Human Behavior and VICTIMOLOGY j.
There are traditional beliefs about people of all ages
Chapter I
Development
A. Development Defined
Development refers to a progressive series of changes of an
orderly and coherent life leading toward maturity.
B. Significant Facts about Development
a. Early foundation is critical (first two years of life, (physical and
emotional))
Attitudes, habits, and pattern of behavior established during
the early years and determine to a large extent how successfully
individuals will adjust to life as they grow older.
b. Maturation and learning play important role in development
 Maturation – refers to the growth following the birth that is
determined primarily by genetic factors and occurs more or less
independently of learning.
 Learning – development that comes from exercise and effort on
the individual’s part.
 Three Important facts emerge from our present
knowledge of the interrelationship of maturation
and learning as the cause of development.
1. Because human beings are capable of learning, variation is
possible.
2. Maturation sets limit beyond which progress, even with the
favorable learning methods and the strongest motivation.
3. There is definite time table or learning.
c. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern
The importance of this is that it makes it possible to predict
what people will do at a given age and to plan their education and
training to fit into this pattern.
d. All individuals are different
All individuals are biologically and genetically different from
the others. No two people can be expected to react in the same
manner to the same environment stimuli.
e. Each phase of development has characteristics pattern of
behavior
 Phases of Development
1. Equilibrium – when individuals adopt easily to
environmental demands.
2. Disequilibrium – when the individuals experience difficulties
in adaptation makes poor personal social adjustment.
f. Each phase of development has its hazards
Each period in the life can has associated with certain
developmental hazards, physical, psychological and environmental.
g. Development is aided by stimulation
Directly encouraging the individual to use ability is the process
of development. Stimulation of the muscles during the early years
results in earlier and better coordinated motor skills.
h. Development is affected by cultural changes
Individual development is molded to conform to cultural
standards and ideals.
i. There are social expectations for every stage of development
Cultural groups expects its member to master certain essential
skills and acquire certain approved patterns of behavior.
These beliefs about physical and psychological characteristics
affect the judgments of others as well as their self evaluation.
C. Characteristics of Development
1. Dependence to Self – direction
2. Pleasure to Reality
3. Ignorance to Knowledge
4. Incompetence to Competence
5. Diffuse to Articulated Self – identity
D. Stages in Human Life Span
1. Prenatal period - Conception to birth (0 – 9 months)
2. Infancy - Birth to the end of second week
3. Babyhood - End of the second week to the end of the second
year
4. Early Childhood - Two to Six years
5. Late Childhood - Six to Ten or Twelve years
6. Puberty or Pre – Adolescence - Ten or Twelve to 13 or 14 years
7. Adolescence - 13 or 14 to 18 years
8. Early Adulthood - 18 to 40 years
9. Middle Age - 40 to 60 years
10. Old Age or Senescence - 60 to Death
E. Developmental Tasks During Life Span
Developmental Tasks – A tasks which arises at or about a certain
period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which
leads to happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads
to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks.
a) Babyhood and Early Childhood
- Learning to take solid food
- Learning to walk
- Learning to talk
- Learning to control the eliminations of body wastes
- Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
- Getting ready to read
- Learning to distinguish right and wrong and beginning to
develop a conscience
b) Late Childhood
- Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
- Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as growing
organism
- Learning to get along with age mate
- Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine
social roles
- Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and
calculating
- Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
- Developing conscience, sense of morality, and scale of
values
- Attitudes toward social groups and institutions
- Achieving personal independence
c) Puberty and Adolescence
- Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of
both sexes
- Achieving a masculine and feminine social role
- Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
- Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible
behavior
- Achieving emotional independence from parents and other
adults
- Preparing or an economic career
- Preparing or marriage and family life
- Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to
behavior
d) Early Adulthood
- Getting started in an occupation
- Selecting a mate
 - Learning to live with a marriage partner
- Starting a family
- Rearing children
- Managing a home
- Taking on civic responsibility
- Finding a congenial social group
e) Middle Age
- Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
- Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy
adults
- Developing adult leisure time activities
- Relating oneself to one’s spouse person
- Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of
middle age
- Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s
occupational career
- Adjusting to aging parents
f) Old Age
- Adjusting to decreasing, physical strength
- Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
- Adjusting to death of spouse
- Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s
age group
- Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements
- Adapting to social roles in a flexible way
 Purposes of Developmental Tasks
1. They are guidelines that enable individuals to know
what societies expect of them at given ages.
2. Motivate individuals to do what the social group expects
them to do at certain ages during their lives.
3. Show individuals what lies ahead and what they will be
expected to do when they reach their next stage of
development.
F. Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud believes that all human beings pass through a series of
psychosexual stages, each stages dominated by the development and
sensitivity in a particular erogenous or measure – giving spot in the
body. If individuals are unsuccessful in resolving the conflict, their
solving frustration becomes chronic and remains a central feature of
their psychological make – up.
As a result of their frustration or over indulgence, individuals
experience fixation at a particular stage of their development.
 Fixation – is the tendency to stay at a particular stage:
The individuals troubled by the conflict that characterizes
the stage and seeing to reduce it by means of the
behavior characteristics of that stage.
a. The Oral Stage – reflect the infants need for gratification from the
mother.
b. The Anal Stage (2nd to the 3rd year of life) – reflects the toddlers
need for gratification along the rectal area. During this stage,
children must endure the demand of toilet training.
c. The Phallic Stage (4th to 5th year of life) – reflects the
preschooler’s gratification involving the genitals. Children of this
stage gratify their sex instinct by foundling their genitals and
developing incestuous desire for the opposite sex parent.
d. The Latency Stage (6th year of life to puberty) – is Freud’s
fourth stage of psychosexual development. During this time,
sexual desires are repressed and all the Childs available libido is
socially acceptable outlets such as school – work or vigorous play
that consume most of Childs physical and psychic energy.
e. The Genital Stage ( from puberty onwards) – is characterized
by maturation of the reproductive system, production of sex
hormones, and reactivation of the genital zone as an area of
sensual pleasure. The adolescent may openly expresses libidos
toward member of the opposite sex. But for the first time, the
underlying aim of sex instinct is reproduction.
Chapter II
Human Behavior
A. Human Behavior Defined
Human Behavior – It is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a person
adopts in order to fit society’s idea of right and wrong. It’s partly
determined by heredity and environment and modified through
learning. It is also the way human being act.
B. Causation of Human Behavior
a. Sensation - feeling or impression of stimulus
- the process by which organism responds to stimulus
a.1. visual – sight
a.2. olfactory – smell
a.3. cutaneous – touch
a.4. auditory – hearing
a.5. gustatory – taste
b. Perception - knowledge of stimulus
-sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli from our
sensory organ.
- process by which sensory stimuli are interpreted, analyzed, and
integrated
c. Awareness - psychological activity, it is in accordance with the
interpretation and experience of object of stimulus
C. Two Basic Types of Human Behavior
a. Inherited Behavior – behavioral response or reflex
exhibited by people due to their genetic endowment or the
process of natural selection.
b. Learned Behavior – involves cognitive adaptation that
enhances the human beings ability to cope with changes in
the environment in ways which improve the changes for
service.
D. Motivation of Human Behavior
a. The Needs Theory of Human Behavior
This theory states that, throughout life, desires, wishes,
and drives, collectively called needs, motivate all. When not fulfilled,
these needs lace the individuals under stress and in order to relieve
the tensions created, one has to strive for appropriate satisfactions.
However, the ways to satisfy these needs are governed by the society
whose mechanics are not always identical to the individual’s constant
struggle for food, warmth, affection, achievement, recognition, and
economic and emotional security.
These needs are arranged according to its hierarchy, to wit:
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. The sense of belonging and love needs
4. Esteem needs
5. The need for self – actualization
b. The Psychodynamics of Human Motivation
Psychodynamics, which literally means motivation to
action, define human behavior in terms of inner personality of the inner
self. The concept of subjective life and the inner forces within, called
mental personality.
This theory viewed that what person do and how they act
are reflections of the operations of their inner personality. This inner
personality of the inner self is a system of forces or network energy,
called psychic forces and makes one act and feel in certain ways its
interplay.
The seat of these psychic forces is the mind, which is a
symbol of mental life and mental activity. The mind has three levels on
which the symbols of these psychic forces operate, namely: Id, Ego,
and Superego. These are not structures or entities, but are symbolic
terms used to describe certain emotional and psychological activities
which motivate behavior and affect personality. The organization of
total personality depends upon the adequate and harmonious
functioning of these three dynamically interacting forces.
 Id – the raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality whose sole
purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to
hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. These drives are
fueled by “psychic energy” called libido. The id operates
according to the pleasure principle in which the goal is the
immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of
satisfaction.
 Ego – provides a buffer between the id and realities of the
objective outside world. In contrast to the pleasure seeking nature
of the id, the ego operates according to the reality principle, in
which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the
safety of the individual and help integrate the person in society.
 Superego – the final personality structure to develop, represents
the rights and wrongs of the society as handed down by person’s
parents, teachers and other important figures. The superego
actually has two parts, the conscience and the ego – ideal.
- Conscience – prevents us from doing morally bad things
- Ego – Ideal – motivates us to do what is morally proper.
E. Viewpoints in the Study of Human Behavior
a. Neurological – emphasizes human actions in relation to
events taking place inside the body, especially the brain and
the nervous system.
b. Cognitive – concerned with the way the brain processes
and transforms information in various ways.
c. Psychoanalytical – emphasizes unconscious motives
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in
childhood.
d. Behavioral – focuses on external activities that can be
observed and measured.
e. Humanistic – focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom
of choice, and motivation
F. Factors that Affect Human Behavior
a. Heredity – It is determined by genes. Genes are segments
of cell structures called chromosomes by which parents pass
on traits to their offspring.
b. Environment – Consists of conditions and factors that
surround and influence on individual.
c. Learning – Is the process by which behavior changes as a
result of experience or practice.
G. Characteristics of Behavior
1. Primarily native or learned
2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal need
3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor or intentional
H. Kinds of Behavior
a. Overt or Covert Behavior - Behavior that are outwardly
manifested or those that are directly observable are overt
behaviors. On the other hand, the covert behaviors are
behaviors that are hidden and not visible to the naked eye.
b. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior - Behavior is
conscious when act are within the level of awareness. It is
unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s sub –
consciousness.
c. Simple or Complex Behavior - These are act categorized
according to the number of nervous involved in the process
of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of
neurons, while complex behavior involves more number of
neurons, a combination of simple behavior.
d. Rational or Irrational Behavior - There is rational behavior
when a person acted with sanity or reason and there is
irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent
reason or exploitation.
e. Voluntary or involuntary Behavior - Voluntary behavior is
an act done with full volition or will such as when we
discriminate, decide, or choose; while involuntary behaviors
refer to the bodily processes that function whether we are
awake or asleep.
I. Personality Dimensions That Affect Human Behavior
a. Extraversion
- The diversion that dictates conditionability and is therefore
the principal factor in anti – social behavior. It represents a
central nervous system tendency that determines need for
stimulation and excitement.
- Extroverts not only have high needs for stimulation, but they
also do not condition easily. They frequently seek stimulation
excitement and thrills, all of which can get them in trouble.
b. Neuroticism
- It reflects an innate biological predisposition to react
physiologically to stressful or upsetting events. Basically, it
represents emotionality. Persons high to neuroticism react
intensely much longer to stress and are generally moody,
touchy, sensitive slights and anxious or nervous.
- Neuroticism is most important in understanding some adult
criminals, less important in understanding adolescents and
even younger children.
c. Psychoticism
- It is characterized by cold cruelty, social insensitivity,
disregard for danger, troublesome behavior, dislike of others
and attraction toward the unusual.
- The individual high on psychoticism tends to be impulsive,
aggressive individual without appreciable conscience or
concern for others.
Chapter III
Adjustment
A. Adjustment Defined
Adjustment, on the psychological point of views, can be
defined simply as a process where the internal demands of motivations
are brought into harmonious relation with the external demands of
reality. As a means to adjustments, persons resorted to what is known
as defense mechanism or adjustment mechanism.
a. Defense mechanism or adjustment mechanism
- Used to defend the ego
- Unconscious strategies people use to anxiety by
concealing the source from themselves and others.
B. General Principles of Adjustment
a. Biological Level - Immunological defenses against disease
and damage repair mechanism
b. Psychological and Interpersonal Level - There are
learned coping patterns and self – defenses
c. Socio – cultural Level - Groups of labor unions, religious
organization and law enforcement agencies.
C. Types of Defense mechanism
a. Repression - Unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are
pushed back into unconsciousness. Repression is the most direct
method of dealing with anxiety; instead of handling an anxiety –
producing impulse on a conscious level, one simply ignores it.
b. Suppression - Involve the individual’s and conscious attempt to
stop anxiety – provoking thoughts by simply not thinking about
them.
c. Denial - Refers to a person’s refusal to perceive an unpleasant
event in external reality.
d. Displacement –
- The expression of unwanted feeling or thought is
redirected from a more threatening, powerful person to
a weaker one.
- Unconscious attempt to obtain gratification for id
impulses by shifting them to substitute objects that
would directly satisfy the impulses are not available.
e. Scapegoating - Blaming other for his failure
f. Rationalization - It involves the inventing of excuses or reasons
for behavior that is inadequate, unacceptable, or damaging to
personal integrity and status.
Types of Rationalization
f.1. Sour – Grape mechanism – this involved self –
deception by adopting a conviction, and giving up and
relinquishing all efforts towards a goal because it is not worth
the efforts anyway.
f.2. Sweet – Lemon mechanism – desirable qualities are
found in what was not truly wanted.
g. Projection
- The process of shifting the responsibility for an act or
thought from oneself to another person
- Attributing unwanted impulse and feeling to someone
else.
h. Substitution or Transferred Compensation - A device which
makes it possible to discharge tensions by diverting one’s
energies from a desired goal to a substitute one. Working on the
principles of substitution are:
h.1. Compensation – the mechanism where the individual
devotes time and effort to a pursuit with increased vigor in an
attempt to make up for real or imagined inadequacy.
h.2. Overcompensation – the concentration of efforts on a
narrow field at the expense of well rounded and complete
adjustment to a variety of life’s demands.
i. Reaction Formation - Defense mechanism where urges that are
not acceptable to the consciousness are repressed and opposite
attitudes or modes of behaviors are expressed with considerable
force.
j. Avoidance Mechanism - Way of adjusting to a threatening
situation by escaping from it.
Types:
j.1. Fantasy – mental mechanism where a person substitute
real satisfaction for imaginary satisfactions.
j.2. Regression – process relieving anxiety or threat falling
back on thoughts, feelings, or behavior in which worked
successfully during the earlier period of life.
j.3. Negativism – the refusal to participate in a tense
situation. This is a type of avoidance mechanism manifested
through either active or passive resistance towards the
external demands on the individual.
- Active resistance – doing the opposite of what is
supposed to be done.
- Passive resistance – doing what is expected to be
avoided
j.4. identification mechanism where the individual
enhance self – esteem by patterning him/herself another
person. This is done in fantasy or actual behavior.
k. Sublimation - People divert unwanted impulses into socially
approved thoughts, feelings, or behavior. This type of defense
mechanism is particularly healthy and socially acceptable.
l. Intellectualization
- Here, a person gains detachment from threatening
event in order to remain untouched by it emotionally. An
emotional event is dealt with analytic, intellectual terms
as if it where something to study or be merely curious
about, rather than to be emotionally involved about.
- These adjustment or defense mechanisms serve a
useful purpose in that they protect the person against
pain. Also they are normal and universally use.
However, defense mechanism can be potentially
pathogenic when they are used indiscriminately,
compulsively, and in ways that continually contradict
the reality of the situation.
Chapter IV
Abnormal Behavior
A. Abnormal Behavior
A behavior that fails to meet the characteristics of a normal person
such as:
1. Free expression of personality
2. Adequate security feeling
3. Efficient contact with reality
4. Adaptability to group norms
5. Emotional maturity
6. Adequate self knowledge
7. Integrated and consistent personality
B. Types of Abnormal Behavior
a. Personality Disorder - It originates during early development
process leading to maladaptive behavior.
Classification of Personality Disorder
1. Passive – Aggressive - Passive – dependent Aggressive
due to indulgence
2. Hysterical Personality Disorder - Easily excitable
emotional instability, dramatically attention getting,
immature, with tendency to sexualize contacts with opposite
sex
3. Compulsive Personality Disorder - Excessive concern for
conformity, rigid, maybe intelligent but trait of character
explains his undoing.
4. Paranoid Personality Disorder - Hypersensitive,
unwarranted suspicion, jealousy, envy, and feelings of
excessive importance.
b. Neuroses - Neuroses or psychoneuroses are behavioral
disorder brought about by emotional tension resulting from
frustration, conflicts, repression, or insecurity. The persons who
develop a neurosis breaks down under the pressure of outer
and inner stresses and displays a host of distress symptoms,
although not serious enough to require institutionalization. They
compromise with reality by developing imaginary ailments,
phobias, obsessions, compulsions, anxiety or depression.
 Behavioral Characteristics of Neurotic Reactions
1. Presence of anxiety
2. Inability to function at capacity level
3. Rigid or repetitive behavior
4. Egocentricity
5. Hypersensitivity
6. Immaturity
7. Somatic Complaints
8. Unhappiness
9. A great deal of unconsciously motivated behavior
 Factors to be Considered in Understanding the
Causes of Neuroses
1. Predisposing or Constitutional factors
2. Childhood Development Patterns
3. The Immediate Life Situation
4. The Cultural Factors
b.1. Classification of Neuroses According to Most Striking
Symptoms
b.1.1. Anxiety Reactions - These are principally manifested in
diffused and consciously experienced feelings of anxiety and
apprehension for which there seems to be no specific basis in reality.
The condition may be chronic and continuous, where the person is
always tense and worried, easily upset, and preoccupied with future
calamities. Repeated unsatisfactory life situations, conditions that
arouse fears of the breakdown of defensive processes, may constitute
the precipitating cause of the anxiety. The reaction built on a lifetime
pattern of insecurity and immaturity.
b.1.2. Hysteria - A disorder in which the individual manifests, without
identifiable physical pathology, one or more symptoms usually due to
organic disease. These symptoms insulate the individual from real life
stresses. Disabilities developed include paralysis of the limbs, intense
aches and pains, deafness, blindness, loss of voice, continuous
vomiting, and head or hand tremors. The hysteric may develop an
anesthesia, where he or she becomes insensitive to pain and cannot
feel a needle or a burn. He or she fits or seizures, or faint at the least
provocation.
Forms of Hysteria
b.1.2.1. Amnesia - A disorder in which the individual cannot
recall his or her name and remembers little or nothing about
the past. It is obliteration through repression of awareness of
the self and of the historical data of all part of one’s previous
existence.
Types of Amnesia
b.1.2.1.1. Anterograde – the inability to retain information
which has just been seen or read.
b.1.2.1.2. Retrograde – the inability to recall any event
which took place during certain period of time.
b.1.2.1.3. Localized – the inability to recall events which are
related to a particular situation.

b.1.2.2. Fugue - An amnesia state where one wonders away
from his or her home or usual surroundings and, when
awareness set in, there is no recollection as to how he or
she came to be there. It may last for few hours, days or
months. It is an escape mechanism from a highly distressful
situation.
b.1.2.3. Multiple Personality - A dramatic form of hysteria
where the patient develops two or more separated and very
different personalities. The personalities achieved vary in
degree of completeness, and may or may not be consciously
different. Shifting from one personality to another last for
from a few hours to several months or years apart.
b.1.2.4. Somnambulism - A dream like state where the
person walks about and carries on certain activities which
are not remembered later. The somnambulist will get out of
bed, with eyes open but not awake, and gives the
appearance of trying to reach a definite goal. Obstacles that
blocks or are injurious are violated. The somnambulist even
responds to questions or demands without awakening.
b.1.3. Psychastenia - A psychoneurotic condition
accompanied by a vast range of mental and emotional
symptoms which cannot be controlled. The person is fear –
ridden by unreasonable dreads or phobias, obsessions and
compulsion. Other symptoms of psychastenia are
unreasonable elation, constant depression, or over inhibition.
Forms of Psychastenia
b.1.3.1. Phobias - An irrational or exaggerated fear of an
object, person, act or situation. These may be developed
towards any imaginable aspect of environment.
 Characteristics of Phobia
1. Reasons for the fear do not make sense
2. The fear paralyzes instead of enhances the ability to
deal with the problem
3. The fear seems to be caused by the threat of a
discharge of self destructive aggressions
 Some Examples of Phobias
1. Achluphobia or nyctophobia – fear of dark
2. Acrophobia – fear of high places
3. Aerophobia – fear of flying
4. Agoraphobia – fear of open spaces
5. Ailurophobia – fear of cats
6. Algophobia – fear of pain
7. Amaxophobia – fear of vehicles and driving
8. Anthophobia – fear of flowers
9. Antrophobia – fear of people
10. Aquaphobia – fear of water
11. Arachnephobia – fear of spiders
12. Astraphobia- fear of thunder, lightning or storms
13. Cheimphobia – fear of cold
14. Claustrophobia – fear of closed places
15. Cynophobia – fear of dogs
16. Dipsophobia – fear of drinking
17. Ecophobia or Oikophobia – fear of home
18. Electrophobia – fear of electricity
19. Erythrophobia – fear of blushing
20. Gamophobia – fear of marriage
21. Hematophobia – fear of blood
22. Hydrophobia – fear of water
23. Ideaphobia – fear of thoughts
24. Ochlophobia – fear of crowds
25. Ophidiophobia – fear of snakes
26. Ornithophobia – fear of birds
27. Pathophobia – fear of disease
28. Phobophobia – fear of developing a phobia
29. Rypophobia – fear of dirt
30. Sitophobia – fear of eating
31. Taphophobia – fear of being buried alive
32. Thermophobia – fear of heat
33. Xenophobia – fear of strangers
b.1.3.2. Obsession - An idea or series of ideas which recur so
frequently that it interferes with normal thinking. The thought continues
to intrude no matter how hard one tries and what activities are
undertaken. Common obsessions are self – accusatory thoughts,
thoughts about losing the mind, committing immoral acts, superstitious
worries, etc. in their neurotic form; the obsessions are usually morbid
in content and dominate the walking behavior of the individual for long
periods of time.
b.1.3.3. Compulsion - An irresistible tendency to perform an act or
ritual which the individual feels compelled to carry out even though it is
recognized as irrational he or she must do so in order to reduce the
tension. Completing the act makes the individual temporarily at ease;
failure to do so makes him or her extremely nervous. In its fleurotic
form, compulsion are mere persistent and more absurd, and may grow
to such dimensions as to interfere seriously with the patient’s ability to
carry out normal routine.
Some examples of Compulsion
1. Arithmomania – the impulse to count everything
2. Dipsomania – the impulse to drink liquor
3. Homicidal mania – the impulse to kill
4. Kleptomania – the impulse to steal
5. Megalomania – the impulse for fame or power
6. Pyromania – the impulse to set things on fire
7. Suicidal mania – the impulse to takes one’s life
b.1.4. Traumatic Neuroses - It is manifested in a situation where the
individual fears for his or her safety. It is caused by inhibitory process
which is protective to the individual. In the effort to safeguard
him/herself from injuries, certain physiological and psychological
symptoms are inhibited. The person manifests certain symptoms
making others care for him or her, and therefore reduces the
possibilities of being hurt and increases the feeling of security.
b.1.5. Operational Fatigue - Otherwise known as war neurosis, it is
manifested in response to a battle environment. It is a reactive state
resulting from the physical and emotional stresses of continued danger
and hardships. It is the result of sustained combat action and tension.
c. Psychoses
- Psychoses are serious mental illness where behavior is
unpredictable. Psychotic persons have a wholly unrealistic
interpretation of the self and the life around them. Their ego
has lost control over the personality. They have great mood
swings – extreme depression to extreme exaltation. They
are quit and docile at one moment and hyperactive, even
violent, the next. They are socially inept.
- Person suffering psychoses significantly lost or distort of
contact from reality such as delusion, hallucination, and
regression. (Disturbances in thinking, thought content,
perception, mood and effect, judgment) and dementia
praecox. Psychotic almost completely out of touch with the
real world.
c.1. Classification of Psychoses
c.1.1. Organic/Somatogenic - Organic or somatogenic
psychoses stem from a wide variety of causes, but damage or
injury to the brain or other parts of the central nervous system is
always involved.
(Symptoms of Organic Psychoses)
1. Impairment of intellectual functions
2. Emotional instability, shown by general irritability or
violent mood swings without apparent cause.
3. Inappropriate behavior and changes in general conduct,
including lack of interest in personal appearance, neglect
of responsibilities, and an antisocial behavior.
(Types of Organic Psychoses)
1. Psychoses associated with infectious diseases
2. Psychoses associated with toxins
3. Psychoses associated with head injuries
4. Psychoses associated with old age
c.1.2. Functional Psychoses - Functional Psychosis is a serious
mental disorder involving the total personality with no observable
tissue damage. Having no organic basis, these ailments are
believed to result from years of living under emotional stress.
c.1.2.1. Forms of Functional Psychoses
c.1.2.1.1. Schizophrenic Disorders - Schizophrenia is a
psychotic condition marked by withdrawal from reality,
 indifference concerning everyday problems, and the tendency c.1.2.1.2. Affective Disorder - Affective reactions of manic –
to live in a world of fantasy. It was formerly called dementia depressive psychosis are characterized by periods of depression
praecox by Emil Kraeplin, a German Psychiatrist. The term or elation or both. The condition may arise in a previously well
schizophrenia was given by Eugene Bleuler which literally adjusted personality but with a strong hereditary predisposition.
means splitting of the mind”. It occurs more frequently in women than in men. The illness
(Symptoms of Schizophrenia) persists for 6 to 18 months and responds well to shock therapy.
1. Disorganized patterns of feeling and thinking where there Although even without shock therapy, there can be spontaneous
is no logic or reason in the thoughts and feelings recovery and return to the normal personality.
expressed. Forms of Affective Disorder
2. Apathy or absence of feelings and emotions in situations a. Manic – types are marked by periods of elation where the
which call for such reactions. patients are unduly boastful, excited, and hyperactive. They
3. Bizarre actions, which include absurd and eccentric are irritable, angry, and shows abusive behavior when
gestures or such activities as hoarding and over self – contradicted. Heightened activity I accompanied by
decorating. physical changes, such as increased perspiration, rapid
4. Seclusiveness or the narrowing of interests and social pulse, elevated blood pressure, stronger muscle tones, and
contacts loss of sleep.
5. Disorganized patterns of speech b. Depressed – person feel sad and hopeless. There is
6. Delusions and hallucinations (usually auditory) psychomotor retardation, difficulty in thinking, and
7. Deterioration of conduct and personal habits. sometimes suicidal tendencies. Delusions hallucinations
may be present, which most frequently grow out of feelings
Types of Schizophrenia of unworthiness and guilt.
a. Simple Schizophrenia – Manifests a gradual decline of interest c. Mixed types – person manifest symptoms of both manic
and ambition. The person withdraws from practically all social and depressive types. In one instance, the patient is
contacts, as well as become irritable and inattentive. No talkative and yet be markedly depressed; in another, he or
encouragement or reasoning can make him or her renew interest she is elated while at the same time negativistic.
or activity. He or she no little effort to work or play; careless about
personal habits and prefers to daydream. He or she frequently
c.1.2.1.3. Paranoia - Another psychotic reaction is paranoia,
gives the impression of being stupid or mentally retarded although
where the main symptom is characterized by suspicion. The
actual intellectual impairment occurred. The simple schizophrenic
reaction range from paranoia, where the personality structure
loses all sense of responsibility and becomes dependent and
remains relatively well organized, through paranoid states,
parasitic.
where the personality loses some of its integration, to paranoid
b. Hebephrenic Schizophrenia – usually begins in early
schizophrenia, where there is a severe disorganization of the
adolescence and develops gradually. The person has fits of
personality structure.
laughter or childish giggling, grimacing for hours without apparent
- Paranoids have well systematized delusions, but have a good
reasons. He or she exhibits weird gestures or mannerisms, such
contact with reality. There is little or no intellectual deterioration.
as walking backward, makes peculiar movement, crawling on
Common Types of Paranoia
hands and feet, and talking gibberish. Abnormal speech reactions
1. Persecutory Paranoia – having delusions or persecution.
are exhibited, such as repeating meaningless phrases, coining
The person believes that some persons are plotting to harm
new words and placing together words that are not related. The
him or her in some way.
hebephrenic can be analyzed as a person so overwhelmed by
2. Litigious Paranoia – having delusions of both persecution
life’s stresses that he or she retreats to an infinite level of
and grandeur, and may go to great lengths to bring alleged
adjustment.
persecutors to court. In some cases, he or she will go from
c. Catatonic Schizophrenia
court seeking legal redress.
- it is marked by cycles of psychomotor reactions in stupor
3. Erotic Paranoia – also called amorous paranoia – having
(partial or complete loss of consciousness) and excitement
delusion that a certain person is in love with him or her. The
phases.
person will interpret a casual smile or a helpful remarks a a
- In the stupor phase of catatonia, the person loses all
indication of affection and will send love letters, flowers and
animation, remaining motionless and in a stereotyped
gifts to the object of his affection. Failure to acknowledge
posture for hours or even days. He or she is mute and
these letters and gifts is interpreted as a test of his love, or
unable to react even to a powerful stimulation; refuses food
due to the interference of someone who is opposed to his
and show no effort to control bowel or bladder. Extreme
suit.
negativism is present.
4. Exalted Paranoia – having grandiose delusions and
- Although in a stupor state, the person is aware of what is
believes him/herself as someone with great power or
going on around him or her. Sometimes he will imitate the
importance; usually a religious crusader, a social reformer,
behavior of others, or will carry out commands automatically,
or inventor.
or repeat phases in mechanical fashion. Hallucinations and
5. Jealous Paranoia – the most numerous, marked by
delusions occur which may involve the person in a conflict of
extreme and irrational jealousy.
symbolic fantasy experience.
- Individuals in catatonic excitement states exhibit intense
d..Anti – Social Personality - This is a mentally – disturbed person
psychomotor activity. They are noisy, aggressive, and
who is opposed to the principles upon which society is based.
impulsive. They become agitated and frightened, apparently
as a result of visual or auditory hallucinations, and can be
d.1. Characteristics of an Anti – Social Personality
violent. There is a continuous state of motor unrest. A
d.1.1. Sociopath – A person who lacks any sense of social or
condition manifested principally in agitated activity and
moral responsibility due to mental illness.
sleeplessness.
d.1.2. Psychopath – A person having personality disorders
- Catatonics have no insight of their condition and are
characterized by anti – social behavior, indifference to immorality
completely disoriented. However, some experience lucid
and abnormal changes in mood or activity.
periods during which they are aware of what is going on
d.2. Characteristics of Psychopath/Sociopath
around them.
1. A classic manipulator or con artist.
d. Paranoid Schizophrenia – it is marked by delusions and
2. One of the most significant characteristics of this personality
hallucinations which are illogical and loosely organized, as well as
is the absence of conscience or any guilt feelings.
grandiose and/or persecutory nature. Paranoids are moody,
3. The person has not incorporated the moral values of society
irritable, and suspicious. They can become dangerous, both to
into his life.
themselves and their alleged persecutors. They do not leave their
4. He is often a glib and convincing speaker and presents
home for fear of being stalked, watched, followed or called
himself extremely well.
disparaging names, etc. their delusions can impel him towards
5. The anti – social personality is selfish and strives for physical
violence. Their become excited and incoherent.
pleasure.
 6. Most of his pursuits revolve around manipulating people to 4. Dyspareunia - Painful sexual act in women
acquire personal gains. 5. Vaginisimus - Painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act
7. He is often impulsive and demands immediately satisfaction 6. Old Age - Weakening of sexual feeling in the elderly
8. He is unable to learn from past experiences
9. He is also a chronic liar.
d.3. As to the Mode of Sexual Expression or Way of Sexual
Satisfaction
C. Handling of Different Abnormal and Deviant Behavio
1. Oralism (Irrumation) - The use of the mouth as a way of sexual
1. Anxiety – Reassurance
gratification such as Fellatio, Cunning Lingus, Anilingus
2. Depressed - Put self on the shoes of the sufferer; place in the
2. Sado – Masochism (Algolagnia) - Pain or cruel acts as a factor
hospital; word of caution; alert of possible suicide
for gratification such as: sadoism masochism
3. Obsessive – Compulsive - Understand that sufferer is
3. Fetishism - A form of sexual perversion wherein the real or
disturbed and not crazy; refer to appropriate facility
fantasized presence of an object or bodily part is necessary for
4. Phobia - Supportive intervention
sexual stimulation or gratification. Ex. Anatomic, Clothing,
5. Psychoses - Display of guns, force and restrains should be
Necrophilia, Odor etc.
avoided unless there is a manifestation of danger to the life and
send the psychotic to the hospital. If he desists, be firm
d.4. As to the Part of the Body
regardless of pleading
1. Sodomy - Sexual act through the anus of another human being
6. Psychopath -
2. Uranism - Sexual gratification is attached by fingering, fondling
1. Review arrest record
the breast, licking parts of the body etc.
2. Recognize con – man’s glib conversation
3. Frottage - A form of sexual gratification characterized by the
3. Don’t bluff, he is a master of this and certainly better than
compulsive desire of a person to rub his sex organ against some
anybody
parts of the body of another
4. The best is to interview him after knowing every detail of
4. Pantialism - A form of sexual deviation wherein a person has
the case
special affinity to certain parts of the female body
5. Psychopathic can beat lie detector. He is immune to
anxiety unless placed under stress
d.5. As to Visual Stimulus
6. Be firm and clear. Psychopath maybe charming but can also
1. Voyeurism - A form of sexual perversion characterized by a
make very angry and may maneuver to violate his rights
compulsion to peep to see person undress or perform other
7. Drug Dependent Behavior
personal activities
1. Patience, but firm – the person is not himself
2. Mixoscopia (Scoptophilla) - Sexual perversion wherein sexual
2. Ignore the belligency unless going to hunt, keep him talking
pleasure is attached by watching couple undress or during their
to relieve the stress; use form of restraints.
sex intimacies
3. Do not place in drunk tank, but appropriate hospital
4. Referral fro medical institution
d.6. As to Number
8. Paranoid Behavior
1. Froilism (Menageatrios) - A form of sexual perversion in which
1. Understanding – never give an impression that he is crazy
three (3) persons are participating in the sexual orgies (Suixante
2. Friendliness & neutrality is usually the best approach
– neve)
3. Do not further or heightens anxieties, to provoke anxiety is
2. Pluralism - A form of sexual deviation in which a group of
to invite violent reaction
person participates in the sexual orgies (sexual festival)
4. Assure the paranoid that your presence is to help and
protect him
d.7. Other Sexual Deviates
5. Do not frighten or order the paranoid around with weapon,
1. Corpolalia - A form of sexual deviation characterized by the
Paranoid may panic and react violently. However, not to let
need to use obscene language to obtain orgies
down guard. Remember, paranoid is suicidal and homicidal
2. Don Juanism - It describes a form of sexual deviation
characterized by promisevity and making seduction of many
Chapter V women as part of his career
Deviant Sexual Behavior 3. Indecent Exposure (Exhibitionism) - The willful exposure in
public place of one’s genital organ in the presence of other
A. Sexuality - Behavior associated with relation between sexes and person’s; usually of the opposite sex
reproductive organ.
B. Normal Sexuality - Sexual completion that leads to mature and
adjusted individual capable of entering relationships with a member of Chapter VI
the opposite sex which are physically and mentally stable and Victimology
satisfying heterosexual.
C. Abnormal Sexuality/Sexual Deviancy - Sexual behavior which
seeks stimulation and gratification by means other than heterosexual. Scientific study of physical, emotional and financial harm
Classification of Sexual Abnormalities people suffer because of illegal activities.
d.1. As to the Choice of Sexual Partner Included in this definition is the victimization occurring for
1. Heterosexual - Sexual desire towards opposite sex; socially and victims within the criminal justice system.
medically acceptable
2. Homosexual - Sexual desire towards the same sex Victimization
3. Infantisexual - Sexual desire towards an immature person - Is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is abusive,
4. Bestosexual - Sexual desire towards animal painful, destructive, parasitical, and unfair.
5. Autosexual - A form of self – abuse or solitary vice carried - Law forbids certain forms of victimization – oppressive and
without the cooperation of another person exploitative acts – but not all types of harmful activities.
6. Gerontophilia - Sexual desire with elder person
7. Necrophilia - Sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire Victimology
or actual sexual intercourse with a corps
 Victims – individuals who experience loss, injury, or hardship
8. Incest - Sexual relations between person who by reason of
for any reason.
blend relationship cannot legally married
 Crime Victims – above as result of an illegal act.
d.2. As to Instinctual Sexual Urge  Direct/Primary – experiences criminal act and its
1. Satyriasis - Excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse consequences first hand.
2. Nymphomania - Strong sexual feeling of woman  Indirect/Secondary – family and those who suffer
3. Sexual Anesthesia - Absence of sexual desire or arousal during emotionally or financially but are not immediately involved or
sexual act in women physically injured.

Studying of Victimization Scientifically
 Subjective Approach
- Issues are approached from standpoint of morally,
ethics, philosophy, personalized reactions, and
emotions.
 Objective Approach
- Requires observer to be fair, open – minded, even –
handed, dispassionate, neutral, and unbiased.
 Why should victimologists NOT be pro – victim?
 “Ideal victim”: person who suffered harm was weaker than
aggressor, acting virtuously or not looking for trouble or
breaking any laws, and wrongdoer was a stranger acting
illegally and was unprovoked.
Victims or Offender?
 Who is the victim and who is the offender?
 Not always clear cut – consider the following:
- Subway Vigilante
- Menendez Brothers
- Bobicks
Criminals as Victims
 Predatory persons prey each other
- Organized crime “takes out a contract”
- “Drive – by” shooting between two gangs
- “Drug deal gone bad”
Cycle of Violence
 Cycle of violence over time can transform a victim(s) into
victimizer(s).
- Group of picked on students may gang up against the
bully
- Battered wife may launch a vengeful attack against
husband
- Convicts much more likely to have been abused
physically or sexually as children
- Violence Begets Violence
Victims vs. “Good Guys”
 Victimologists do not limit their studies to clashes between
victims and offenders
 They also consider the social reaction to victimization
 Victims outraged by media coverage – sensationalism
 Investigation of charges in high profile cases require
victimologists to be detached and disinterested in carrying out
analysis
Victimology’s Undeserved “Bad Reputation”
 Victimology during the 90s and into the twentieth century has
become to many a “dirty word”.
 (Paglia, 1993) A critic of contemporary feminism declared on
national TV, “I hate victimology. I despise a victim – centered
view of universe”.
 (Leo, 1994) A news magazine commentator complained, “We
are deep into the era of the abuse excuse”. The doctrine of
victimology – claiming victim status means you are not
responsible for your actions – is beginning to warp the legal
system”.
 An author of a book about race relations called a well – known
preacher who is a civil rights activist a “Professional
Victimologist”. (Dreher, 2001).
 (Harrop, 2003) A review of a book noted, “The art of
victimology requires three easy steps:
(1.) Identify a group suffering from real or
perceived injustices
(2.) Exaggerate the problem
(3.) Blame the problem on a group you don’t
like.
Conservatives have long condemned the “victimology
industry” as a racket, especially when practiced by women
and minorities.
 Victimology is a new academic discipline that only means “the
study of” victims.
 It is focused on the research about people harm by criminals
 It does not impose a partisan point of view or a set or
predictably blased conclusions
 The ideology of “victimism” is a coherent, integrated set of
beliefs that shapes interpretations and leads to political action
 Do not confuse “victimism” with “victimology”
 Victimological research must tell the whole truth regardless of
who is disappointed or insulted
 Three types of biases undermine the ability to any social
scientist to achieve objectivity – they include:
Three types of biases
1. May arise from personal experience, taking the form of individual
preferences and prejudices.
2. Derives from the history of the discipline itself:
- Pioneers in the study of victimology first introduced
the concept of victim – blaming
- Today, majority of victimologists are pro – victim
3. A subtle bias traced back to the mood of the times:
- 60s – 70s: a demand for government to devise
ways to help victims get back on their feet
financially, medically, and emotionally
- 80s: a theme of self – reliance and a reduction in
government social spending and tax cutting gained
popularity
Three Origins of Victimology
 Significant gains in the United States when the President’s
Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of
Justice urged criminologists to pay more attention to victims.
 By the 70s victimology became field of study
 By 1990, 240 colleges and universities offered courses in
victimology
 Most states passed crime victims rights amendments to their
state constitution
 2004 – Congress enacts the Crime Victims’ Rights Act which
provides for fair treatment and opportunities for input in
federal court proceedings
Victimology vs. Criminology
 Victimology is best viewed as an area of specialization within
criminology
 Criminology embraces the scientific study of crimes, criminals,
criminal laws and the justice system, societal reactions, and
crime victims.
 Criminologists ask why certain individuals become involve in
lawbreaking while others do not.
 Victimologists ask why some individuals, households, and
entities are targeted while others are not, and why over and
over again.
 Criminologists apply their findings to devise crime prevention
strategies
 Victimologists use patterns and trends to develop victimization
prevention strategies and risk – reduction tactics.
 Both Criminologists and Victimologists study how the criminal
justice system actually works versus how it is supposed to
work.
 Boundaries
- Boundaries are clear cut for Criminology
- Boundaries for Victimology still unclear
- Overlap due to lack of boundaries (Crime rates vs.
Victimization rates)
Division within the Discipline
 Political ideologies shape policy recommendations:
- Conservative
- Liberal
- Radical
1. Conservative influence
- Focuses on basically street crimes
- Everyone to be held accountable for their decisions
and actions
 - Emphasis on self reliance, NOT government
- Individual responsibility for preventing, avoiding,
resisting and recovering from critical acts
- Strictly punish offenders on behalf of their victims
2. Liberal influence
- Scope of field to extend beyond street crimes
- Endorse government intervention
- Extend ‘safety net’ mechanisms for all kinds of
misfortunes
- Look to wrongdoers repaying their victims to allow
for reconciliation
3. Radical / Critical / Conflict Influence
- Victimization is a result of oppressive social system
- Scope of the field to include:
Industrial polluters, hazardous workplaces, fraudulent advertisers,
brutally violent law enforcement agencies, poverty, malnutrition, family
dysfunction, unemployment and substance abuse; these are social
problems of which the criminal justice system is part of the problem.
Chapter VII
THEORIES OF VICTIMIZATION
A. What Victimologist Do?
Victimologists explore the interactions between victims and
offenders, victims and the criminal justice system, and victims and
society.
Four step process victimologists follow when carrying out their
research:
 Step 1: Identify, Define, and Describe the Problem
 Step 2: Measure the True Dimensions of the Problem
 Step 3: Investigate How Victims Are Handled
 Step 4: Gather Evidence to Test Hypotheses
B. Key Figures
As mentioned, the origins of scientific victimology can be
attributed to a few key figures in criminology, including Hans Von
Hentig, Benjamin Mendelson, Stephen Schafer, and Marvin Wolfgang
(Karmen, 2012). Their early work represents the first attempts to study
the victim – offender relationship in a systematic fashion, however
misguided by generalizations, personal bias, and professional
agendas. Each discussed in turn, as their approaches to victims study
are arguably the most relevant to modern concerns.
1. Hans von Hentig (1887 – 1974)
A criminologists in Germany during the first half of the las
century, Hans von Hentig sought to developcrime prevention
strategies. Having researched the factorsthat predisposed one to
criminality; he began to wonder what might cause a victim to become a
victim. He ultimately determined that certain victim characteristics did
play a role in shaping the crimes suffered (Doerner and Lab, 2011:
Meadows, 2007)
The characterisitcsand forces that tend to make a criminal
are diverse and complicated. A contributing factor may be ugliness,
deafness, a physical handicap.
Victims, Dr. Hans von Hentig believes, are born or shaped
by society much as criminals are. Some types of criminals are
attracted to slum areas; so are their victims. Feeblemindedness,
common among some types of criminals, is also common among their
victims.
Certain characteristics of law – abiding citizens arouse a
counter reaction in the criminal.the inexperienced businessman, for
example, invites embezzlement; the nagging wife is flirting with
murder; the alcoholic is a natural for robbery. Thus the victim becomes
the “temper”
Von Hentig originally classified victims into categories,
which could easily be described as a list of characteristics that
increase victim vulnerability or exposure to danger.
 The Young: Von Hentig was referring to children and infants.
From a contemporary point of view, children are physically
weaker have less mental prowess, have fewer legal rights, and
are dependent on their caretakers (e.g., parents, guardians,
teachers, and day – care providers); they also have the potential
to be exposed to a wider range of harm than adults. Moreover,
they are less able to defend themselves and sometimes less likely
to believed should they report abuse. This includes children who
suffer emotional, physical, and sexual abuse at home because of
abusive parents (often under the influence of drugs and alcohol);
children who are bullied at school because of some aspect of their
appearance or personality; and children who are forced into acts
of prostitution or sold into slavery by impoverished parents.
 The Acquisitive: Von Hentig was referring to those who are
greedy and looking for quick gain. In other words, those focused
in acquiring wealth and possessions. Such individuals may
suspend their judgment, or intentionally put themselves in
dangerous situations, to get the things of value that they desire.
 The Wanton: Von Hentig was referring to promiscuous
individuals. People who engage in indiscriminate sexual activity
with many different partners expose themselves to different levels
of disease and varying personalities. Some of these personalities
may be healthy and supportive; some may be narcissistic,
possessive, jealous, and destructive.
 The Lonesome or Heartbroken: Von Hentig was referring to
widows, widowers, and those in mourning. From a contemporary
standpoint, loneliness is at epidemic proportions, with more than
half of marriages ending in divorce, the rise of the culture of
narcissism since the late 1970s and diminishing intimacy skills
across all cultures. This category does not apply only to those in
mourning; those who are lonely or heartbroken are prone to
substance abuse, and can be easy prey for con men, the abusive
and the manipulative.
 The Tormentor: Von Hentig was referring to the abusive parent.
In contemporary terms, there are abusive caretakers, intimates,
and family members of all kids. Such abusers expose themselves
to the harm they inflict, the resulting guilt and angst, and the
potential for their victims to fight back. For example, an abusive
mother who gets drunk and punches a child exposes herself to
the dangers of injuring her hand, of misjudging her strike and
even her balance, of feeling bad about it, and of the child
punching back.
 The Blocked, Exempted, or Fighting: Von Hentig was referring
to victims of blackmail, extortion, and confidence scams. In such
cases, the attention of law enforcement, and any subsequent
publicity, is something that this victims wish to avoid. They fins a
means of dealing with the crimes being committed against them
(e.g., giving in to demands) without avoiding harm or loss – and
without involving the authorities.
From a research point of view, these are
interesting and even somewhat useful classifications with
important theoretical implications, although the terminology
is sometimes inappropriate. However, the case working
victimologists must study each victim to determine the extent
to which such classification has a bearing on the harm
suffered within a particular crime. Some children are smart
and fast; many women are strong and self – assured; some
of the elderly are quick and resourceful; immigrants and
travelers can learn languages and customs; and the
“blocked” may decide to go to the police. In short, many of
the generalizations suggested in this typology may not when
applied to a specific crime or victim.
2. Benjamin Mendelsohn
Benjamin Mendelsohn was a French – Israeli lawyer who
began studying victims in 1947 (Karmen, 2012). While working for the
defense on a rape case, he became interested in the correlations
between rapists and their victims. He found that there was often a
strong interpersonal relationship between the two, and that it could
lead some victims to unknowingly invite or even cause their own
victimization (Meadows, 2007). He referred to this as victim
precipitation.
 Mendelsohn ultimately believed that many victims shared an
unconscious capacity for being victimized, and referred to this as being
victim prone. Similar to Von Hentig, Mendelsohn developed a typology
that categorizes the extent to which the victim is culpable in his or her
own demise. However, while Von Hentig’s typology explains
contribution based on personal characteristics, Mendelsohn’s typology
uses situational factors. Mendelsohn’s six victim types, as adopted
from Meadows (2007; p.22) are as follows:
 Completelt Innocent Victim: This person exhibits no provocative
or contributory behavior prior to the offender’s attack.
 Victim due to Ignorance: this person unwittingly does something
that places him or her in a position to be victimized.
 Voluntary Victim: Victims make a conscious and deliberate
choice to suffer harm or loss. This includes suicides, or those
injured while participating in high – risk activities crimes such as
drug abuse or prostitution.
 Victim more Guilty than the Offender: The victim provokes a
criminal act (e.g., throws the first punch to start a fight but ends up
a loser).
 Most Guilty Victim: This person is the initial aggressor, but due
to circumstances beyond his or her control ends up the victim
(e.g., attempts to rob a convenience store but is short by the
storeowner).
 Simulating or Imaginary Victim: this person is a pretender, or false
reporter. No crime has happened yet the person reports suffering
harm or loss.
The danger with Mendelsohn typology is that doesn’t always
apply that well to actual cases. It does have some important
conceptual value, in showing a continuum of possible victim culpability
or precipitation. However, if applied broadly, simplistically, and without
careful investigation into the facts, it could be misused. Before these
descriptors can be applied to a specific case, attention must be paid to
the details. This means accepting that not every prostitute or drug user
is a voluntary victim; not every bar fight involves a more guilty or most
guilty victim; and not everyone who fails to exhibit provocative behavior
prior to an attack is completely innocent. While Mendelsohn’s typology
is interesting in theory, its application to specific cases can be
problematic, if not entirely inappropriate, when contextual information
is not investigated and considered.
3. Stephen Schafer, Ph. D
Dr. Stephen Schafer was a professor of sociology at
Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1968, he
published what is regarded by some as the first textbook on the subject
of victimology. The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional
Responsibility. According to Van Dijk, this work was significant to the
advance of victimology, as it was an “independent study of
relationships and interactions between offender and victims, before,
during and after the crime”. Schafer’s study involved interviews with
criminals and aimed to build upon the typologies presented in previous
works by focusing on victim culpability.
According to Doerner and Lab (2011), Schafer proposed
seven types of victim responsibility (or victim precipitation), which are
essentially a variation on the work of Von Hentig (1948):
 Unrelated Victims: No victim responsibility
 Provocative Victims: Victim shares responsibility
 Precipitative Victims: Some degree of responsibility
 Biologically Weak Victims: No responsibility
 Socially Weak Victims: No Responsibility
 Self – Victimizing: Total victim responsibility
In reviewing this typology, we find it to be less of an inclusive
measure and more of an incomplete list of circumstances that mitigate
victim responsibility because they increase general vulnerability. While
it is true that lines are drawn between their provocative, the
precipitative, and the self – victimizing, from the examples cited in the
literature, it is unclear how these categories would be applied to a
specific case, as the defining elements are highly subjective. Also,
Schafer has inappropriately defined (and therefore presumptively
assumed) the specific responsibility of each victim type. There appears
to be no room for mitigating circumstances once a victim is put in a
particular slot, which is what a pedantic or bureaucratic victimologist
could do with this labeling system.
Socially Weak Victims, such as immigrants, are regarded as
having no responsibility, but what if they are shot while robbing a
convenience store?
Biologically Weak Victims, such as the elderly, are also
regarded as having no responsibility, but what if they are abusing
alcohol and become rancorous precipitative drunks, only to start a
physical altercation at home that they lose? As discussed throughout
this text, the relationships between victims and criminals are far too
complex for such rigid presumptions.
However problematic, Dr. Schafer’s contribution to the field
of victimology must not be dismissed. As Young and Stein explain:
“The importation of victimology to the United States was due largely to
the work of the scholar Stephen Schafer, whose book The Victim and
His Criminal: A Study in Functional; Responsibility became mandatory
reading for anyone interested in the study of crime victims and their
behaviors” (Young and Stein, 2004). With his research, our efforts
have the benefit of being that much more informed.
C. Victim Precipitation Theory
According to victim precipitation theory, some people may
actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or
death. Victim precipitation can be either active or passive.
Active precipitation: occurs when the victim act provocatively, use
threats or fighting words, or even attack first.
Passive precipitation: occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
characteristics that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the
attacker.
D. Lifestyle Theory
Some criminologist believed people may become victims
because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders.
Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors as associating young
men, going out in public places late at night, and living in an urban
area.
 High-Risk Lifestyles
People who have high-risk lifestyles- drinking, taking drugs,
getting involved in crime- maintain a much greater chance of
victimization. Groups that have an extremely risky life, such as young
runaways living on a street, are at high risk for victimization; the more
time they are exposed to street life, the greater their risk of becoming
crime victims.
 Victims and Criminals
One element of lifestyle that may place people at risk for
victimization is ongoing involvement in a criminal career.
Carrying a weapon was another surefire way to become a
crime victim. Males who carried weapons are approximately three
times more likely to be victimized than those who did not carry
weapons. Another study of high school youth, conducted Pamela
Wilcox, David May, and Staci Roberts, also found that kids who carry
weapons to school are much more likely to become crime victims than
those who avoid carry weapons.
E. Deviant Place Theory
According to deviant place theory, the greater their exposure
to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of
crime violence. Victims do not encourage crime but are victim prone
because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where
they have the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal
offenders, irrespective of their own behavior or lifestyle.
F. Routine Activities Theory
 The availability of suitable targets
 The absence of capable guardians
 The presence of motivated offenders
 Guardianship
Even the most motivated offenders may ignore valuable
targets if they are well guarded. Despite containing valuable
commodities, private homes and/or public businesses may be
considered off-limits by seasoned criminals if they are well protected
by capable guardians and efficient security systems.
 Hot spots
Motivated people- such as teenage males, drug users, and
unemployed adults- are the ones most likely to commit crime. If they
congregate in a particular neighborhood, it becomes a “hot spot” for
crime and violence.
 Lifestyle, Opportunity, and Routine Activities
Routine activities theory is bound up in opportunity and
lifestyle. A person’s living arrangements can affect victim risk; people
who live in unguarded areas are at the mercy of motivated offenders.
Lifestyle affects the opportunity for crime because it controls a person’s
proximity to criminals, time of exposure to criminals, attractiveness as
a target, and ability to be protected.
Effect of Crime Victimization
Introduction
Criminal victimization is a frightening and unsettling
experience for many individuals. It is unpredictable, largely
unpreventable and often unexpected. Unlike normal life experiences,
victimization is not sought out and never welcomed. It is debilitating
and demoralizing. Its effect can be often long – term and difficult to
overcome.
Victims may be confused, fearful, frustrated and angry. They
want to know why this happened, and why it happened to them.
Victims often have no knowledge of who or where to turn in the
aftermath of crime. They feel insecure and do not know who to trust or
rely on for support, understanding, and help. Not only do they suffer
physically, emotionally, psychologically, and financially from their
victimization, they are also burdened by the complexity of the criminal
justice system.
How does crime affect people?
Crime affects everyone differently. Victimization often
causes trauma and depending the level of trauma that a person has
already experienced in their lifetime, crime can be devastating. In
general, victimization often impacts people on an emotional, physical,
financial, psychological and social level.
A. Types of Losses
I. Tangible Losses
 Property damage and loss (property damaged, taken, and
not recovered)
 Medical care (payments for hospital and physicians,
emergency medical transport, rehabilitation, prescription,
medical devices, and premature funeral expenses )
 Mental health care ( payments for services to crime victims
by : psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers )
 Productivity ( wages, benefits, housework, and school days
lost by victims and their families, productivity lost by co –
workers and supervisors/agency recruiting and training
replacements for disabled workers, people stuck in traffic
jams caused by vehicular accident )
II. Intangible Losses
 Pain ( physical )
 Suffering ( mental – anti – social behavior, emotional –
trauma )
 Reduced quality of life ( physical disability / incapacity )
B. Sufferings
I. Physical
 Physical injuries (such as gunshot wounds, lacerations,
broken bones, sprains, and burns)
 Physical injuries that lead to other health conditions
(such as heart attack, stroke, fractures from falling, and loss
of dexterity)
 Physiological anxiety (including rapid heart rate,
hyperventilation, and stomach distress)
 Permanent disability
 Disfigurement
 Sleep disorders
 Inability to work
 For sexual assault victims: possible exposure to sexually
transmitted diseases, exposure to HIV, and unwanted
pregnancy
II. Mental
 Slowed thinking
 Confusion
 Disorientation
 Memory problems
 Intrusive memories or flashbacks
 Nightmares
 Inability to concentrate
 Difficulty in making decisions 
III. Financial
 Medical bills (e.g., emergency transportation, hospital
stays, inpatient and outpatient physical care, medical
supplies)
 Medication and prescription drugs
 Replacement of eyeglasses, hearing aids, or other
sensory aid items damaged, destroyed, or stolen
 Physical therapy
 Occupational therapy
 Job retraining
 Mental health counseling and therapy
 Loss of wages due to incapacitation, rehabilitation, or
taking time off from work to repair damage from
property crimes, participate in criminal or juvenile
justice proceedings, or seek medical or mental health
treatment
 Loss of or damage to personal property
 Costs of replacing locks and changing security devices
 For families of homicide victims, funeral and burial
expenses and loss of income
IV. Emotional
 Shock, disbelief and denial – Initially, victims may find it
difficult to believe they have become victim of crime. They
may even pretend that it did not happen at all. These
reactions can last for a few moments or they may be present
for months and even years. It is not uncommon for victims to
assume a ‘childlike’ state and may even need to be cared for
by others for some time. It is also common for victims to feel
as though the crime occurred when they were in a dreamlike
state. Once the initial shock of the crime has worn off,
victims may experience other emotions such as anger, fear,
frustration, confusion, guilt, shame, and grief.
 Anger or rage – Victims may be angry with God, the
offender, service providers, family members, friends, the
criminal justice system, or even themselves. Many victims
experience strong desires for revenge or getting even. Hate
may even felt by victims. These strong emotions are often
disapproved of by the rest of society, which can leave the
victim feeling like an outcast. It is certainly justified for
victims to feel anger toward the person or people who
harmed them.
 Fear or Terror – It is common for victims to feel terror or
fear following a crime that involved a threat to one’s safety or
life, or to someone else a victim cares about. Fear can cause
a person to have panic attacks if they are ever reminded of
the crime. Fear can last for quite some time following the
commission of a crime and under certain circumstances, it
can become debilitating. Fear or terror that becomes
overwhelming is unhealthy and victims should consult their
family physician about it as soon as possible.
 Frustration – Many victims are frustrated by the feelings of
helplessness or powerlessness that surface when the crime
takes place. This can be especially true if victims were
unable to fend off an offender, call for help or run away. After
the crime, victims may continue to feel frustration if they
cannot access the support and information that is necessary
to their healing.
 Confusion – Victims of crime may become confused if they
are unsure of what actually happened, as crimes often occur
quickly and are chaotic. Victims might also become confused
while searching for answers to questions like “why did this
happen to me?” It may be impossible to find out why
someone else intended to hurt them.
 Guilt or self-blame – blaming one is common. Many victims
believe they were “in the wrong place at the wrong time.” If
 the victim does not have someone to blame, they will often
blame themselves. Guilt is also common when no offender is
found. Later on, when reflecting upon the crime, victims
might feel guilty for not doing more to prevent what
happened. Lastly, some victims will experience ‘survivor
guilt’ – they feel guilty that they survived while someone else
was injured or even killed. If a loved one is murdered,
surviving family and friends may even blame the victim. Too
often, society blames victims as well.
 Shame and humiliation – Sadly, some victims blame
themselves, particularly victims of sexual abuse/assault or
domestic violence. In crimes involving sexual acts, offenders
often degrade the victim by making them do humiliating
things. Victims of rape, for example, have long-lasting
feelings of “being dirty”, and those feelings cannot be
“washed away.” Some victims even feel self-hatred because
they believe that they can no longer be loved by those who
are close to them.
 Grief or Sorrow – Intense sadness is often the most
powerful long-term reaction to crime. It is common for victims
to become depressed after a crime occurs.
Some ideas that may help you cope with the trauma or loss:
 Find someone to talk with about how you feel and what you are
going through. Keep the phone number of a good friend nearby to
call when you feel overwhelmed or feel panicked.
 Allow yourself to feel the pain. It will not last forever.
 Keep a journal.
 Spend time with others, but make time to spend time alone.
 Take care of your mind and body. Rest, sleep, and eat regular,
healthy meals.
 Re-establish a normal routine as soon as possible, but don’t over-
do.
 Make daily decisions, which will help to bring back a feeling of
control over your life.
 Exercise, though not excessively and alternate with periods of
relaxation.
 Undertake daily tasks with care. Accidents are more likely to
happen after severe stress.
 Recall the things that helped you cope during trying times and
loss in the past and think about the things that give you hope.
Turn to them on bad days. These are things to avoid:
 Be careful about using alcohol or drugs to relieve emotional pain.
Becoming addicted not only postpones healing, but also creates
new problems.
 Make daily decisions, but avoid making life changing decisions in
the immediate aftermath, since judgment may be temporarily
impaired.
 Don’t blame yourself—it wasn’t your fault.
 Your emotions need to be expressed. Try not to bottle them up.
For some victims and families of victims, life is forever changed.
Life may feel empty and hollow. Life doesn’t “mean” what it used
to. Part of coping and adjusting is redefining the future. What
seemed important before may not be important now. Many victims
find new meaning in their lives as a result of their experience. It is
important to remember that emotional pain is not endless and that
it will eventually ease. It is impossible to undo what has happened
but life can be good again in time.  victimization risk than do older persons. Victim risk
For family and friends of a victim of crime:
 Listen carefully.
 Spend time with the victim.
 Offer your assistance, even if they haven’t asked for help.
 Help with everyday tasks like cleaning, cooking, caring for the
family, minding the children.
 Give them private time.
 Don’t take their anger or other feelings personally.
 Don’t tell them they are “lucky it wasn’t worse”—traumatized
people are not consoled by such statements.
 Tell them that you are sorry such an event has occurred to them
and you want to understand and help them.
1. Stages of Crisis
a. Impact Stage
b. Re – call Stage
c. Re – organization Stage
C. Fear
Many people fear crime, especially the elderly the poor and
minority group members. Their fear is escalated by lurid news
accounts of crime and violence. While hearing about crime
causes fear, those who experience it are even more likely to be
fearful and charge their behaviors. Victims of violent crime are the
most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their attack.
D. Anti-Social Behavior
There is growing of correlation between crime and
victimization. Kids are victims share many of those same
characteristics as those who are delinquent, such as antisocial
behavior tendencies and impulsive personalities.
Victims may seek revenge the people who harmed them or
who they believe are at fault for their problems. In some cases,
these feelings become generalized to others who share the same
characteristics of their attackers.
Characteristics of Victims
A. Gender
Characteristics of child sexual abuse victims were
determined through a high comparison of 87 victims of
lone female perpetrators to 93 victims of lone male
perpetrators according to age, gender, and relationship of
perpetrator to victim. Lone female perpetrators abused
children 3.3 years younger (M = 6.0 years) than lone
female perpetrators (M = 9.3. years). Both lone female
and male perpetrators abused more girls (62%, 76%,
respectively) than boys. Female perpetrators were more
likely to be caretakers than male perpetrators, whereas
male perpetrators were more likely to be strangers the
female perpetrators. Lastly, lone female perpetrators, lone
male perpetrators, and male/female co – perpetrators did
not differ regarding severity of abuse. Thus, contrary to
popular assumption, abuse by female perpetrators was
not less severe than abuse by male perpetrators. Males
are more likely than females to be the victims of violent
crime. Men are almost twice as likely as women to
experience robbery. Women are six times more likely than
men to be victims of rape, domestic violence, and sexual
assault.
B. Age
For females of most age categories, nonfatal
intimate partner victimization declined over time. In
general, females ages 12 to 15 and age 50 or older were
at the lowest risk of nonfatal intimate partner violence.
During 2005, females ages 35 to 49 were at a greater risk
of nonfatal intimate partner violence than older females.
With the exception of males and females age 65 or older,
average annual rates from 2001 through 2005 for nonfatal
intimate partner victimization were higher for females than
males within each age category. Female ages 20 to 24
were at the greatest risk of nonfatal intimate partner
violence. In general, males ages 12 to 15 and age 65 or
older experienced the lowest rates of nonfatal intimate
partner violence. Young people face a much greater
diminishes rapidly after age 25: teens 16 to 19 suffer 45
violent crimes per 1, 000, whereas people over 65
experience only 2 per1,000. Teens and young adults
experience the highest rates of violent crime. Violent
crime rates declined in recent years for most age groups.
C. Social Status
The poorest people are also the most likely victims
of violent and property crime. Homeless people suffer very
high rates of assault. This association occurs across all
gender, age, and racial groups.
D. Ethnicity
African Americans are more likely than whites to
be victims of violent crime because of income inequality.
 Racial and minority group members are often forced to
live in deteriorated urban areas beset by alcohol and drug
abuse, poverty, racial discrimination, and violence. Their
lifestyle places them in the most at – risk population
group. However, this seems to be declining and the racial
gap seems to be narrowing.
E. Repeat Victimization
Households that have experienced victimization
in the past are the ones most likely to experience it again
in the future. Most repeat victimization occur soon after a
previous crime has occurred, suggesting that repeat
victims share some personal characteristics that makes
them a magnet for predators. Repeat victimization refers
to the repeated criminal victimization of person,
household, place, business vehicle or other target
however defined. Near repeat victimization or near
repeats refer to targets with similar characteristics or
situations also in virtual repeats. Repeats can be the
same or different crime types. It is generally accepted that
a small proportion of any population of potential targets
experience a vastly disproportionate amount of the crime
because they are repeatedly victimized. Even within the
population of repeats, a smaller set of super targets
experience chronic crimes. The significance for many
policy purposes, but particularly crime prevention, is that
focus upon repeats can greatly increase the efficiency
with which resources are used. Most repeat victimization
research relates to how it can be prevented, so crime
prevention is the backdrop for much of this bibliography.
Types of victims
A. Homicide Victims
Homicide is an act of a human killing another
human. Criminal homicide takes several and includes certain
unintentional killings. The crime committed in a criminal
homicide is determined by the state of mind of the defendant
and statutes defining the crime. Murder, for example, is
usually an intentional crime. In some jurisdictions, certain
types of murders automatically qualify for capital
punishment, but if the defendant in capital cases is
sufficiently mentally disabled in the United States he or she
may not be excluded, for reasons described in Atkins v.
Virginia, similar to those utilizing an insanity defense.
Varying by jurisdiction, a homicide that occurs during the
commission of a felony may constitute murder regardless the
felon’s state with regard to the killing. This is known as the
felony murder rule. Much abbreviated. And incomplete, the
felony murder rule says that one committing a felony may be
guilty of murder if someone, including the felony victim, a
bystander or a co – felon, dies as a result of his acts,
regardless his intent – or lack thereof – to kill.
B. Female as Victims
Sexual violence against women and girls can take
many forms and is carried out in different situations. The
WHO’s world report on violence and health lists the following
ways in which sexual violence against females can be
committed. Systematic rape during armed conflict, rape
within marriage or dating relationships, rape by strangers,
unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment, including
demanding sex in return for favors, sexual abuse of mentally
or physically disabled people. Sexual abuse of children,
forced marriage or cohabitation, including the marriage of
children, denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt
other measures to protect against sexually transmitted
diseases, forced abortion, violent acts against the sexual
integrity of women, including female genital mutilation and
obligatory inspection for virginity and forced prostitution and
trafficking of people for the purpose of sexual exploitation.
Sexual violence is one of the most common and widespread
violations to which women are subject in wartime. It also
figures among the most traumatic experiences, both
emotionally and psychologically, women suffer during
conflict sexual conflict, in particular rape, is often considered
as a method of warfare: it is used only to “torture, injure,
extract information, degrade, displace, intimidate, punish or
simply destroy”, but also a strategy to destabilize
communities and demoralize men. Feminist scholars and
activists have made unique contributions to the discourse on
sexual violence against women. They have proposed that
the root causes of sexual violence lie in the social structure
characterized by severe inequality, in which the male is
dominant and the female exploited. Feminists also hold that
the weak institutional arrangements in place to address
consequences of sexual violence, as well as unfair treatment
of the victims or survivors, an alternatively proposed
terminology are direct reflections of the ways in which
society regards men, women and the sexual relations
between them. Furthermore, feminist critique has led to a
closer convergence between feminism and psychology in the
study of sexual violence. Conveying a connection between
gender – based sexual violence and concepts of power –
seeking and subordination was pioneered in 1970s and has
proven to be very influential. Within this context, rape has
been assessed as a foremost toll of intimidation used by
men against women. Similarly, domestic violence can be
viewed as a particularly severe from of patriarchal
domination and oppression. Feminist interpretation of
pornography also suggest a link between rape and
pornography, by which pornography that degrades,
humiliates and exercises violence upon the female body
feeds a culture which validates this kinds of behavior.;
however, there is little evidence to prove this.
i. Sexual Violence
Sexual violence is any sexual act or attempt to
obtain a sexual act by violence or coercion, unwanted sexual
comments or advances, acts to traffic a person or acts
directed against a person’s sexuality, regardless of the
relationship to the victim, in any setting. It occurs in times of
peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread and is
considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and
most common human rights violations. Sexual violence is a
serious public health problem and has a profound short or
long – term impact on physical and mental health, such as
an increased risk of sexual and reproductive health problems
or an increased risk of suicide or HIV infection. Murder
occurring either during a sexual assault or as a result of an
honor killing in response to a sexual assault is also a factor
of sexual violence. Though women and girls suffer
disproportionately from these aspects, sexual violence can
occur to anybody at any age; it is an act of violence that can
be perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances and
strangers, as well as intimate partners. It is rarely a crime of
passion, and is rather an aggressive act that frequently aims
to express power and dominance over the victim. Sexual
violence remains highly stigmatized in all settings, thus level
of disclosures of the assault vary between regions. In
general, it is a widely underreported phenomenon, thus
available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the
problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected
area of research, thus deeper understanding of the issue is
imperative in order to promote a coordinated movement
against it.
ii. Theories of sexual violence
1.Sexual Motivation
Some theorists charge that the
acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual
violence against women by reinforcing stereotypical views
about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be
used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this
being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex
industry. They argue that pornography eroticizes the
domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and
reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in
rape and sexual harassment. The anti – pornography
feminist, Andre Dworkin, has famously argued this point in
her controversial pornography – men possessing women
(1981).
2.Socialization
Factors operating at a societal level that
influences sexual violence include laws and national policies
relating to gender equality in general and to sexual violence
more specifically, as well as norms relating to the use of
violence. While the various factors operate largely at local
level, within families, schools, workplaces and communities,
there are also influences from the laws and norms working at
national and even international level. There is evidence to
suggest that sexual violence is also a learn behavior in some
adults, particularly as regards child sexual abuse. Studies on
sexuality abused boys have shown that around one in five
continue in later life to molest children themselves. Such
experiences may lead to a pattern of behavior where the
man regularly justifies being violent, denies doing wrong,
and has false and unhealthy notions about sexuality.
Childhood environments that are physically violent,
emotionally unsupportive and characterized by competition
for scarce resources have been associated with sexual
violence. Sexually aggressive behavior in young men, for
instance, has been linked to witnessing family violence, and
having emotionally distant and uncaring fathers. Men raised
in families with strongly patriarchal structures are also more
likely to become violent, to rape and use sexual coercion
against women, as well as to abuse their intimate partners,
than men raised in homes that are more egalitarian.
3. Biological Factors
The unfortunate prevalence of the
“impulse” model has been fostered, in part, by the recent
resurgence of more sophisticated biological theories of
sexual assault. These theories assert that while there is no
“gene” that causes men to rape, the existence of a
predisposition to rape may be a consequence of evolution.
According to this theory, men who are predisposed to rape
may have more reproductive success such as a higher
number of offspring. Over long periods of time, this
reproductive advantage results in a widespread
predisposition to rape among males. Other theorists argue
that predisposition to rape is not an adaptation itself, but the
side – effect of reproductive adaptations, such as the pursuit
of a number of partners. Paired with these biological
explanations of the perpetrator’s behavior have been
biological explanations of the behavior of a victim of sexual
assault. For women, sexual activity with a limited number of
partners is desirable and thus women have evolved to resist
rape. Further, these theorists argue, the experience of
“trauma” associated with sexual assault was a reproductively
successful response because women who experienced such
trauma subsequently avoided being raped. Although some
biological theorists maintain that acknowledging a biological
basis for rape does not excuse rape, such theories can
contribute to and perpetuate beliefs that excuse perpetrators
from responsibility their actions and blame the victims. For
example, some proponents of biological theories argue that
because men cannot control their irresistible impulses to
rape, it is women’s responsibility to avoid dressing
provocatively. According to this view, women who are raped
must have put themselves in circumstances that led to rape
and the appropriate response is to teach them how to avoid
being raped. Biological explanations for rape also tend to
“naturalize” the perpetrator’s behavior – thus leading to the
conclusion that it is “acceptable” and potentially
unchangeable. These theories also diminish the victim’s pain
and suffering. Further, biological theories have significant
implications for criminal justice responses to rape. If rape is
a biological adaptation, responses should include monetary
penalties; further, such theories would call for chemical
castration or hormonal treatments that can themselves
constitute human rights violations. Finally, biological theories
also lack explanatory power – they do not explain why men
rape women who cannot bear children, or why they rape
their intimate partners and spouses. This model proposes
that over time, natural selection and evolution have favored
rape, because it led to an increase in reproductive success
for the male. According to this theory, women have more
mating choices, thereby causing them to be more selective
when choosing a mate. For males, rape was a tool to
circumvent that female selectiveness and increase their
mating and reproductive success throughout history.
4. Psychological Factors
This theory suggests that men who
sexually assault have harsh histories where coercion and
violence were acceptable ways of maintaining a relationship.
Past relationships during development would have been
impersonal and short – lived. Researchers have found that
perpetrators develop either along an “impersonal sex
pathway” or a “hostile masculinity pathway”. There has been
considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive
variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape.
Sexually violent men have been shown to be more likely to
consider victims responsible for the rape and are less
knowledgeable about the impact of rape on victims. Such
men may misread cues given out by women in social
situations and may lack the inhibitions that act to suppress
associations between sex and aggression. They may have
coercive sexual fantasies, and overall are more hostile
towards women than are men who are not sexually violent.
In addition to these factors, sexually violent men are
believed to differ from other men in terms of impulsively and
antisocial tendencies. They also tend to have an
exaggerated sense of masculinity. Sexual violence is also
associated with a preference for impersonal sexual
relationships as opposed to emotional bonding with having
many sexual partners and with the inclination to assert
personal interests at the expense of others. A further
association is with adversarial attitudes on gender, that hold
women are opponents to be challenged and conquered.
5. Culture of Violence
Our families are torn by violence. Our
communities are destroyed by violence. Our faith is tested
by violence. We have an obligation to respond. Violence – in
our homes, our schools and streets, our nation and world –
is destroying the lives, dignity and hopes of millions of our
sisters and brothers. Fear of violence is paralyzing and
polarizing our communities. The celebration of violence in
much of our media, music and even video games is
poisoning our children. Beyond the violence in our streets is
the violence in our growing culture of violence. Verbal
violence in our families, communications and talk shows
contribute to this culture of violence. Pornography assaults
the dignity of women and contributes to violence against
them. Our social fabric is being torn apart by a culture of
violence that leaves children dean on our streets and
families afraid in our homes. Our society seems to be
growing numb to human loss and suffering. A nation born in
a commitment to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” is
hunted by death, imprisoned by fear and caught up in the
elusive pursuit of protection rather than happiness. A world
moving beyond the cold war is caught in bloody ethnic, tribal
and political conflict. It doesn’t have to be this way. It wasn’t
always this way. We can turn away from violence; we can
build communities of greater peace. It begins with a clear
conviction: respect for life.
C. Child Victims
i. Theories regarding Child Abuse
1. Theory of Physical Abuse
Child abuse has been noted to have many causes:
as a childhood symptom of mental illness in parents, as the
culmination of a lifelong experience of violence toward the
caregiver, of environmental and social stresses on the
family, and of society’s acceptance and promotion of
physical violence. Contained in each causal explanation is a
theory of etiology. And within each theory, researchers
extract from the complexity of families’ live those particular
factors that are believed to be causal agents for violence
against children. Clinicians are frequently frustrated by the
limited focus and use of the diverse theories on child abuse.
In order to select which factors to study, researchers must
exclude other factors. Clinicians, facing a variety of
distinctive life events, personal characteristics and unique
circumstances of the families and children they serve, are
not always content with the explanations for the origin abuse
found in the research literature.
2. Theory of Child Neglect
 Child abuse and child neglect are catch – all
euphemisms for a variety of childhood injuries that are
believed to be derived from parental acts of omission or
commission. The diagnostic tags focus attention on
symptoms and propose entirely too simple formulations of
etiology. Child abuse refers to the many problems suggested
by child abuse and child neglect. This is to focus more on
the causes than on the manifestations of child maltreatment.
3. Theory of Child and Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse or child molestation is a form
of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a
child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse
include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual
activities regardless of the outcome, indecent exposure of
genitals, female nipples, etc. to a child with intent to gratify
their own sexual desires or to intimidate or groom the child,
physical sexual contact with a child, or using a child to
produce child pornography. Child sexual abuse can occur in
a variety of settings, including home, school, or work places
where child labor is common. Child marriage is one of the
main forms of child sexual abuse (UNICEF has stated that
child marriage “represents perhaps the most prevalent form
of sexual abuse and exploitation of girls”. The effects of child
sexual abuse can include depression, post – traumatic
stress disorder, anxiety, complex post – traumatic stress
disorder, propensity for further victimization in adulthood,
and physical injury to the child, among other problems.
Sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, and
can result in m ore serious and long – term psychological
trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.
D. Elder Victims
i. Theories of Elder Abuse
1. Cycle of Violence
Cycle of violence refers to repeated and
dangerous acts of violence as a cyclical pattern, associated
with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge.
The pattern, or cycle, repeats and can happen many times
during a relationship. Each phase may last a different length
of time and over time the level of violence may increase. A
cyclical nature of domestic violence is most prevalent in
intimate terrorism (IT), which involve a pattern of ongoing
control using emotional, physical and other forms of
domestic violence and is what generally leads victims, who
are most often women, to women’s shelters. It is what
traditionally the definition of domestic violence and is
generally illustrated with the “Power and Control Wheel” to
illustrate the different and inter – related forms of abuse.
Intimate terrorism is different from situational couple
violence, which are isolated incidents of varying degrees of
intensity.
The cycle of violence is a model developed to
explain the complexity and co – existence of abuse with
loving behaviors. It helps those who have never experienced
domestic violence understand that breaking the cycle of
violence is much more complicated than just “getting out” or
leaving.
There are three phases in the cycle of
violence:
1. Tension – building Phase;
2. Acute or Crisis Phase,
3. Calm or Honeymoon Phase
Without intervention, the frequency and severity of
the abuse tends to increase over time.
Tension Phase – this usually lasts for a period of
time, perhaps weeks or months. Stress builds and
communication breaks down. The abuser often verbally
abuses their partners and “minor” incidents may occur.
Victims sense a growing danger and often refer to feeling as
though they are “walking on eggshells” during this period,
trying to anticipate the abuser’s mood. Family and friends
may deny or minimize the danger at this time.
Acute or Crisis Phase – in this phase, the
tension has built up and finally erupts into violence. This is
an explosive and unpredictable period, usually lasting
between 24 and 72 hours, which may result in serious
injuries or death. The incident is a result of the emotional
state of the abuser or an external event rather than
something the victim has done. During this period the victim
takes actions to survive the abuse. These may include
accommodating the abuser’s demands or trying to escape.
Calm or Honeymoon Phase – following the
violent crisis phase of the cycle, the abuser moves into a
calmer period sometimes referred to as the Honeymoon
Phase. This phase may last from days to weeks or
sometimes months. During this phase, the abuser may
become apologetic, beg for forgiveness, and promise it will
never happen again. The victim wants to believe this is true.
The abuser may look vulnerable, causing the victim to feel
guilty and responsible for the welfare of the abuser. The
victim may feel worn down and children may became
caretakers, taking on responsibility to keep the peace.
2. Psychological
Sexual violence can result in both short – term and
long – term harm, including psychopathology in later life.
Indicators and effects include depression, anxiety, eating
disorders, poor self – esteem, somatization, sleep
disturbances, and dissociative and anxiety disorders
including post – traumatic stress disorder. While children
may exhibit regressive behaviors such as a return to thumb
– sucking or bed – wetting, the strongest indicator of sexual
abuse is sexual acting out and inappropriate sexual
knowledge and interest. Victims may withdraw from school
and social activities and exhibit various learning and
behavioral problems including cruelty to animals, attention
deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder, and
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Teenage pregnancy
and risky sexual behaviors may appear in adolescence. A
causal relationship has been found between elder sexual
abuse and various adult psychopathologies, including crime
and suicide, in addition to alcoholism and drug abuse. Males
who were sexually abused as children more frequently
appear in the criminal justice system than in clinical mental
health setting.
3. Social Exchange Theory
This theory is based on the belief that certain
societal attitudes toward older people make it easier for
abuse to occur without remorse on the part of the caregiver.
These attitudes can also reduce the likelihood of outside
detection or intervention. Negative attitudes can lead to
devaluation and lack of respect for older people, who are
often stereotyped as frail, incompetent and powerless. When
regarded in this way, there can be social failure to recognize
the importance of assuring dignity, support and safety for
every older person.
Social Exchange Theory explains interactions
between people as a process of negotiated exchanges. The
theory has roots in economics and psychology and was
developed by sociologist George Caspar Homans in the
1950s. social behavior is considered an exchange of
material and non – material goods. Material goods include
things like money, living arrangements, inheritance, and non
– material goods.
4. Family Stress Theory
Family Stress Theory states that the family go
through four stages when face with a crisis. These stages
are crisis, disorganization, recovery and reorganization.
Based on the premise that providing care for an elder
induces stress within the family. The “family stress theory”
asserts that elder abuse is caused by the stress and
additionally, a victim complaining that something was stolen
from him or her.
5. Neutralization Theory
Neutralization theory holds that internalized social
norms and moral standards are neutralized within the doer of
deviant acts through a process of rationalization or
justification of the acts. Some techniques of neutralization
are denial of responsibility, denial of injury to the victim,
blame attributed to the victim, condemnation of those who
 disapprove of the abuse, appeal to higher loyalties, the
defense of necessity, and the rationalization that the abuse
is but a minor deviation from a life filled with good deeds.
The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of
neutralization theory for the treatment of the abused elderly
victim and the treatment of the abuser. Was originally
developed by Sykes and Matza to explain juvenile
delinquency in our society.
E. Hate Crimes
Hate crime is also known as bias – motivated
crime. It is a usually violent, prejudice motivated crime that
occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or
her perceived membership in a certain social group.
Examples of such groups include but are not limited to:
ethnicity, gender identity, language, nationality, physical
appearance, religion, or sexual orientation. Hate crime
generally refers to criminal acts that are seen to have been
motivated by bias against one or more of the types above, or
of their derivatives. Incidents may involve physical assault,
damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or
insults, or offensive graffiti or letters or hate mail.
A hate crime occurs when a person is targeted
because of hostility or prejudice towards their:
 Disability
 Race or Ethnicity
 Religion or belief
 Sexual orientation
 Transgender identity
This includes a person’s property, as well as the
person themselves and a victim does not have to be a
member of the group at which the hostility is targeted. In
fact, anyone could be a victim of a hate crime. Being a victim
of this kind of crime can be a particularly frightening
experience as you have been victimized because of who you
are, or who or what your attacker thinks you are.
Hate incidents can feel like crimes to those who
suffer them and often escalate to crimes or tension in a
community. You can report such incidents, but the police can
only prosecute when the law is broken. In order to prevent
any type of escalation of the situation, police can work with
other organizations.
Hate crimes can have significant and wide –
ranging psychological consequences, not only upon the
direct victim but others as well.
 Effects on people – psychological and affective
disturbances; repercussion on the victim’s identity and self –
esteem; both reinforced by the degree of violence of a hate
crime, usually stronger than that of a common one.
 Effect on the targeted group – generalized terror in the
group to which the victim belongs, inspiring feelings of
vulnerability over the other members, who could be the next
victims.
 Effect on other vulnerable groups – ominous effects over
minority groups or over groups that identify themselves with
the targeted one, especially when the referred hate is based
on an ideology or doctrine that preaches simultaneously
against several groups.
A. Victims Services Programs
1. Victim Compensation Program
can help pay bills and expenses that result from
certain violent crimes. Victims of crime who have been
injured or have been threatened with injury may be eligible
for help.
Who Qualifies for Victim Compensation?
VCP can help victims of crimes such as:
 Domestic Violence
 Child Abuse
 Assault
 Sexual Assault
 Elder Abuse
 Homicide
 Robbery
 Drunk Driving
 Vehicular Manslaughter
 Hate Crimes
What Expenses Can VCP Help Pay?
VCP may help pay for expenses related to a crime such as:
 Medical and dental treatment
 Mental health services
 Income loss
 Funeral and burial expenses
 Loss of support for dependents when a victim is killed or
disabled because of a crime
 Home or vehicle modifications
 Home security
 Relocation
 Crime scene cleanup
Who may apply for compensation?
 A person who was unjustly accused convicted and
imprisoned and subsequently released by virtue of a
judgment of acquittal;
 A person who was unjustly detained and released without
being charged;
 A person who is a victim of arbitrary detention by the
authorities as defined in the Revised Penal Code under a
final judgment of the court; or
 A person who is a victim of a violent crime which includes
rape and offenses committed with malice which resulted in
death or serious physical and/or psychological injuries,
permanent incapacity or disability, insanity, abortion,
serious trauma, or committed with torture, cruelty or
barbarity.
When should a claim be filed?
The claim should be filed with the Board by he person entitled to
compensation under this Act within six (6) months after being released
from imprisonment or detention or from the date he suffered damage
or injury; otherwise he is deemed to have waived his claim. 
How is a claim filed?
A claimant may file a claim with the board by filling up an application
form provided for the purpose with the Secretariat of the Board of
Claims, Department of Justice, Padre Faura Street, Ermita, Manila.
Thereafter, he will be interviewee
How much is given to a qualified applicant?
For the victims of unjust imprisonment, the compensation shall be
based on the number of months of imprisonment and every fraction
thereof shall be considered one month, but in no case shall such
compensation exceed ONE THOUSAND PESOS (P1,000.00) per
month.
In all other cases the maximum for which the Board may approved a
claim shall not exceed TEN THOUSAND PESOS (P10,000.00) or the
amount necessary to reimburse the claimant the expenses incurred for
hospitalization, medical treatment, loss of wage, loss of support or
other expenses directly related to the injury, whichever is lower to be
determined by the Board.
 2. Public Education
Victim Services makes presentations upon request to schools,
groups and communities on topics related to victims of crime.  communities address the aftermath of a victimization and/or tragedy.
3. Crisis Intervention
Crisis intervention is a proven effective method that is used by
trained advocates to assist individuals who have been victimized  or
have experienced a traumatic event.  The purpose of providing crisis
intervention is to allow the victim to begin regaining the control that
was lost as a result of their victimization.
Crisis intervention entails two simple yet crucial actions,
listening and talking. This includes but is not limited to, assessing the
victims’ safety and creating safety plans, normalizing the victims’
emotions, assessing basic needs such as clothing, food and shelter,
and informing the victim about the investigative and judicial process.
According to a study conducted by the National Institute of
Justice, “when advocates can offer coordinated, early, victim-focused
interventions, victims are more likely to  participate in court-
proceedings, access community-based advocacy programs and report
decreases in distress, post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms,
depression and fear.”
Victim Assistance Program provides crisis intervention through
a variety of ways:
CRIME SCENE RESPONSE
While on scene, a police officer has tasks to complete and the
victim cannot be the officer's primary focus. Therefore, officers request
advocates to help alleviate some of the victims’ emotional concerns
and questions. Advocates have been trained to help the victim in
conjunction with the officer. The investigation is of the utmost
importance and advocates will not interfere or hinder the investigation;
we are not there to provide any facts about the case to the victim.
Responsible agencies are there to provide emotional support,
education about the police and investigative process, act as a liaison
with the police and provide crisis intervention.
In addition to the police, fire departments, medical examiner’s
offices and local hospitals contact the responsible office or unit to
meet with victims in their jurisdiction.
DEATH NOTIFICATION
The Medical Examiner or the local police department has the job
of telling loved ones that a family member has died. Due to the trauma
that many family members endure from hearing such devastating
news, Victim Assistance staff is often asked to accompany law
enforcement to someone’s home, the hospital or the medical
examiner’s office to support the victim and, in some cases, provide the
notification.
The advocate’s primary goal after providing or witnessing a
death notification is to ensure the individual has a dependable support
system in place. It is strongly suggest individuals are not left alone
after hearing such news, advocates may help individuals contact family
members or friends and ask them to come to the individual’s aid.There
are many details to consider surrounding the burial and/or investigation
surrounding a death. The advocate will contact the family the following
day to address any immediate questions or concerns.
INDIVIDUALIZED CRISIS INTERVENTION
Crisis intervention occurs both in person and via phone.
Volunteers, interns and staff answer a 24-hour crisis hotline, which is
based out of main office in to provide crisis intervention based on the
caller’s needs.
GROUP CRISIS INTERVENTION
Victim Assistance Program facilitates structured group
intervention sessions, adopted from the National Organization for
Victim Assistance, which have been proven to be effective in helping
Scheduled group interventions address communities or large groups
(ideal size is 20-25) but can be provided to groups of varying sizes.
Depending on the group, a session can last anywhere from 1 ½ hours
to 3 hours to ensure everyone has the opportunity to speak. The goal
of the session is to “guide the release of the emotional steam,” provide
an opportunity for peer group validations of individual reactions,
establish social support within the group, rebuild a sense of community
bond, educate the group about trauma and its aftermath, and affirm
hope for the future.
POLICE AND INCIDENT REPORT FOLLOW UP
The Police Department provide Victim Assistance Program
with police and incidents reports on a daily basis. Advocates, interns
and volunteers contact victims listed on the reports to assess their
safety, see how they are doing and offer any assistance that can
provide
4. Victim Offender Reconciliation Program
Has been bringing victims and offenders together in safe
mediation or family group conference settings to permit the offender to
take responsibility for his or her actions, to make things as right as
possible with the victim, and to be clear about future intentions. 
B. Empowering Victims
One common feeling experienced by victims of
crime when they become involved in the criminal justice system is
helplessness. Victim service providers can assist victims in
overcoming this feeling of helplessness by providing them with
advice regarding the different ways that they may become involved
in the system
1. MEDIA
The media have the ability to bring crime directly into our
living rooms. It is therefore critical for victim service providers to
understand how the media works and how to effectively
communicate with them.
2. Relations with the Media
 Occasional conferences between the victim services
provider and the news director of the television, or radio
station, and the editor or publisher of the newspaper
 Establishing an ongoing relationship with the media is
necessary
 Based on trust and mutual respect
3. Preparing for and conducting the Interview
 Understanding the goal of the media assists in the
preparation
 Preparation before the interview can help relieve some
anxiety
 Knowledge about the facts of the incident and the agency’s
position can enhance the communication
 Speak clearly in everyday language and avoid jargon
 Be professional
4. LEGISLATION
The Legislative Process
- How a bill becomes a law
Advocacy
Most common form is lobbying
- Purpose is to inform, educate, and persuade elected
officials to support certain legislative goals
5. PUBLIC SPEAKING
Preparing for the Speech
 Rules of communication change when moving from one-on-
one to a group setting
 Possible equipment malfunctions
Drafting the Speech
  Prepare an outline of the topics to be discussed
 Draft an outline of the main points of discussion
 Revise the outline several times
 Remember, we write differently than we speak
 Prepare an outline and deliver the speech based on the
outline
 When writing a speech, start at the middle or end
Some Do’s and Don’ts of Public Speaking
 Understand the topic of the speech
 Know the audience and direct the speech to their interests
and knowledge level
 Humor is excellent, but it can backfire
 Always be on time and dress appropriately
 Do not read the speech verbatim
 Understand how long the speech is to last and stay within
that time limit
 When possible, use visual aids to assist in making your
points
 Rehearse as often as possible
 Ask for honest feedback from the person that requested the
speech
6. Fundraising
Some victim assistance programs receive a
steady flow of funds to administer their programs. However, most
must participate in fundraising activities.
WAYS OF MEASURING CRIMES
Types of Fundraisers
 Grants
 Cash donations, by either the federal or state government, or
private foundations, for specific projects
Local fundraising events
 Dinners
 Banquets
 Auctions
 House or garden tours
 Sporting events
MEASURING OF CRIME AND ITS EFFECT
How is crime measured? How much crime is there? What
strategies are available for measuring crime? Crime is a fundamental
dependent variable, also can be an independent variable.
Crime measurement involves devising valid and reliable
measures designed to calculate the amount and trends of criminal
activity: How much crime occurs annually? Who commits it? When and
where does it occur? Which crime are the most serious?
Measuring the actual crime rate is not easy. There is a dark
side of crime, those crimes undetected. From this chapter let us
examine some available measures of crime along with their strengths
and weaknesses and explore some independent measures of crime.
- Three general purposes in measuring crime are the following:
1. Monitoring
- Same as we monitor stock market, HIV infection rates,
population
- monitoring crime is necessary to develop policy and
ensure the basic public safety based on resource
allocation
2. Agency accountability
- Also is necessary for agency accountability or
performance evaluation
3. Research
- Provides necessary information for basic research
data
Some factors affecting the crime measurement are the following:
1. Not all crimes counted. There are a large number of
crimes unreported. Part are reported and counted such
as motor vehicle robbery, murder, manslaughter,
forcible rape etc. These crimes are counted only if there
is an arrest involved.
2. Crimes are difficult to collect because different states
define these various crimes differently. The operational
definitions are different. This produces more
measurement error
- Some agencies send their reports to collection points in
where the data is summarize and then sent to the NBI
- Error occurs in the summarization process. Some of the
reports are incomplete. Some incidents are counted more
than once by several competing jurisdictions
3. The hierarchy rule is used to classify crimes committed in
a single incident.
- If a robbery is committed and a rape occurs during the
incident, only the rape is counted in the UCR (Uniform Crime
Report) the
most serious crime
1. Measuring Crime through Surveys
- Using surveys have several advantages
1. Collect information not reported to police
2. Measure crime not officially recorded by police
3. Provides data on individual units of analysis
4. When conducted properly, surveys have high
reliability
- Using surveys have several disadvantages
1. Victim may not remember the incidence
2. Telescoping may occur. Forward telescoping
occurs when victims report crimes that occurred
more than six months ago; backward telescoping
means the victim will recall a recent crime as
occurring at an earlier time
3. Especially problematic when there are multiple
offenses involved
- Domestic violence, assaults involving friends, non-
stranger crimes, viewed as a personal problem,
may feel shame or embarrassment
2. Drug Surveillance Systems
 Alternative measures have been sought to overcome validity
and reliability issues
3. Police Reports
 Most measures of crime are based on police records
 This means crimes not reported are unknown
 Police detect crime in two ways:
1. Observation
- Traffic offenses and victimless crimes like drug sales,
prostitution
2. Reports by other people
- Victims and witnesses
  Crimes measured by police observation are not valid
measures because many crimes are not observed
 All crimes are not reported  crime in early adulthood, compared to those whose parents did not
- Petty thefts, certain assaults between non-strangers are
not reported
- Many feel the crime is not important enough, or won’t do
any good to report because offender will not be caught or
property recovered
 Police do not always make reports
- Assaults between non-strangers considered private matter
- Victim many urge police not to report because it may cause
an unwanted arrest to occur
- Victims of higher social class more often reported
- If the event fits a certain stereotype, it is more likely to be
reported
A. Crime Statistics
-attempt to provide statistical measures of the crime in
societies. Given that crime is usually secretive by nature,
measurements of it are likely to be inaccurate. Several methods for
measuring exist, including household surveys, hospital or insurance
records, and compilations by police and similar law enforcing agencies.
B. Importance of Crime Statistics
Crime statistics are used by different groups for
different things. On a political level, it provides a measure for the
success or failure of certain criminal justice policies. On an operational
level, it provides important information on how best to allocate state
resources. From a civil society perspective, it provides indicators
against which to measure criminal justice performance and therefore
an important tool to hold accountability the various role-players in the
criminal justice system.
The precinct level statistics should also be used by
community safety and security practitioners to develop, implement and
measure the success of social crime prevention initiatives. It is critical
that the crime statistics are credible and reliable else national,
provincial, local and community level decision-makers and crime
prevention/reduction practitioners may plan and act inappropriately to
crime problems.
In 2006, the British Home Office reviewed the United Kingdom`s
Official Crime Statistics because:
The Home Secretary is concerned that public trust in the
crime statistics produced by the Home Office has declined to such an
extent that it is no longer possible to have a debate about alternative
criminal justice policies on the basis of agreed facts about the trends in
crime. He wishes to be advised on what changes could be made to the
production and release of crime statistics so that public trust is re-
established.
Therefore, without accurate crime statistics, criminal justice
policies and their impact cannot be quantified. However, crime
statistics alone cannot provide all the answers but they do assist us to
plan and monitor local level and national level crime prevention
initiatives.
C. Socio Economic Factors Affecting the Crime
Social risk factors for involvement in crime
This brief provides an introductory discussion of five areas of
social risk factors for involvement in crime: family, education,
economics, community and peers, and alcohol and other drugs.
Family
Parental behaviors play a strong role in shaping a child’s risk
of later involvement in criminality. Parental criminality appears to be
strongly correlated with an increased risk of a child of developing
conduct problems and later criminal involvement. The influence of
parental criminality is complex because of the multiple mechanisms
(shared environmental factors, genetic and other biological risk
factors, negative modeling by parents) involved that potentially pass
on a parent’s risk of criminal involvement to their child.
Poor parenting practices, such as poor parental supervision
and parents’ rejection of a child, are modest predictors of
subsequent delinquency by the child. Children who experience
severe or harsh parental practices have increased rates of conduct
problems, substance abuse, depression and anxiety and violent
use physical punishment.
Family violence and maltreatment of children have significant
inter-generational effects on an individual’s likelihood of becoming
involved in crime. Some research suggests that maltreatment during
childhood doubles an individual’s probability of engaging in many
types of crime.
The effect of family influences appear to be greatest during
the early years of a child’s life and reduces as they get older,
although poor parental supervision and low levels of warmth
between parents and their teenage children have also been
identified as a contributing risk factors for future offending.
Education
Education has an important role in influencing an individual’s
opportunity for success in society. Non-participation in school level
education is a risk factor for later delinquency and criminal activity.
Education changes the relative opportunities afforded by crime, and in
particular property crime, compared to legitimate employment. Greater
levels of education ensure greater returns from employment, making it
more attractive than crime.
A low level of parental education (neither parent
having a school qualification) have also been identified as a
risk factor for future offending for children aged under 13
years.
Economic
Economic factors that influence criminal behavior
include relative wealth (disparity), poverty (deprivation) and
unemployment.
The balance of evidence suggests a link between
disparity and violent crime. The strength of this relationship is
debated but international analysis suggests that a
relationship exists after controlling for other factors.
Evidence suggests that deprivation is associated with
criminal offending across the spectrum. Analysis from the Christchurch
Health and Development Study argues that socio-economic deprivation
is associated with self-reported crime and officially recorded
convictions, even after controlling for parental, individual, school, and
peer factors.
Unemployment is a predictor of involvement related to crime,
but in particular property crime and not violent crime. The strength of
the relationship between unemployment and crime is contested; it is
unclear how significant this relationship is compared to other social
and economic factors.
Community and peers
Community and neighborhood effects on criminality are hard to
measure but they do appear to exert an influence on antisocial
behaviour and crime. Neighborhood effects become more important as
a child gets older.
Many studies have shown that antisocial peer groups
play an important part in the development of deviancy and
violence.
D. Generation of Crime Statistics
Study: Second generation immigrants commit more crimes than
their parents
“These studies never take into consideration that new
immigrants who commit crimes are removed from the country and
therefore they are not around to be counted in things like this,” she
continued. “Criminal immigrants are the first priority for immigration
enforcement and are flushed out of the system as soon as they are
convicted of a crime… That tends to suppress the numbers of new
immigrants who commit crimes within the larger population.”
The study has important implications for U.S. immigration
policy.
 “We need to be very careful about who we are admitting as
immigrants,” she concluded.
Pew cited an expert who claimed the crime statistics were
the negative side of assimilation.
“Second generation immigrants appear to be catching up to
and resemble the typical native-born (white) population, at least in
regard to their offending profile,” wrote Bianca E. Bersani, a sociologist
at the University of Massachusetts-Boston.
E. Statistical Formula
I. Crime Volume
Total Crime Volume = Index + Non-index Crimes
II. Index Crimes
Index crimes: Murder, homicide, physical injury
and rape (crimes against persons) and robbery and theft
(crimes against property)
III. Non – Index Crimes
Non-index crimes: Crimes against persons
(parricide/infanticide, maltreatment, kidnapping); crimes against
property (estafa and falsification, malicious mischief and damage to
property); crimes against morals and order (prostitution, vagrancy,
alarm and scandal, assault/resistance to authority, corruption of public
official, gambling, slander and libel, threat and coercion and
trespassing), crimes against chastity (abduction, seduction, lascivious
acts) and other crimes (illegal possession of firearms, explosives and
ammunition, concealment of deadly weapons, smuggling, car napping
and prohibited drugs)
IV. Crime Solution Efficiency
The percentage of solved cases out of the total number of
crime incident handled by law enforcement agencies for a given period
of time.
CSE = solve cases / crime volume x 100%
V. Crime rate
The number of crimes committed per 100,000 population.
(crime rate) the ratio of crimes in an area to the population of that area;
expressed per 1000 population per year
Crime rate= crime volume/(population/100,000)
VI. Average Month Crime Rate
It need to calculate the monthly crime committed for all crime
depending on individual states then compare it with the previous month
crime rates to see if there is a increase or decrease.
Number of crimes committed in a year divided by 12.
 
VII. Crime Analysis
Crime analysis is a law enforcement function that involves
systematic analysis for identifying and analyzing patterns and trends in
crime and disorder. Information on patterns can help law enforcement
agencies deploy resources in a more effective manner, and assist
detectives in identifying and apprehending suspects. Crime analysis
also plays a role in devising solutions to crime problems, and
formulating crime prevention strategies. Quantitative social science
data analysis methods are part of the crime analysis process; though
qualitative methods such as examining police report narratives also
play a role.
1. Percentage share of crime volume of certain area
Crime down nationwide, but dramatically higher in Metro Manila
By: Abigail Kwok, InterAksyon.com
MANILA, Philippines - The Philippine National Police said on
Tuesday that crime has gone down all over the country, except in
Metro Manila, where the incidence rate has actually skyrocketed over
the first half of 2012.
From January to June, there were 29,231 crimes recorded in
the National Capital Region, or an increase of more than 10,000
incidents over the same period in 2011.
This was the highest crime volume in the country. Crime
volume includes index crimes (crimes against persons and property)
and non-index (petty) crimes.
During President Benigno Aquino III's State of the Nation
Address Monday, he boasted of a lower crime rate and a significant
decline from 2009's more than 500,000 cases to around 247,000 cases
in 2011.
Aquino also boasted that the past years have seen
carjacking incidences go down.
PNP spokesman Chief Superintendent Generoso Cerbo
attributed the high crime rate in Metro Manila to a higher population
density in the capital region, as well as the presence of organized
crime.
"Aminado kami na talagang percentage-wise malaki ang
crime volume sa populated areas like Region 3, 4A, 7 at Metro Manila,
for example. Even NCRPO umamin na tumaas crime volume sa Metro
Manila (We admit that percentage-wise, crime volumes in populated
areas like Regions 3, 4A, 7 and Metro Manila are high. Even the
NCRPO admits that the crime volume in Metro Manila has gone up),"
Cerbo said. He added that the PNP has doubled its efforts to record
crime incidences in the country, and a more efficient recording system
in highly populated areas also factor into their reports.
2. Percentage share of the occurrence of a type of crime
NPD had fewest robbery cases in Metro Manila
The Northern Police District (NPD) composed of the cities of
Caloocan, Malabon, Navotas and Valenzuela posted the fewest
robbery and theft cases in Metro Manila from January to November
last year. According to data from the Philippine National Police, the
NPD accounted for 9 percent, or 4,840, out of 52,529 robbery and theft
cases recorded in the metropolis.—Marielle Medina, Inquirer
Research
Philippine Daily Inquirer
11:50 pm | Sunday, January 12th, 2014
3. Variance
A method for analyzing the differences in the means of two
or more groups. Specifically, this procedure partitions the total
variation in the dependent variable into two components: between-
group variation and within-group variation. It allows researchers to
determine if the differences between a control group and a
treatment group are attributed to the independent variable or
treatment.
SITUATIONER (Period Covered: September to December 2012)
  I. INTRODUCTION
This report contains information relevant to the peace and
security situation of Tacloban City for the period of September to
December 2012.
II. GENERAL SITUATION
A. Threat to Internal Security (CNN)
There are no indicators on the presence of a guerrilla and/or
military component of the CPP/NPA/NDF (CNN). However, Tacloban
City is tagged as a safe haven for the insurgents. Much of the
propaganda and info-dissemination are done in the city by militant
groups affiliated with CNN as it is where they air their grievances to the
government by conducting lightning rallies and mobilization works.
B. Comparative Crime Statistic
C.    Criminality Situation
  CRIME VOLUME
From 01 September to 31 December 2012, this Office
recorded a total of 133 incidents, manifesting a decreased of 124
cases compared to 257 incidents of the same period of last year. Of
the 133 crime volume, 106 were Index Crimes and 27 were Non-Index
Crimes.  incidents of the same period of last year.(Figure 5)
Index Crimes for the period has accounted for a total of 106 with a
decreased of 107 compared to the 213 incidents of the same period of
last year.
Non-Index Crimes posted 27 from 01 September to 31 December
2012, indicating a
decrease of 17 incidents as compared to last year’s figure of 44
incidents. (Figure 2)
Index crimes are broken down as follows; 28 are
crimes against persons and 78 on crimes against property. Of the
crimes against persons, physical injuries registered with 21 incidents, 5
cases for murder and 2 incidents for the crime of homicide. (Figure 3)
On Crimes against property, Twenty-one (21) were
robbery cases, while theft accounted a total of Fifty Seven (57) cases.
Significantly, Crime against property figure posted a decrease of 95
incidents compared to same period of last year. (Figure 4)
AMCR and AMICR
On the Average Monthly Crime Rate (AMCR) for the period, it was
posted at 13.25 incidents per 251,000 populations reflecting a
decrease of 12.35 as compared to last year’s record of the same
period with 25.60 incidents. Relatively, the Average Monthly Index
Crime Rate (AMICR) decreased by 10.66 from 21.22 to 10.56
Crime
Solution
Efficiency
Significantly we were able to increase our CSE by 19.77% compared
to the same period of last year. (Figure 6)
Crime Clearance Efficiency
Crime Clearance Efficiency increases by 17.54% compared to the
same period of last year. (Figure 7)                    
III. ASSESSMENT
       The peace and order situation in Tacloban City remain
peaceful.The trend in the continuous decrease in the crime volume,
particularly on crimes against property, is attributable to the responsive
adjustments made by our police stations, MPU and CPSC in the
strategic realignment/deployment of more personnel to area of
convergence to conduct mobile and beat patrols.
Victims Compensation Program R.A. 7309
A. What is the law creating the Board of Claims?
Republic Act No. 7309 is the law creating the Board of
Claims under the Department of Justice Granting compensation for
victims of unjust imprisonment or detention and victims of violent
crimes.
B. Who may apply for compensation?
 A person who was unjustly accused convicted and
imprisoned and subsequently released by virtue of a
judgment of acquittal;
 A person who was unjustly detained and released without
being charged;
 A person who is a victim of arbitrary detention by the
authorities as defined in the Revised Penal Code under a
final judgment of the court; or
 A person who is a victim of a violent crime which includes
rape and offenses committed with malice which resulted in
death or serious physical and/or psychological injuries,
permanent incapacity or disability, insanity, abortion, serious
trauma, or committed with torture, cruelty or barbarity.
C. How much is given to a qualified applicant?
 For the victims of unjust imprisonment, the compensation
shall be based on the number of months of imprisonment
and every fraction thereof shall be considered one month,
 but in no case shall such compensation exceed ONE
THOUSAND PESOS (P 1,000.00) per month.
 In all other cases the maximum for which the Board may
approved a claim shall not exceed TEN THOUSAND
PESOS (P10,000.00) or the amount necessary to reimburse
the claimant the expenses incurred for hospitalization,
medical treatment, loss of wage, loss of support or other
expenses directly related to the injury, whichever is lower to
be determined by the Board.
Anti – Violence against Women and Their Children Act of 2004
R.A. 9262
A. Section 3. Definition of terms – As used in this Act.
(a). “Violence Against Women and their Children” refers
to any act or a series of acts committed by any person against a
woman who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom the
person has or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has
a common child, or against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate,
within or without the family abode, which result in or is likely to result in
physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, or economic abuse
including threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment
or arbitrary deprivation of liberty. It includes, but is not limited to, the
following acts:
 “Physical Violence” refers to acts that include bodily or
physical harm;
 “Sexual Violence” refers to an act which is sexual in
nature, committed against a woman or her child. It includes,
nut is not limited to:
- rape, sexual harassment, acts of lasciviousness,
treating a woman or her child as a sex object,
making demeaning and sexually suggestive
remarks, physically attacking the sexual parts of
the victim’s body, forcing her/him to watch
obscene publications and indecent shows or
forcing the woman or her child to do indecent acts
and/or make films thereof, forcing the wife and
mistress/lover to live in the conjugal home or sleep
together in the same room with the abuser;
- acts causing or attempting to cause the victim to
engage in any sexual activity by force, threat of
force, physical or other harm or threat of physical
or other harm or coercion;
- prostituting the woman or child.
 “Psychological Violence” refers to acts or omissions
causing or likely to cause mental or emotional suffering of
the victim such as but not limited to intimidation, harassment,
staking, damage to property, public ridicule or humiliation,
repeated verbal abuse and mental infidelity. It includes
causing or allowing the victim to witness the physical, sexual
or psychological abuse of a member of the family to which
the victim belongs, or to witness pornography in any form or
to witness abusive injury to pets or to unlawful deprivation of
the right to custody and/or visitation of common children.
 “Economic Abuse” refers to acts that make or attempt to
make a woman financially dependent which includes, but is
not limited to the following:
- withdrawal of financial support or preventing the
victim from engaging in any legitimate profession,
occupation, business or activity, except in cases
wherein the other spouse/partner objects on valid,
serious and moral grounds as defined in Article 73
of the Family Code;
- deprivation or threat of financial resources and the
right to the use and enjoyment of the conjugal,
community or property owned in common;
- destroying household property;
- controlling the victim’s own money or properties or
solely controlling the conjugal money or
properties.
Protection against child abuse, exploitation and discrimination
R.A. 7610
Definitions of Terms.
(a) “Children” refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or
those over but are unable to fully take care of themselves or protect
themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination
because of a physical or mental disability or condition;
(b) “Child abuse” refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not,
of the child which includes any of the following:
(1) Psychological and physical abuse, neglect, cruelty,
sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment;
(2) Any act by deeds or words whish debases, degrades or
demeans the intrinsic worth and dignity of a child as a human being;
(3) Unreasonable deprivation of his basic needs for survival,
such as food and shelter; or
(4) Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an
injured resulting in serious impairment of his growth and development
or in his permanent incapacity or death.
(c) “circumstances which gravely threaten or endanger the
survival and normal development of children” include, but are not
limited to, the following:
(1) Being in a community where there is armed conflict or
being affected by armed conflict – related activities;
(2) Working under conditions hazardous to life, safety and
normal which unduly interfere with their normal development;
(3) Living in or fending for themselves in the streets of urban
or rural areas without the care of parents or a guardian or basic
services needed for a good quality of life;
(4) Being a member of an indigenous cultural community
and/or living under conditions of extreme poverty or in an area is
underdeveloped and/or lacks or has inadequate access to basic
services needed for a good quality of life;
(5) Being a victim of a man- made or natural disaster or
calamity; or
(6) Circumstances analogous to those above – stated which
endanger the life, safety or normal development of children.
(d) “Comprehensive program against child abuse, exploitation
and discrimination” refers to the coordinated program of services
and facilities to protected children against:
(1) Child prostitution and other sexual abuse;
(2) Child trafficking;
(3) Obscene publications and indecent shows;
(4) Other acts of abuses; and
(5) Circumstances which threaten or endanger the survival
and normal development of children.
Program on Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination
B. Section 4. Formulation of the Program. These shall be a
comprehensive program to be formulated, by the Department of
Justice and the Department of Social Welfare and Development in
coordination with other government agencies and private sector
concerned, within one (1) year from the affectivity of this Act, to protect
children against child prostitution and other sexual abuse; child
trafficking, obscene publications and indecent shows; other acts of
abuse; and circumstances which endanger child survival and normal
development.
Anti – Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 R.A. 9208
A. Section 3. Definition of Terms – As used in this Act:
(a) Trafficking in Persons – refers to the recruitment, transportation,
transfer, or harboring, or receipt of persons with or without the victim’s
consent or knowledge, within or across national borders by means of
threat or use of force, or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud,
deception, abuse of power or of position, taking advantage of the
vulnerability of the person, or, the giving or receiving of payments or
benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another
person for the purpose of exploitation which includes at a minimum,
the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual
exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery, servitude or the removal
or sale of organs.
The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child
for the purpose of exploitation shall also be as “trafficking in persons”
even if it does not involve any of the means set forth in the preceding
paragraph.
Human trafficking and the prostitution of children are significant
legal and moral issues in the Philippines, due to control and power of
organized crime syndicates. Enforcement of penal laws is, however,
reported to be inconsistent.
R.A. 9208 is only one of the laws which give protection to workers,
children, and women, inter alia. The Philippines has a long history of
legislation aimed at protecting the rights and welfare of children. The
1974 Labor Code of the Philippines (Presidential Decree No. 441) set
the minimum age of employment at 15 years and prohibited the
employment of persons below 18 years of age in hazardous
undertakings. Presidential Decree No. 603 (The Child and Youth
Welfare Code) permits the employment of children aged 16 years and
below only if they perform light work, which is not harmful to their
safety.
The Philippines is a source, transit, and destination country for men,
women, and children trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation
and forced labor. A significant number of Filipino men and Women who
migrate abroad for work are subjected to conditions of involuntary
servitude in Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Malaysia, Hong
Kong, Singapore, Japan, South Africa, North America, and Europe.
Women and children are also trafficked within the Philippines, primarily
from rural areas, such as the Visayas and Mindanao, to urban areas
for forced labor as domestic workers, and factory workers, and in the
drug trade, and for sexual exploitation. A smaller number of women are
occasionally trafficked from the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C),
South Korea, Japan, and Russia to the Philippines for sexual
exploitation. The government of the Philippines failed to fully comply
with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, but made
significant efforts.
Rape Victims Assistance and Protection Act of 1998 R.A. 8505
A. Section 2. Declaration of Policy – it is hereby declared the policy
of the State to provide necessary assistance and protection for rape
victims. Towards this end, the government shall coordinate its various
agencies and non – government organizations to work hand in hand
for the establishment and operation of a rape crisis center in every
provinces and city that shall assist and protect rape victims in the
litigation of their cases and their recovery.
B. Section 3. Rape Crisis Center – the Department of Social Welfare
and Development, the Department of Health, the Department of the
Interior and Local Government, the Department of justice, and a lead
non – government organization with proven track record or experience
in handling sexual abuse cases, shall in every province and city a rape
crisis center located in a government hospital or health clinic or in any
other place for the purpose of:
(a) Providing rape victims with psychological counseling,
medical and health services, including their medico – legal
examination;
(b) Securing free legal assistance or service, when
necessary, for rap victims;
(c) Assisting rape victims in the investigation to hasten the
arrest of offenders and the filling of cases in court;
(d) Ensuring the privacy and safety of rape victims;
(e) Providing psychological counseling and medical services
whenever necessary for the family of rape victims;
(f) Developing and undertaking a training for law
enforcement officers, public prosecutors, lawyers, medico – legal
officers, social workers, and barangay officials on human rights and
responsibilities; gender sensitivity and legal management of rape
cases.
(g) Adopting and implementing programs for the recovery of
rape victims.
The DSWD shall be the lead agency in the establishment and
operation of the Rape Crisis Center.
C. Section 4. Duty of the police Officer – Upon receipt by the police
of the complaint for rape, it shall be the duty of the police officer to:
(a) Immediately refer the case to the prosecutor for
inquest/investigation if the accused is detained; otherwise, the rules of
court shall apply;
(b) Arrange for counseling and medical services for the
offended party; and
(c) Immediately make a report on the action taken.
It shall be the duty of the police officer or the examining physician, who
must be of the same gender as the offended party, to ensure that only
persons expressly authorized by the offended party shall be allowed
inside the room where the investigation or medical or physical
examination is being conducted.
For this purpose, a women’s desk must be established in every police
precinct throughout the country to provide a police woman to conduct
investigation of complaints of women rape victims. In the same
manner, the preliminary investigation proper or inquest of women rape
victims must be assigned to female prosecutor or prosecutors after the
police shall have endorsed all the pertinent papers thereof to the same
office.
Anti – Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 R.A. 7877
A. Section 2. Declaration of policy – the State shall value the dignity
of every individual, enhance the development of its human resources,
guarantee full respect for human rights, and uphold the dignity of
workers, employees, applicants for employment, students or those
undergoing training, instruction or education. Towards this end, all
forms of sexual harassment in the employment, education or training
environment are hereby declared unlawful.
B. Section 3. Work, Education or Training – Related, Sexual
Harassment Defined – Work, Education or Training – Related, Sexual
Harassment is committed by an employer, employee, manager,
supervisor, agent of the employer, teacher, instructor, professor,
coach, trainer, or any other person who, having authority, influence or
moral ascendancy over another in a work or training or education
environment, demands, requests or otherwise requires any sexual
favor from the other, regardless of whether the demand, request or
requirement for submission is accepted by the object of said Act.
(a) In a work – related or employment environment, sexual
harassment is committed when:
- The sexual favor is made as a condition in the
hiring or in the employment, re – employment or
continued employment of said individual, or in
granting said individual favorable compensation,
terms of conditions, promotions or privileges; or
the refusal to grant the sexual favor results in
limiting, segregating or classifying the employee
which in any way would discriminate, deprive or
diminish employment opportunities or otherwise
adversely affect said employee;
- The above acts would impair the employee’s rights
or privileges under existing labor laws; or
- The above acts would result in an intimidating,
hostile or offensive environment for the employee.
(b) In an Education or training environment, sexual
harassment is committed:
- Against one who is under the care, custody or
supervision of the offender?
- Against one whose education, training,
apprenticeship or tutorship is entrusted to the
offender;
- When the sexual favor is made a condition to the
giving of a passing grade, or the granting of
honors and scholarships, or the payment of a
stipend, allowance or other benefits, privileges or
consideration; or
- When the sexual advances result in an
intimidating, hostile or offensive environment for
the student, trainee or apprentice
Any person who directs or induces another to commit any act of sexual
harassment as herein defined, or who cooperates in the commission
thereof by another, without which it would not have been committed,
shall also be held liable under this Act.

Homosexuality
From the meaning “same”, and meaning “sex” is attraction,
or between members of the same or as an homosexuality refers to “an
enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectionate, or
romantic attractions” primarily or exclusively to people of the same sex.
There is no substantive evidence which suggest parenting or early
childhood experiences play a role when it comes to sexual orientation;
when it comes to same sex sexual behavior, shared or familial
environment plays no role for men and minor role for women.
The most common term for Homosexual people are for
females and for males, though gay is also used to refer generally to
both homosexual males and females. The number of people who
identify as gay or lesbian and the proportion of people who have same
– sex sexual experience are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably
for a variety of reasons, including many gay people not openly
identifying such due to homophobia.
History of homosexuality
The term homosexuality was invented in the 19th century,
with the term heterosexuality invented later in the same century to
contrast with the earlier term. The term bisexuality was invented in the
20th century as sexual identities became defined by the predominate
sex to which people are attracted and thus a label ws needed for those
who are not predominantly attracted to one sex.
This points out that the history of sexuality is not solely the
history of different – sex sexuality plus the history of same – sex
sexuality, but a broader conception viewing of historical events in light
of our modern concepts of sexuality taken at its most broad and or
liberal definitions.
Historical personalities are often described using modern
sexual identity terms such as straight, or those who favor the practice
say that this can highlight such issues as discriminatory, historiography
by, for example putting into relief the extent to which same – sex
sexual experiences are excluded from biographies of noted figures, or
to which sensibilities resulting from same – sex attraction are excluded
from literary and artistic consideration of important works, and so on.
As well as that, an opposite situation to possible in the modern society;
Africa
Homosexual expression in native Africa was also present
and took a variety of forms. Anthropologist reported that women
engaged in social sanctioned “long term, erotic relationships” called
motsoalle, also recorded that male warriors in the northern routinely
took on young male lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty,
who helped with household tasks and participated in with their older
husbands. The practiced had died out by the early 20 th century after
Europeans had gained control of African countries.
The first recorded homosexual couple in history is commonly
regarded as an Egyptian male couple, who lived around the 2400 BC.
The pair are portrayed in a nose kissing position, the most intimate
pose in Egyptian art surrounded by what appear to be their heirs and
wives. This is contested, as may archeologists, including David
O’connor, believed these two to be blood relatives, most likely twins.
Americans
Among indigenous peoples of the Americans prior to
European colonization, a common form of same – sex centered around
the figure of the two – spirit individual. Typically this individual was
recognized early in life, given a choice by the parents to follow the path
and if the child accepted the role, raised in the appropriate manner,
learning the customs of the gender it had chosen, Two – Spirit
individuals were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary
shaman. Their sexual life was with the ordinary tribe members of the
same sex.
Europe
In regard of male homosexuality such documents depict a
world in which relationships with women and relationships with were
the essential foundation of a normal man’s life. Same – sex
relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time
and from one city to another. The formal practice, an erotic yet often
restrained relationships between a free adult male and a free
adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of
population control, though occasionally blamed for causing disorder.
Middle East
There are handful of accounts by Arab travelers to Europe
during the mid – 1800s. two of these travelers, Rifa al – Tahtawi and
Muhammad as – Saffar, show theirsurprise that the French sometimes
deliberately mistranslated love poetry about a young boy, instead to a
young female, to maintain their social norms and morals.
Israel is considered the most tolerant country in the Middle
East and Asia to Homosexuals with being named “the gay capital of
the middle east”, and is considered one of the most gay friendly cities
in the world. The annual in support of homosexuality takes place in Tel
Aviv.
On the other hand, many governments in the Middle East
often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalized homosexuality.
Homosexuality is illegal in almost all Muslim countries. Officially carries
the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran. Iranian
President during his asserted that there were no gay people in Iran.
However, the probable reason is that they keep their sexuality a secret
for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families.
Ancient Persia
In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were
tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries
to Taverns, Military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the
early era (1501 – 1723), male houses of (armrad khane) were legally
recognized and paid taxes. Persian poets, wrote poems replete with
homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly documented forms
were commercial sex with transgender young males or males enacting
transgender roles exemplified by the spiritual practices in which the
practitioner admired the form of a beautiful boy in order to enter
ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of god.
Ancient Greece
Men could also seek adolescent boys as partners as shown
by some of the earliest documents concerning same – sex
relationships. Though slaves boys could be bought, free boys had be
courted, and ancient materials suggest that the father also had to
consent to the relationship. Such relationship did not replace marriage
between man and woman, but occurred before with it.
Some research has shown that Ancient Greeks believed
semen to be the source of knowledge, and that these relationships
served to pass wisdom on from the erastes to the eronemos.
South Pacific
In many societies of especially in same – sex relationship
were an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century.
In many traditional Melanesian cultures a pre pubertal boy would be
paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and
who would “inseminate” him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on
the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach
puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile
towards same – sex relationships.
Orientation and Behavior
Sexual orientation is commonly discusses as a
characteristics of the individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or
age. This perspective is incomplete because sexual orientation is
always defined in relational terms and necessarily involves
relationships with other individuals. Sexual acts and romantic
attractions are categorized as homosexual or heterosexual according
to the biological sex of the individuals involved in them, relative to each
other. Indeed, it is by acting or desiring to act with another person that
individuals express their heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality.
This includes actions as simple as holding hands with or kissing
another person. Thus, sexual orientation is integrally linked to the
intimate personal relationships that human beings from with others to
meet their deeply felt for love, attachment, and intimacy. In addition to
sexual behavior, these bonds encompass nonsexual physical affection
between partners, shared goals and values, mutual support, and
ongoing commitment.
Coming out of the closet
 Coming out of the closet is a phrase referring to one’s
disclosure of their sexual orientation or gender identity, and it
described and experienced variously as a psychological process or
journey. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first is
that of “knowing oneself”, and the realization emerges that one is open
to same – sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming
out. The second phase involves one’s decision to come out to others
like family, friends, or colleagues. The third phase more generally
involves living openly as an LGBT person. In the United States today,
people often come out during high school or college is not accepted in
society. Sometimes their own families are not even informed.
Gender Identity
Transgender people maybe attracted to men, women or
both, although the prevalence of different sexual orientations is quite
different in these two populations. An individual homosexual,
heterosexual or bisexual person maybe masculine feminine or and in
addition, many members and supports of lesbian and gay communities
now see the “gender – conforming heterosexual” and the “gender –
nonconforming homosexual” as negative. However, studies have found
out that a majority of gay men and lesbians report being gender –
nonconforming during their childhood years.
Same – Sex Relationship
Research indicates that many lesbians and gay men want
succeed in having committed and durable relationships. Survey data
indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45% and
80% lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship. Survey
data also indicate that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and
between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have lived
together ten or more years. Studies have found same – sex and
opposite – sex couples to be equivalent to each other in measures of
satisfaction and commitment in relationships, that age and gender are
more reliable than sexual orientation as a predictor of satisfaction and
commitment to a relationship, and that people who are heterosexual of
homosexual share comparable expectations and ideas with regard to
romantic relationships.
Gender and Fluidity
In a 2004 study, the female subjects (both gay and straight
men) became sexually aroused when they viewed heterosexual as well
as lesbian erotic films. Among the male subjects, however the straight
men were turned on only by erotic films with women, the gay ones by
those with men. The study’s senior researcher said that women’s
sexual desire is less directed toward a particular sex., as compared
with men’s and it’s more changeable over time.
Parenting
Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing
that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual
parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well –
adjusted reared by heterosexual parents, according to scientific
literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary.
A review study suggested that the children with lesbian or
gay parents less traditionally gender – typed and are more likely to be
open to homoerotic relationships. Partly due to genetic (80% of the
children being raise by same –sex couples in U.S. are their biological
children and family socialization process, (children grow up; in
relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social contexts,
which are less heterosexual), even through majority of children raised
by same – sex couples identify as heterosexual. One study suggested
that children of gay and lesbian parents were more likely adopt non –
heterosexual identities, especially daughters of lesbian parents (inter
generational transfer was not significant in some analysis for son).
Gay and Lesbian Youth
Gal and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide
abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a “hostile and
condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and
isolation from family and peers”. Further, LGBT youths are more likely
to report psychological and physical abuse by parents of caretakers,
and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that
(1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their sex
or gender no – conforming appearance and (2) that “risk factors
associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination,
invisibility, and rejection by family members, may lead to an increase in
behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as
substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from
home as a teenager”.
Military Service
Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian personnel vary
widely around to world. Some countries allow gay men, lesbians, and
bisexual people to serve openly and have granted them the same
rights and privileges as their heterosexual counterparts. Many
countries neither ban nor support LGB service members. A few
countries to ban homosexual personnel outright.
A. Crimes committed against homosexual or lesbian (LGBT)
 Hate crimes (Murder, Homicide and Robbery)
B. Percentage of crimes committed against homosexual or
lesbian (LGBT)
 Afraid: “Killings of LGBT’s in the Philippines on the rise”
By: Joseph Holandes Ubalde, Inter
Aksyon.com
June 27, 2011 5:30 p.m.
Manila, Philippines – There has been a steady and alarming
rise in violence against members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
transgender (LGBT) community in the Philippines over the past 15
years, new research conducted by an LGBT advocacy group suggest,
in line with a call for the Police and the Commission on Human Rights
to acknowledge and formally look into the troubling trend.
For the first half of 2011 alone, as of June 17, the Philippine
LGBT Hate Crime Watch says it has documented 28 killings within the
gay community. This figure already nearly equals homicide and murder
figures for 2010, which is pegged at 29.
“Expanding the timeframe to as early as 1996, a total of 103
(killings of LGBTs have been monitored)”. Of the 103 cases that group
considers hate crimes, 61 attacks were against gay men, 26 against
transgender, 12 against lesbians, and four targeted bisexuals.
“Homophobia and transphobia (negative attitudes against
transexualism) present among most of the victims’ families also made
it possible to procure sworn statements, narratives which would have
expounded on the situations surrounding each murder”.
Lacsamana, who founded the group after two of his gay
friends were brutally killed in 2009, said the victims’ relatives would
rather have the police tag the incident as “mere robberies” than an
overt and targeted attack on homosexuals. The victims’ families also
feel stigmatized when the media sensationalize such crimes.
“They feel ashamed that their loved one is gay”. ”They often
decide not to pursue the case anymore especially when the tabloids
sensationalize the crime in the headlines”. With these obstacles in
sight, Lacsamana said the figures they have may be incomplete, but
they definitely represent just a “tip of the iceberg”.
In 2009, following the tragic deaths of his friends – one was
killed in March, the other in August – Lacsamana, a librarian by
profession, started collecting reports and archival data on hate crimes.
Lacsamana, who is also openly gay, said there is a need for legislation
protecting the LGBT community from these brutal crimes. Based on
the group’s study, victims of hate crimes endure deaths like being
stabbed multiple times, tortured, suffocated, and dismembered or
being burned alive. Labilles is calling on Congress to investigate these
crimes and to make people more aware of the LGBT community’s
vulnerability to such attacks.
Currently, the Anti – Discrimination Act of 2010 or House Bill
1483, filed by Rep. Teddy Casino of Bayan Muna, remains pending in
Congress. The proposed law seeks to protect LGBTs against unlawful
discrimination in employment, education, health services, commercial
and medical establishments including protection from police and
military harassment.
Without a law in the country that explicitly deals with hate
crimes, most killings involves the LGBTs are simply reported
generically as murders or homicides, with no provisions for
deconstructing and analyzing the reports along the sector’s concerns.
 The group is reaching out to the Commission on Human
Rights and the Philippine National Police to help them verify each of
the reported cases and to help identify other victims of hate crimes.
While the group attests that a more thorough analysis of the reported
cases is needed to verify that these are indeed prejudiced or hate
crimes, they consider the killed individuals as victims because they are
members of a minority group.

For their part, the CHR welcomes the study from the Hate
Crime Watch and invited them to send their study to them. “It’s a cause
for the CHR”’ said lawyer Chris Ocampo, CHR executive assistant.
“The CHR is already attending various for a on LGBT rights with these
reported cases”.

C. Government action for the protection of (LGBT)

 Philippine police backs special desk for crimes against

LGBTI people

Manila: The Philippine National Police (PNP) has thrown its

support behind a House measure seeking the creation of a special
desk in all police stations across the country so as to tackle crimes
against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. The desk is to
administer and attend to ceases involving crimes against sexual
harassment, hate crimes and other forms of abuses committed against
the LGBT community (tempo.com.ph).

Police Senior Superintendent Juanita S. Nebran, chief of the

PNP Women and Children Protection Center told that the Philippine
National Police supports the House Bill 2571, which was filed by
House Representative Sol Aragones. HB 2571 seeks to be in line with
the Republic Act 8551 that mandates the creation of Women’s desks in
all police stations to ensure that the crimes and abuses committed
against women and their children are duly addressed.