jarring effect of household sounds
can put you in a bad temper or give you a headache. Those reasons.alone are enough to
make you want to out a damper on the noise in home.
403
Start with the basics. Use earplugs when you're working with noisy power tools. Shut win-
dows and doors to keep out the din of passing traffic. Apply weather stripping It needed,
and add double-pane or storm windows to reduce noise from the outside, Landscape· the
grounds to block and absorb sounds by strategically locating trees, berms, and shrul>s.
Indoors, caulk all gaps and cracks with acoustic sealant. Use solid-core doors, acoustic tile,
and soft surfaces (fabric, carpeting, draperies) wherever noise is problem.
The resistance of a wall or floor to the passage of sound is rated by its sound transmission
class (STCl. The higher the STC value, the better a wall or floor blocks out sound.
A rating of 45 is a good level for walls or floors. New or improved insulation can help control
sound dramatically. An uninsulated stud wall covered with gypsum board has an STC rating
of only 32, but a staggered stud walt with 1% inches of insulation and %-inch gypsum wall-
board has an STC rating of 49.
Add fiber-glass or·mineral wool insulation to stud walls. On masonry walls, apply rigid poly-
styrene board insulation over furring strips, then cover with %-inch drywall.
Start your attack on noise with the least expensive solutions, then move on to more costly
steps if needed. First, pinpoint the source of noise and try to muffle it there, using carpeting,
heavy draperies, and acoustic or cork tiles. Next, try caulking to block the transmission of
sound from one from to another. If you're building a new wall, apply non-hardening acoustic
.caulk under the plates, at tops and bottoms of drywall panels, and around all receptacles, if
you're trying to button up existing walls, remove the molding around the ceiling and base-
boards and take off the outlet covers. Then apply an acoustic sealant as shown at left.
Weather stripping windows also wilt help keep out noise .
404
Effectively combining soft and hard materials is a simple way to control sound from loud-
speakers. Fabric, carpets and drapes absorb sound well; wood, metal, and tile do not. Try
the system shown below. Apply semigloss paint or adhesive-backed vinyl to plaster-board
walls on the "hard" sides ot the room to bounce sound. Then cover opposite walls and ceil-
ings with soft, sound-absorbing materials such as carpet, draperies, or fabric. The music will
sound better and will be less audibee in adjoining areas.
hard
Most wood-stud interior walls don't insulate sound well. The ones that do are built for the
job. The drawing below shows an engineered system that substantially reduces the transmis·
sian of sound. It uses a double layer ot drywall applied over 2 x 4 wood studs, fiber-glass in-
sulation, and resilient metal channels. For even better results, stagger 2 x 4 studs to create a
2 x 6 wall cavity, then weave the insulation between the studs horizontally. Finish with dry-
wall. Adding any insulation to the walls will help make a room quieter and cozier.
o~u.
--RESILIENT
CHANNEL..
FlBEI'i:,LASS
<t-+IH~$U!Ai10N
4()5
If you invest a few extra dollars in a solid-core door and add weather stripping around·the
door frame, you'll help keep sound from leavin~: the room. To make a quiet door, follow the
drawings below. Cut four 8-foot 2 x 4s to fit the doorway, allowing Y2 inch for new carpet or
weather stripping. Next, assemble the 2 x 4s as shown. then glue and nail one sheet of
1 Yz -inch plywood to the 2 x 4 frame. Stuff and staple insulatiQn in place. Glue and nail the
second sheet of plywood to the other side. Hinge the door so it opens into the room, then
apply self-stick weather stripping.
II
I
}'2" P'I.Ywoop I
·•
~ ., .. .
'
406
METRICATION
120
110
WATER
- - - 2 1 2"F I.OO't
BOILS
90
80
70
f ahrtnheit140 60
50
40
30
20
10
32.•F
WATER o·c
freezes
·to
-2o
-3o
~ Temp. at -40°F and ·4ooc
is the same
·5o
·so
CONVERSION , FAHRENHEIT
DEGREES TO CELSIUS DEGREES .
- - 9- X-5°C
- --- + 32
FORMULA
5 (°F - 32)
oc = --- ---
9
--
407
RULES AND GUIDES FOR USAGE OF Sl
Expressed in Expressed in
Quantity Description terms of terms of Base or
other Units Supplementary Units
408
thermal watt per metre
conductivity kelvin W/(m.K) m.kg.s-J.K- 1
energy density Joule per cubic
metre J/m3 m-l.kg.s-2
electric field V<*lt pef
strength metre V/m m.kgs-~A - 1
409
HOW TO CONVERT COMMON MEASUREMENTS
FROM ENGLISH TO METRIC UNITS
FOR ORDINARY USE
1 last figure was rounded out, for ordinary uses, except those marked* which are exact.
2 The letter and figures enclosed in parentheses under this column are the symbols of the
measurement wms. Examples of use: 25.4 mm, 9m2, 32.°C, 110 km/h, 7 g/crrtl.
411
RULES AND GUIDES FOR USAGE OF Sl
ft ('I in (H) =em ft (') in t"i =em ft (') in(") =em ft (') in(') =em
1/8 0.3 1 4 40.6 3 2 99.1 5 0 152, 4
1/ 4 0.6 5 43.2 3 99.1 1 154.9
3/8 1.0 6 45.7 4 101.6 2 .. 157.5
1/2 1.3 7 48.3 5 104.1 3 160.0
5/8 1.6 8 50.8 6 106.7 4 162.6
3/ 4 1.9 9 53.3 7 109.1 5 165.1
7/8 2.2 10 55.9 8 111.8 6 167.6
1 2.5 11 58.4 9 114.3 7 170.2
2 5.1 2 0 61.0 10 116.8 8 172.7
3 7.6 1 63.0 11 119.4 9 175.3
4 10.2 2 66.() 4 0 ·121.9 10 1n.s
5 12.7 3 68.6 1 124.5 11 111>.3
6 15.2 4 71.1 2 127.0 6 0 182.9
7 17.8 5 73.7 3 129.5 1 185.4
8 20.3 6 76.2 4 132.1 2 188.0
9 22.9 7 78.7 5 134.6 3 190.5
10 25.4 8 81.3 6 137.2 4 193.0
11 27.9 9 83.8 7 139.7 5 195.6
1 0 30.5 10 86.4 8 142.2 6 198.1
1 33.0 11 88.9 9 144.8 7 200.7
2 35.6 3 0 91.4 10 147.3 8 203.2
3 38.1 1 94.0 11 149.9 9 205.7
6 10 208.3 7 8 233.7 8 6 259.1 9 4 284.5
11 210.8 9 236.2 7 261.6 5 287.0
7 0 213.4 10 238.8 8 264.2 6 289.6
1 215.9 11 241 .3 9 266.7 7 292.1
2 218.4 u 0 243.8 10 269.2 8 294.6
3 221.0 1 246.4 11 271.8 9 2SJ7.2
4 223.5 2 248.9 9 0 274.3 10 299.7
5 226.1 3 251.5 1 276.9 11 302.3
6 228.6 4 254.0 2 279.4 10 0 304.8
7 231.1 5 256.5 5 281.9
To find the equivalent of height, length, width or thickness in ·metric unit, convert the
English units of feet (ft) and inches (in) to centimetric (em). The figure under the column
"em" is the nearest metric equivalent of the corresponding figures under "ft" and "in".
Thus, 5 ft. 4 in would be equivalent to 16.2.5 em or, rounded out, 163 em or 1.63 meters
(1 .63). 100 em = 1 m.
41i
Conversion Table from English to Metric Units
for Practical Uses
KNOW YOUR HEIGHT IN METRIC
ftl') in( ..) == centimeters ft(' ) in(*) = centimeters ft(l) in(=) = centimeters
(em) (em) (em)
=
127 em
125 em
21
21
21
2H
1"
on =
:c:
=
66 em
64 em
6' 0"' = 183 em 4' 0" = 122 em
,I 61em
5' 11"' = 100 em 3' 11"' = 119 em 11"' = 58 em
5' 10'" = 178em 3' 10" = 117 em 11 10" = 56 em
5' g· 175 em 3' 9" 114 em 11 9" = 53 em
5' a· = 173 em 3' a" = 112 em
,I a· ~ 51 em
5' 7" = 170cm 3' 7" = 109cm 1' 7" 48em
5' 6" :::: 168cm 3' 6" ::;: 107 em 1' 6.. = 46cm
5'
5'
5"
4"
::::;
=
165cm
163 em
3'
31
5"
4"
= 104 em
102cm ,.
1' 5"
4"'
=
=
43 em
40cm
5' 3" = 160 em 3' 3" = 99cm 1I 3,. = 38 em
5' 2" = 158 em 3' 2"' = 97 em 1I 2" = 36 em
5' 1" = 156cm 3' 1" = 94cm 1' 1" = 33 em
5' 0" == 162cm 3' 0" = 91 em 1' 0" = 31 em
NOTE: This handy conversion table is designed to make it easy for a person to know his height or
measu"t the length of a baby in the metric unit, centimetre, which is used in most metric
countries for this purpose. A person 168 centimeters tall may conveniently say, in speaking,
that his height is One Six Eight See Em (168 em). Once metric units are widely used and
English units are no longer used, there will be no need for conversion tables like this one .
Where greater accuracy is needed to the first decimal point .
4 13
Sl PREFIXES
deca
...
hecto"* h
da
102
10
100
10
deci" d 10-1 0.1
centi c 10-2 0.01
mijli m 10-3 0.001
micro u 10-6 0.000001
nano
. n 10-9 0.000 000 001
pi co
. p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001
femto" f 10-15 0.000 000 000 000 001
attom • a 10-18 0.000 000 000 000 000 001
• Rarely used, mostly in highly scientific work.
•• Not preferred.
CONVERSION FACTORS
To Convert To Multiply By
Kip KN 4.448
lb N 4.448
Kg N 9.81
Kn Kip 0.2248
pai mPa 0.006895
kai MPa 6.895
Mpa psi 145.0
ft-Kip Kn-m 1.356
Kn M ft Kip 0.7376
Kip / ft KN / m 14.59
Kp/ft2 KN/ m2 47.88
psi N/m2 47.88
Kn/M Kip/ft 0.06852
KN / M2 Kip/ ft2 0.02089
414
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416
BIBLIOGRAPHY
2. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Building 6th Edition Macguines, Stein Reynold
3. Good Housekeeping Book of Improvements
4. Better homes and gardens your walls & ceilings
5. Finishing off additional rooms
Patrick J. Galvin
6. Parade Magazine 1979
7. Refrigeration and air conditioning
Richard C. Jordan
Gayle B. Priester
8. Philips Wire and cables- "Phllflex" brand
9. American Wire and Cable Co. Inc...Duraflex" brand
10. Phelps Dodge Phils.lnc.
11. Alcatel Phils. Jnc. Telephone Commun ications
417
INDEX
c Electric CUI'rent .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
Electric potential .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .... .. .. .. . . . .. .
2
3
Cables. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 308 E!ectric Control .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. 306
Cabs ...... ... . ... .. ...... ...... .... ... .. ... ... ......... 318 Electric Closet .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 139, 140
Cable bus .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 52 Electric load control . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 13
Cars... .. ... ... .. ... .. ..... .. ...... ....... .. .. ..... ..... .. 308 Electric load estimating . .. ... .. ....... ... ... . ....... . 126
Carspeed .... .. .... .... ...... ........ . ....... ... ... ... 328 Electrical measurement.. ........ .. ... .... .. ........ . 19
Car size . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. . .. ... . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 336 Electric resistance .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 3
Car passenger capac·ity .... .. .... .. ... .. ... ... ..... .. 320 heating .. .. .. ... ... .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. ... . .. . .. .. .. 251
Ceiling raceways . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 70 Electric Service .. .. .... .. . .... . ...... .. .. . .. ... .. ... 176
Cellular mete! raceways .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 66 Electricspaces .. .. ......... .... .. .................... 137
Cemra l Cooling .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 260 8ectric 'wiring design .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . ....... .... 124
Chimneys . ... . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. 218 Electric motors .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 110
Circuit breakers ... .. ... .... ...... , .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 99 Electrical regulations.. ... ....... .... ...... ........... 24
Circulating pump .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 131 Elevator arrangement .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. 312
Circuit Protective devices. .... .... .. . .. ..... ... ..... 96 Elevator doors .... ... .... .. .. ...... ... . ,.. .... ..... 315
Circuit arrangements.. ........ ....... ....... .. .. .. ... 4 Elevator equipment .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 308
ClosedTliCIIWays ....... ...... .. .... ... ... .. ...... .. . 56 Elevator Intervals .......... ........ ... .............. . 320
Coalfifefumace .............. ....... .. .. .. ........ . 226 8evator machine . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . 308
Coded system .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 288 Elevator requirements .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 325
Coded Manual Stations .... ............... , .. .. . .. 291 Elevatorselection ...... . .. .... .. .. ... ...... .......... 319
Components ..... .... .............. ....... ............ 364 Emergency system .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 171
Conductors .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 43 Energy conservation .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .... .. .. ....... 192
general wiring .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 48 Energy requirements .. ... .. ..... ... ....... . , ....... .. 218
Conductor ampacity .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 44. Entry Control .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 308
Conductors in conduit ... . .............. .. .. ........ 166 Equipment layout .... .. ...... .. . ..... .. ..... . .. .. .. . .
Conductors physical properties ... . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . 167 Escalator .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. 359
418
Escalator arrangementt .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . .
Size................................................ 363
361 J
363
Capacity .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Jacketed cables ...............................•.......
Speed ............................................. 363
Escalator capacity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 363 L
Lighting track................. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. 56
F load estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
load tabulation............................. .........
125
161
Fireplace& .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. 238
local fire alarm system .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. . .. .. 288
Furnishing . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . 242
\'iidth .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
di:l'P."'sioos .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 246
242
M
F!fe ei.t~r:- ~etcors .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 281 Manual system .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 288
Fire ,;."~' :;·~em .................................. .. Manual stations ..............-:-:.................. . . . . . 290
i~Gustral. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . 305 Master coded system .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 288, 296
Fire detection .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 292 Mechanical regulations.............................. 35
Flame detector .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 293 Metel surface raceways . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. 61
Aexible metal conduit .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . m Metabolism .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. 182
Floor raceways .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 63 Metal fireplace ................... ... ................ 241
Floor register . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 225 Metal hoods .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. . 245
Floor box outlet....................................... 116 Mineral insulated cable .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 49
Form work . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. 248 Modular &Scalator . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 369
Freight elevators .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. •.. .. .. .. .. .. 254 Motor control.......................................... 111
FU118S ................................................... 98 Moving stairways .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 359
Fuel storage tank .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 219 Moving walks.......................................... 375
Furnece . ............................................... 221
Futible switch ..................................... .. N
National electric coda ............................. .
G Natural ventilation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Non metallic conduit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Ga8 fired boil8f .. .. •.. •. •.. . .. •.. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 230 Non residential heat gain calculation . •. . . . . . . . . . 214
Geerteea elevator .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. 309 Non coded system . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. 288, 294
Geer1eea fraction machine .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. 311
Grounding .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. •.. .. . .. .. .. .. . 134
Groundfaultprotectlon ........................... 134
0
Ohmsl.aw ............................................. 4
Overhead service ................................... . 76
H Over current equipment .................•......... 142
HVAC ................................................... 216
Heating .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 216 p
Heat Collection . .. •.. •.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 197
Panel board 105
Heat conservation .. .. .. .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 190
Panel load
Heat circulating fireplace . .. ............. .... .. .. .. . .239
calculation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 163
Heatlosa............. .... .. •. .. .. .. .. .. ..... . . .. .. .. .... 109
Paging system ..................................... ..
Heat·flow . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. .. .. .. 205
industrial.......................... . .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . 305
Heattransferfactor ................................. ~12
Passenger elevator .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 308
Heat·pump .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. . . . 266
Power generation . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to·
Heat·stonlge . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . •. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 199
Power and energy . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 11
High rise core section .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. 338
Electric circuit .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 11
Hot·watef . .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. 22i Equipment .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. 120
Horizontal conveyors .. .. .. . .. . •. .. .. . .. . ... .. .. . .. 369
Precast cellular concrete .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 68
House wiring svmbols .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 159
Pre wired distribution system .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. 72
Hvdronic and electrical contfOie .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . 236
Pre built fireplace .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 240
Hydraulic elevators .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. 349
Pre signal system .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . . 288, 298
Psychometry .. .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. .. . . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. . 262
Psychometric chart ... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 263, 264
Incremental air conditioning........................ .269
Incremental heating .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 268 R
Induction method .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. 268 Ramp ................................................... 375
Indoor humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Recycling of air .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 187
Ionization detectors . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 293 Receptacles . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . 112
Insulators . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . 117 Reflective insulating glass .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 215
IRtrusion alarm system . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. 286 Refrig8fated cooling .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. 254
Intercom .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . 286 Refrig8fation unit .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 258
Interior wiring system .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. 42 Regiat81' . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . 224
419
Riser diagrams .. .... ...... . .. .. .. ... . .. . ... ..... .. ... 168 Switches .. .. .... .. . . " ..... .......... .. .. ...... .. ....... 84
Residential alarm ..... .... .... ......... .. .. ... .. ... .. Single pole .. .. ....... .... ............ .... ..... ~ . 96
fire alenn. ....... ...... ... .. ........ . ... ... . . . . . . . . 280 Fourway... ........... .. .... .. ...... ...... ........ 92
Residential elevators ........ .. ... ..... .... . .. .. .. . .. 352 Switch board . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. 170
Residential heat gaix .. .... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 212 Switch board & switchgear ........... .. ........... 102
Roping .. .. ................... .. .. ....... .. ............ 312 Switchdevice .. .... ......... .... ..... ... .. .. ..... .. . 113
Rolling shutters .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . 370 System voltage .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. ... 129
Romex cable ... .. .. ......... .... ........ . ...... .. .. .. . System design .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. 286
Roundtriptime ... .... .... ...... .... ........ .. ....... . 323
T
s Telephone system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . '1117, 299
Safetydevices .. .... . ...... .. .... .... ........... ..... 314 Thermal equilibrium .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 182
features .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 389 Thermal heat<;iain .... ....... .......... . .....!........ 183
Security system .. ... .. ... .. .. .... .... ..... .... .. .. .. .. Transformers .. . ...... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ...... . .. .. .. .. . 79
industrial.. ... ... .... .. .. .... . .... .. .. .... .. ... . .. . 301 TranSportation .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. .. D
Selective coded system .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. 297 Transmission through building . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. 211
Service equipment .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. ....... ... .. 79 Travel time .. .. .. .. .. . .... . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . .. .. .. ... .. .. 322
Service switch .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 83 Trouble signal . .. ............. .. ..... ......... .. .. ... 289
Single zone sys1em .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. • 334
Shaft .... .... ....... .. .. ...... ...... ....... .. ...... ..... 310 u
Signal system.................... ..... ...... ...... ..... 278 Underground service.. .. ...... . .. .. , . .. ............ , • 78
Slant e levatOfs .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. 348 Wiring...... .... ..... .. .. .. .... ........... ...... ... 78
Solar collector .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 200
Solar hot water .·...... ....... .. ... .. . ............. .... 202
Solar radiation . . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 214
v
transmission .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. 214 Ventilation .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. 216, 273
Smoke guard . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . 370 Vertical tnmsportation .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 305
Sound syste m ... .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. . .... .. ..... .. .. . .. . 286 Vertical conveyors...... .... .. .... .... ... ... ... .. ..... 359
Spec;ial switches .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. •.. .. ..
Splitbuspanel ...... ... ... ...... .. .. .. ... ...... .. .... 141
96
w
Special elevators .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . , .. .. .. 345 Wann ai r heating . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . 220
Special fittings .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. ... .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . 236 System ................ .......................... 226
Sprinkler alarm ..... , .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . 297 Wiring devioes .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . 111
Sprinlder vent ....... ... , .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. 320, 372 Win(jow unit ... . ..... ..... ..................... ....... 2S4
Spray nozzle .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . .. . . .. . 372 Wood carrier .... .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 243
Stacking fireplace .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. 248
Ste.~m boilers . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .
Structural stresses .. .. .. .. .. .. ,. .. ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
229
345
z
Zone coded svstam .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 286, 296
Substations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
420