BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENT

EE 152
NAME: GODFRED ARHINFUL
INDEX NUMBER:7124621
Date: august 9, 2022.

CONTENT.

➢ EXPERIMENT 1 - DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

➢ EXPERIMENT 2 - HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

➢ EXPERIMENT 3 - FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

➢ EXPERIMENT 4 – CELL PHONE CHARGER

Experiment No: 1 Diode Characteristics

Objective: To study and verify the functionality of a) PN junction diode in forward bias
b) Point-Contact diode in reverse bias
Components/ Equipments Required:
Components Equipments
Sl.No. Name Quantity Name Quantity
1 Diode 1(One) No DC Regulated Power supply 1(One) No.
(BY127, OA79) each (0 - 30 V variable)
2 Resistor 1(One) No. Digital Ammeters 1(One) No.
(1K ) ( 0 - 200 mA, 0 - 200 µA) Each
3 Bread board 1(One) No. Digital Voltmeter 1(One) No.
(0 - 20V)
4 Connecting wires (Single strand, Multi strand)
Biasing of PN junction Diode:
Forward bias operation
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to P- side
and –ve terminal is connected the n side, then diode is said to be forward biased condition. In this condition the
height of the potential barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage.
Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously thereby decreasing the
depleted region. This constitutes a forward current (majority carrier movement – diffusion current). Assuming
current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short- circuited switch. Diode
offers a very small resistance called forward resistance (few ohms)

FORWARD BIAS GRAPH OF CURRENT AGAJNST VOLTAGE

Reverse bias operation

If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to p-side and –ve terminal is connected to n-side then the
diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height
of the potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from
the junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a
small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This current is negligible; the diode
can be approximated as an open circuited switch it offers a very high resistance called reverse resistance(few
Kiloohms).

REVERSE BIAS GRAPH OF CURRENT AGAJNST VOLTAGE

Static Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the direct current flowing forward bias condition is known
as its DC forward resistance or Static Resistance. It is measured by taking the ratio of DC voltage across the diode
to the DC current flowing through it at an operating point.

Dynamic Resistance: The opposition offered by a diode to the changing current flow I forward bias condition is
known as its AC Forward Resistance. It is measured by a ratio of change in voltage across the diode to the resulting
change in current through it for an operating point P.

Average Resistance: Same as dynamic resistance but measured between extremities.

Diode current equation

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following equations:

Where I = current flowing in the diode.

I0 = reverse saturation current
V = voltage applied to the diode,
VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp)
=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

Procedure: (a) Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1 (PN Junction diode with milli-ammeter in series with the diode).
2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage Vs in steps of 0.1 V. Once the current starts
increasing vary Vs in steps of 0.02V and note down the corresponding readings Vf and If.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the resistance levels
5. Compare the theoretical and practical values (cut-in voltage and resistances).

Tabular column:
Forward bias Reverse bias
VD(volts) ID ( mA) VD(volts) ID ( µA)

0 0 0 0

0.1 0 1 0

0.2 0 2 0

0.3 0 3 0

0.4 0 4 0

0.5 0 5 0

0.6 0 6 1.2

0.7 0.5 7 2.8

0.8 3.7 8 4.2

(b) Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.2 (Point contact diode in series with micro ammeter).
2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps of 1V from 0V to 12V and note down
the corresponding readings Vr and Ir.
 3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the resistance levels
5. Compare the theoretical and practical values.

Ideal characteristics

Forward Characteristic Reverse Characteristic

Positive terminal is connected to the positive side of
the diode,
Higher voltage at the anode and a lower voltage at
the cathode.
The potential barrier gets depleted.
Voltage across the diode is low.
Current through the diode is high.
Positive terminal is connected to the negative side
of the diode.
Lower voltage at the anode and a higher voltage at
the cathode.
The depletion layer is strengthened.
Voltage across the diode is high.
Current through the diode is very low.

Calculations from Graph:

a) Forward Bias of PN Junction Diode:
Cut-in Voltage V =0.7

Static forward Resistance

=0.6/0.5=1.2 Ω

=0.7/3.7=0.189 Ω

=0.8/10.9=0.073 Ω

Dynamic Forward Resistance

Since the experiment was performed with DC,

there is no dynamic resistance.

Average Resistance ravg = / pt to pt

=(0.6-0.5)/(0.5-0)=0.2 Ω

=(0.7-0.6)/(3.7-0.5)=0.3125 Ω

=(0.8-0.7)/(10.9-3.7)=0.0139 Ω

b) Reverse Bias of Point contact diode:

Similarly find static and dynamic resistances
Result: Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode are studied.

Application of Diode;
• Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC into DC voltages
• Isolating signals from a supply
• Controlling the size of a signal
• Mixing signals

Outcomes: Students are able to

1. Analyze the characteristics of PN diode.

2. Calculate the resistance in forward bias and reverse bias.
EXPERIMENT 2 - HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

OBJECTIVE

The basic objective of this lab:

1. To Know the basic uses of diode.

2. To know about Half wave and full wave rectification.
3. To know about the characteristic of half wave rectifier circuit and full wave rectifier circuit.
4. To design a circuit using diode and the other electronic circuit.

COMPONENT USED:
1. Resistor
2. AC voltage source
3. Diode (PIV should be greater)
4. Wires
5. Ground
6. Oscilloscope
THEORY•
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION:
A Half Wave Rectifier is a single PN junction diode connected in series to the load resistor.
As you know a diode is to electric current like a one-way valve is to water, it allows electric
current to flow in only one direction. This simple means the diode is operational when the
diode is forward biased while it blocks the current when it is reversed biased. This property of
the diode is very useful in creating simple rectifiers which are used to convert AC to DC
In Half wave rectification only the positive half cycle is obtained in output while the negative
cycle is discarded.

Positive half cycle:

Here for positive half cycle the value of output voltage will be= Vm-Vd where Vm is amplitude
of Input voltage and Vd is the voltage drop across the diode.
Negative half cycle:

Here for negative half cycle the value of output voltage will be= 0 because diode act as open
circuit and no current flow in resistor so output voltage will be zero.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

OSCILLOSCOPE

Conclusion:
In half wave rectification only, we get the output when the diode is forward biased, we get zerc
voltage at output when the diode is reversed biased it means we are throwing away the negative
or blocked cycle of the waves. It means halt wave is not so much effective IN AC to DC
conversion
Vout=Vm-Vd.
Vdc/ Average of the output voltage will be 0.318(Vm-Vd).
Vm is input voltage amplitude and Vd is voltage drop across diode.

➢ EXPERIMENT 3 - FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION:

The bridge rectifier:
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to de voltage using both half
cycles of the input ac voltage. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac
input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is
connected between the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac
voltage, diodes D1 and D2 conduct, whereas diodes D3 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The
conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows
through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D3 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D2 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D3 and D4 will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus, a b1-directional wave IS converted Into a unidirectional wave

Positive half cycle:

Direction of current is represented by the blue zigzag line.

Negative half cycle:

Direction of current is represented by the blue zigzag line.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OSCILLOSCOPE GRAPH:
 CONCLUSION
In full wave rectification we use bridge rectifier which consist of four diodes. For a positive cycle, two
diodes operate and for the negative cycle, the other two operate. These diodes help in converting the AC to
pulsating DC. Full wave rectification is efficient because we are using both the cycle of input and get a
positive cycle output for both positive and negative cycle.
Vout=Vm-2Vd
Vm is input voltage amplitude and Vd is the voltage across the diode.

CHARGER

INRODUCTION:
Mobile phones generally charge with 5V regulated DC supply, so basically, we are going to build a 5V
regulated supply from 220VAC supply. This will generate a pulsating dc supply which has to be regulated
using IC7805 OR IC7812 as per the need of the user. Generally, mobile chargers are available in market
but if we need power charger, then again, we have to buy a new one. We have implemented a project in
which the same basic charger can work as a power charger just with the replacement of a transformer.
OBJECTIVE
The aim of our project is to build a cell phone charger. Also, our objective is set to learn the basic concepts
of components. With this project, we want to enhance our skill set of electronic industry.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
• 9-0-9 1 A step down transformer
• Diodes
• Capacitors– 1000 µF and 0.01 µF
• Voltage Regulator IC 7805

PROCEDURE
1. Set up a Full Wave Bridge Rectifier: The setup takes alternating current (AC) as input and converts both
cycle in its time period into direct current (DC). It consists of four diodes connected as bridge as shown
in the circuit diagram. This process of converting alternating current half waves into direct current is
known as rectification.
2. After the rectification of AC, the output we achieve is not a proper DC. It is a pulsating DC output with
a high ripple factor. We cannot feed this output into our cell phone as it as damage our device easily as
it is not a steady state DC supply.

CELL PHONE CHARGER CIRCUIT

 PCB LAYOUT

Working & Operation of the Mobile Phone Charging Circuit:

Voltage Regulation IC 7805

IC 7805 is voltage regulator which gives regulated 5volts DC output. The operating voltage of IC 7805
is 7 volts to 35 volts. Therefore, the minimum input voltage supplied should be at least 7 volts. The
output voltage range is 4.8 volts to 5.2 volts and the current rating is 1 Amperes.
Since the difference between input and output voltage is 2 volts which is a significant difference. This
difference of voltage between input and output is released as heat and the more is the difference the
more heat is dissipated. So a proper heat sink must be connected to the voltage regulator to avoid its
malfunctioning.

OUTCOME:
CONCLUSION
By understanding the above procedures, you can design your own cell phone charger of desired
output. Necessary changes will be required in transformer ratings like you need to choose transformer
which can step down to appropriate voltage.
The rectification process will be similar as it will just convert negative half into positive half. The
calculation for the capacitor required in the process of filtration must be calculated properly especially
for mobile phone charger. The difference between the input and output voltage of the voltage regulator
7805 must be kept into consideration and heat sink should be designed accordingly.