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THE FRUGAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE SPIRAL PUMP CONCEPT

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 Final Year Project Daniele Zanoni 2019

THE FRUGAL
IMPROVEMENT OF THE
SPIRAL PUMP CONCEPT

Student Name: Daniele Zanoni

Uob: 16003818

Project Supervisor: Dr Tim Gough

Final Year Project

2018-2019

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 Final Year Project Daniele Zanoni 2019

1. Abstract

This project analyses and discusses existing experiments and tests involving the spiral
pump concept. The main objective was to adapt a 300-year-old concept using modern and
inexpensive materials to create various prototypes using a method called frugal engineering.

With analysis of function and design of previous Spiral pumps, a full scale model based on
a real life scenario was built. The idealistic scenario was to provide people, living in rough
conditions, with a valid alternative for irrigation and a supply of drinking water.

In order to achieve this the project observed an existing experiment by the team of the
Windfarm Museum USA to understand the forces involved and create a better design for
the prototypes. Four prototypes have been created in total with the first three having reduced
sizes and transparent parts to better observe the water flow. The fourth prototype was fully
constructed using frugal materials such as wood and based on the observations of previous
models.

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Table of Contents

1. Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 2

2. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Project aim(S) ......................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................... 6

3. Literature review ............................................................................................................ 6

3.1 Spiral Pump ............................................................................................................ 6

3.2 Windfarm museum experiment ............................................................................... 8

2.3 Frugal Engineering ............................................................................................... 12

4. Water Sources for irrigation ......................................................................................... 14

4.1 Sea ....................................................................................................................... 14

4.2 Lakes .................................................................................................................... 14

4.3 Wells and groundwater ......................................................................................... 14

4.4 Rivers ................................................................................................................... 15

5. Pump types ................................................................................................................. 15

5.1 Powered by electricity ........................................................................................... 16

5.2 Powered by petrol ................................................................................................. 16

5.3 Powered by wind .................................................................................................. 17

5.4 Powered by animal/human force .......................................................................... 18

5.5 Hydro-powered ..................................................................................................... 22

6. Methodology ................................................................................................................ 23

6.1 Open channel flue................................................................................................. 23

6.2 PROTOTYPE 1..................................................................................................... 24

6.3 PROTOTYPE 2: two paddles ............................................................................... 28

6.4 PROTOTYPE 3: four paddles ............................................................................... 31

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6.5 PROTOTYPE 4: scale model ............................................................................... 34

7. Results ........................................................................................................................ 37

7.1 Theoretical calculations for prototype 4 ................................................................ 38

8. Technical Information .................................................................................................. 40

8.1 PROTOTYPES DIMENIONS ................................................................................ 40

8.2 PROTOTYPE 4 cost estimation ............................................................................ 41

9. Ethics of the product...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

9.1 ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................... 43

9.2 ECONOMY ........................................................................................................... 44

9.3 SOCIETY .............................................................................................................. 44

10. SAFETY OF PRODUCT .......................................................................................... 45

11. Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 45

12. References............................................................................................................... 46

APPENDIX......................................................................................................................... 49

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Table of Figures

Figure 2 Wirtz pump section drawing (Tailer P. 1986-2005) ................................................ 7

Figure 3 Windfarm test 1 results (Tailer P. 1986-2005) ....................................................... 9
Figure 4 Windfarm test 1 graph (Tailer P. 1986-2005) ......................................................... 9
Figure 5 Windfarm test 2 results (Tailer P. 1986-2005) ..................................................... 10
Figure 6 Windfarm test 3 results (Tailer P. 1986-2005) ..................................................... 10
Figure 7 Wind pump (Fraenkel P.L1986: 4.7) .................................................................... 18
Figure 8 Archimedes screw (Gupta, S. 2017) .................................................................... 19
Figure 9 Persian Wheel (Fraenkel P.L1986:3.4) ............................................................... 20
Figure 10 hand pump diagram (Franchel P.L1986:3.5.1) .................................................. 21
Figure 11 photo open channel flue 10cm ........................................................................... 23
Figure 12 photo of metal plate regulator ............................................................................ 24
Figure 13 photo PVC disc .................................................................................................. 25
Figure 14 photo of aerofoil used as paddles ...................................................................... 26
Figure 15 photo of spiral and sustain structure .................................................................. 26
Figure 16 photo of rulers, two paddles design ................................................................... 28
Figure 17 photo of PLA plates modification ....................................................................... 29
Figure 18 photo of prototype 2 final design ........................................................................ 30
Figure 19 photo prototype 3 final design ............................................................................ 32
Figure 20 photo of food colouring used ............................................................................. 33
Figure 21 photo of testing with food colouring ................................................................... 33
Figure 22 photo of prototype 4 watermill structure ............................................................. 35
Figure 23 photo of prototype 4 ........................................................................................... 36
Figure 24 video of flow-over phenomena ........................................................................... 38
Figure 25 view on environment-economy-society (A. Maria 2017) .................................... 43
Figure 26 Gnatt chart ......................................................................................................... 49
figure 27 Initial designs ...................................................................................................... 50
Figure 28 Solidworks concept ............................................................................................ 51
figure 29 possible pressure increase method .................................................................... 52
Figure 30 Risk assessment table ....................................................................................... 52

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2. Introduction
2.1 Project Aims
Test the efficiency and phenomena occurring in the spiral pump concept through 3D
modelling and experimentation of different prototypes. Build a scale model using frugal
materials

2.2 Objectives
• By the end of 2018 have a Solidworks(2018) model of the first prototype
• With the beginning of 2019 manufacture the model and start experimentation along
with critical analysis and observation of the prototype
• Data analysis
• Re- design of the model(s) with new Improvement(s)
• Produce a full scale model for real case scenario

3. Literature review

First constructed by H.A. Wirtz in 1746, the spiral pump was designed to pump water from
a river to a reservoir or directly into the dye production line into the factory just outside of
Zurich where Mr Wirtz used to work. The system does not make use of any kind of external
forces, such as human or animal propulsion, the movement is obtained by the water flowing
in the river and pushing against a certain number of paddles. The simple design and
materials used allow the pump to have a life span of years with very little maintenance and
low cost for its parts.

3.1 Spiral Pump

Tanks to Mr Wirtz metalworking abilities he was able to create the spiral tubing ending with
a scoop at point B (Figure2) in order to collect more water every revolution. The rotary fitting
at point G (Figure 2) allowed the spiral to rotate around a central axis and at the same time
transfer the water from a rotational motion in the coil to a linear, more controllable flow in
the outlet tubing. (P.Tailer 2005)

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Figure 1 Wirtz pump section drawing (Tailer P. 1986-2005)

The scoop allowed the spiral to fill half of the outer coil volume with each revolution. As the
water is taken into the inner coils, the outer column of water would push the air trapped
between it and the second column therefore reducing the air volume and increasing the
pressure. This displacement creates a pressure head in each coil that would eventually
accumulate and reach a peak at the centre of the spiral. This pressure increase allows the
water to flow further than it would just by redirecting the flow of the river as was traditionally
done to obtain large amounts of water.

Ewbank (1845) reports that pumps built in such a way were found to be used in Florence
and Archangelsky where, in 1784, a very similar design of spiral pump managed to displace
water 230m away from a pump at a height of 22m. This design will eventually be replaced
by new ones powered by steam engines due to the higher efficiency and higher volumes of
water that these new pumps were able to move. (T. Ewbank 1845)

However, Ewbank observed that if the volumes of water and air combined were way higher
than the one of the internal spiral coil, some of the water would flow back into the next
column creating a dumping that decreases the overall volume of water collected from the
pump. If this problem was to be solved the pump would reach a higher displacement by
having the same intake conditions.

By further observing the Wirtz spiral pump design the team from the Windfarm Museum USA
described that the outlet pressure was directly proportional to the diameter of the outer coils
and their number. Since the inlet coil collects approximately half of its volume in water and

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air, after a large number of revolutions the pressure gauge will tend to zero and the water
would just fill half of the spiral volume without creating any cumulative head. Ideally to
maintain a pressure increase the inner coil diameter would have to be half of the outer one.
Doing so will allow the air to be compressed without having any flow backs and dissipating
the energy. With this design the spiral is theoretically able to develop 1 atmosphere of
pressure gap between inlet and outlet. (P.Tailer 2005)

3.2 Windfarm museum experiment

Peter Tailer, curator of the Windfarm Museum on Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, in the
beginning of the 1980s, uncovered an invention that was developed and analysed in 1746
by H.A. Wirtz, a pewterer of Zurich, Switzerland.The technology is a low cost water pump
named ‘Spiral Pump’ by its creator Mr Wirtz.

Windfarm Museum team (under the guide of Mr Peter Tailer) in 1986 decided to test Mr
Wirtz’s design in order to evaluate if it was possible to increase the pressure at the outlet
without dissipation in the inner-most coils.

For the construction of the model the team opted for modern lightweight materials such as
flexible polyethylene for the tubing in order to reduce the overall weight of the spiral since
the original model was probably constructed using lead tubing. The coil was fixed to a metal
frame and the inner-most tubing fixed to a rotary valve that would make the measurements
of the flow easier for the team. Two very similar prototypes were created with the only
difference being the diameter of the tubing used: for the first design the Polyethylene tube
had a diameter of 3.3cm and for the second 1.65cm.

However, to prevent the flow back phenomenon reported by Ewbank the diameter of the
inner coil was set to be 1m while the one of the outer coil 2m. This setup would theoretically
have had the highest pressure increase without any dissipation due to an excessive number
of coils. (P.Tailer 2005)

The apparatus was attached to a pressure gauge measurer, a purging valve and a rope to
measure the torque force. The outlet tube was fixed to a wind turbine 70 feet (21m) tall to
observe the actual height that the water would be able to reach; in addition to this the

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American team decided to measure three different aspects of the spiral pump (test number
1 and 2 would make use of the 2.75cm tubing while the last test would use the 1.65cm
tubing):

- The first test would measure the pump’s discharge rates by changing the number of
revolutions per minute from 2 to 12 and observing how the flow would increase

Figure 2 Windfarm test 1 results (Tailer P. 1986-2005)

Figure 3 Windfarm test 1 graph (Tailer P. 1986-2005)

- In the second test the second test the team would add scoops at the inlet of the
spiral to observe the volume of water collected. Discharge and torque
measurements were completed for all the scoops using the same heads (20 and
40)

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Figure 4 Windfarm test 2 results (Tailer P. 1986-2005)

- The third and last group of tests would involve the second prototype and the water
output flow and the spiral’s torque were measured.

Figure 5 Windfarm test 3 results (Tailer P. 1986-2005)

DISCUSSION

The Windfarm Museum team observed the pump’s efficiency would increase with the
increase of the revolutions per minute at low speeds. Once the RPM reaches about 20 the
disturbance created by the contact between the spiral’s outer coil and the surface of the
water would decrease the efficiency.

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Throughout the different tests the team managed to observe three different phenomena
occurring and all depended on the pressure gap created in the spiral.

The first phenomena observed was the Flow Over, this was observed to occur when the
volume of the internal coil was insufficient to hold the volume of the water and the
pressurized air. In this situation a certain amount of the water would flow over the top of the
coil and become part of the previous column of water effectively decreasing the efficiency
of the pump. This was caused by an excessive volume of water in the spiral due to the
dimensions of the scoop positioned at the entrance of the outer coil.

The second phenomena was, as defined by the Windfarm Museum team, the Blow-Back;
this effect caused water to flow back out of the scoop on the outer coil. The team discussed
the possible factors that allowed this event to occur and determined that the design of the
system used to test the spiral was the cause. The outflow of the pump was connected to a
tube that was attached to a wind turbine in order to measure the head of the spiral. This
design however would not properly function at a low number of revolutions per minute as
the pressure in the water and air column inside the tube attached to the wind turbine would
match the pressure in the spiral itself preventing more water from entering the pump.

To end with, the third phenomena was strictly connected to the second and involved the
volume of each column of air in the pump and in the tube attached to the wind turbine. The
effect is caused by the volume of air reducing under pressure in the spiral and expanding
back to its original volume the closer the air column was to the tube outlet. This phenomenon
distinguished itself from the others observed as it helped to pump the water instead of
reducing the efficiency of the pump.

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2.3 Frugal Engineering

Frugal innovation is a philosophy that allows its users to completely rethink of an already
designed product in order to develop a similar version with fewer but well established
characteristics.

All of manufacturing processes nowadays strive for perfection by reducing design and
manufacturing costs but keeping a high standard of quality. One of the most common
methods is recognizing and removing stages of the process that simply do not add value to
the final product. Frugal innovation on the other hand tries to redesign the entire product by
removing unnecessary features in the first place creating a much cheaper product that can
be sold at a fraction of its original value. The difference between entirely redesigning the
product instead of just modifying the existing version is a substantial reduction in the
manufacturing cost.

A great example of frugal product design is the Nokia 1100 (released in 2003) which was
designed specifically for the newly growing mobile phones market of India. The design team
of the Nokia 1100 spent time observing the everyday activities of many Indian workers in
order to develop specific features for their future customers. Some of these frugal features
were:

- silicon coating on the keypad to prevent slipping which often occurred due to the
high humidity of the country;

- strong structure to make the device more resistant;

- dust resistant handset.

The only typical mobile features that the Nokia 1100 has are mobile calls, text messages
and monochrome screens to reduce the battery usage. With a price of 15 to 20 $ and a total
of about 250 million units sold, the Nokia 1100 is the best-selling mobile phone ever. (L.
Hamill 2018)

According to C.K. Prahalad, author of The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid (Wharton
School Publishing, 2005), these potential customers, “unserved or underserved by the large
organized private sector, including multinational firms,” are in total 4 to 5 billion people
worldwide. This rapid growing market is attracting a vast range of industries and research
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centres from all around the world and many are now faced with the challenges that this
growing market presents with respect of an already well-established counterpart. The new
customers of the growing market tend not to spend their money as easily and will only look
for the best cost-effective products that companies present them. This means that many
companies have to adapt to the customer’s expectations and deliver high quality but low
cost products that must be designed from scratch. The key needs of the newly developed
market are then minimizing nonessential costs both in design and production.

According to N.Kumar and P.Puranam (N.Kumar, P.Puranam issue April 2012) “the
term frugal engineering was coined in 2006 by Renault Chief Executive Carlos Ghosn to
describe the competency of Indian engineers in developing products like Tata Motors’ Nano,
the pint-sized, low-cost automobile”. The Nato was a revolutionary 2,500$ minicar released
in 2008 which was designed in order to keep the target cost as reduced as possible. To do
so the suppliers were challenged to develop new frugal manufacturing processes while
keeping a high quality standard. The result is an innovative five-door minicar with 624cc, two
cylinders gasoline-engine. Tata motors sold 200thousand units between 2010 and 2013;
but, after observing a decline in sales in the next few years, the company decided to
discontinue production in 2018. This decline was due to lack of safety features, excessive
pollution for its manufacturing but mainly due to the bad reputation that the car was given
since its release in 2008: “the poor man’s car”. (Kumar N. and Puranam P. 2012)

Another great example of frugal innovation is a scaled down fridge designed by

Mansukhbhai Raghavjibhai Prajapati and analysed by Jaideep Parabhu, professor of Indian
Business and Enterprise. J.Parabhu explains in his book Jugaad Innovation: Think Frugal,
Be Flexible, Generate Breakthrough Growth (co-authors: N.Radjou and S.Ahuja, 2012) that
anyone can come up with an frugal solution. The fridge does not require electricity and uses
water evaporation as a way to cool down the inside of the fridge. Professor Pradhu explained
that poverty in India in the 80’s was on a different level compared to the one of today and
that studying to become engineers or doctors was the only way to ‘escape’. (Jolin C. 2018)

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4. Water Sources for irrigation

4.1 Sea
Seas have always been used by humans the as an almost endless source of salt by allowing
water to flow in controlled reservoirs and letting it evaporate to collect the salt. When it comes
to irrigation, sea water is only used after going through desalination process. However, the
energy consumption and the tools needed for this process makes the sea the least
favourable source of water for irrigation.

4.2 Lakes
Lakes are usually formed by natural depression such as valleys or can be artificially created
by dams and dykes to expand existing rivers and contain large amounts of water. These are
defined as reservoirs and are usually built to better control the water level and simplify the
irrigation process. By controlling the height of the dam or the amount of water discharged
by the outlet river, the reservoir can provide water during dry periods where rainfall and
rivers cannot keep up with the water demand for irrigation.

Water from a reservoir can be pumped elsewhere for irrigation by exploiting the force of
gravity since the reservoir is usually elevated with respect to the rest of the valley. In other
cases the water can be pumped if the fields are located upstream of the reservoir but the
change in height of the reservoir during seasons has to be taken in consideration. Since
ancient times humans created water reservoirs by exploiting dead branches in rivers that
would fill up during wet season and closed off before the dry season in order to store water
for nutrition and irrigation.

4.3 Wells and groundwater

Groundwater reservoirs vary in depth, location and volumes but are overall less irregular
than small rivers so for centuries farmers have developed different ways of finding and
extracting water from these wells. Depending on the depth and the volume of the reservoir
the amount of water pumped to the surface has to be regulated and adjusted to the amount
of water that flows in the well. Different wells can be connected one another through natural

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underground rivers and cracks between layers of rock; these have overall higher availability
of water but are still influenced by the seasons.

Throughout history shallow groundwater, only few meters deep, was collected by digging
wells and collecting the water by hand or with ropes and buckets.

4.4 Rivers
Rivers are the most common source of water for irrigation and their flow varies throughout
the year depending on the seasons and originate from lakes, groundwater reservoirs,
glaciers, and rain.

Irrigation using the river flow requires less energy than pumping it from a reservoir and the
flow can simply be diverted into an irrigation channel and regulated by a gate. Water can
also be pumped if irrigation by gravity is not possible. (FWR water themes 2015)

5. Pump types

Hydro pumps usually consist in systems that are able to convert mechanical power into
hydrodynamic or hydrostatic power depending on the type of pump. The most known of
these machines use Pascal’s principle which explains that pressure at a certain point in a
confined incompressible fluid has infinite direction thus any change at a particular point will
occur anywhere in the same incompressible system.

This principle also implies that generating enough pressure in the pump will overcome the
pressure at the pump outlet. This can be achieved by pressurizing the water that enters the
system through the use of gears, spiral tubes and cylinders. The most known hydrostatic
pump involves the displacement of water through the use of two equal gears rotating in
opposite directions, which forces the water against the housing of the gears creating a
pressure difference from the inlet to the outlet.

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5.1 Powered by electricity

The majority of the pumps used today are powered by electricity and differentiate by power
and tasks. The most commonly used pumps can be found in engines to increase the fuel
pressure and move it from the storage tank to the combustion chamber. If these pumps are
attached to a reliable source of power such as car batteries, they are the most cost-effective
out of all the energy sources for pumps. (stated by P.L. Fraenkel 1986 water lifting devices)

On the other hand, in developing countries, the majority of the farmers cannot rely on a
stable electric source for their irrigation pumps and, in addition to this, expanding the
electrical grid can be very expensive depending on the country: roughly between 5000 and
10000$ per km (stated by P.L. Fraenkel (1986) water lifting devices)

5.2 Powered by petrol

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

The popularity of the internal combustion piston engine is due to the high power to weight
ratio, relatively compact size and instant start-up capabilities. The decrease in fuel price and
mass production allowed the piston engine to spread worldwide. These types of engine can
be used to spin a compressor which creates a pressure difference that allows to control the
water flow.

UNITS PETROL/GASOLINE PARAFFIN/KEROSENE DIESEL OIL/GASOLI

MJ/l 32 36 38
MJ/Kg 44 45 46
KWh/l 9 10 11
(stated by P.L. Fraenkel (1986) water lifting devices)

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EXTERNAL COMBUSTION

External combustion engines use the fuel to heat a gas in an external chamber and transfer
the movement to the power cylinder instead of producing the movement directly in the power
cylinder like in the internal combustion engines. Stirling engines and steam engines are the
two types of external combustion engines and they both rely on the change in volume of the
liquid source (such as water for the steam engine). These engines require a low power input
such as the one produced by coal and other low-cost solid fuels.

5.3 Powered by wind

Wind pumps are one of the first types of pumps which did not require human or animal force
to obtain water transportation and these pumps have been used since the 9th century in
what is now Iran and Pakistan to pump water from wells or rivers. The efficiency of these
pumps has been slowly improved throughout the middle age in northern Europe where
windmills were used to drain water from land in order to create new agricultural areas. After
the discovery of the New World, immigrants from Europe brought this technology with them
and implemented and perfected it by regulating the flow through the use of gears and
rudimental pistons.

In modern day, multi-bladed wind pumps are still used in some farms in remote sites where
electric power may not be available, to extract water from underground wells.

The inefficiency of wind pumps is caused by the fact that the energy demand is proportional
to the pump speed which cannot be controlled since it depends on the wind intensity. Some
modern adjustments allow the pump stroke to vary with the amplitude in order to absorb the
variable wind power or new materials allow for the construction of lighter but more resistant
blades and gears, increasing the efficiency of the system.

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Figure 6 Wind pump (Fraenkel P.L1986: 4.7)

5.4 Powered by animal/human force

They have been the most common pumps for centuries and their design still influences
nowadays’ pumps designs. The most used and known pumps throughout history were
powered by either human or animal force; some of these pumps are:

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ARCHIMEDES SCREW

Figure 7 Archimedes screw (Gupta, S. 2017)

This machine can transfer water for relatively short distances using a rotating handle that
turns a screw-shaped surface inside the containment cylinder as shown in Figure 1.
Depending on how accurate the distance between the screw and the wall is, many litres of
water can be lost. In ancient times as long as the amount of water that reached the top of
the screw was higher that the volume of water lost due to poor fitting, Archimedes screw
was considered of ‘good’ efficiency. The complex manufacture, poor efficiency and human
force required to use the machine did not allow the design to become as popular as other,
more efficient, technologies.

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PERSIAN WHEEL

Figure 8 Persian Wheel (Fraenkel P.L1986:3.4)

The Sakia or Persian wheel can be created by following many different designs as seen in
Figure 9 but the principles behind the construction are the same. The models use buckets
or scoops to gather water from a source thanks to the rotation of the wheel using the power
of the flowing water or the animal one. When the scoop reaches the top of the wheel the
water is released on a containment or side channel that transports the gathered water to a
reservoir. The adaptability and relatively high efficiency make this model a valid contender
for modern, more expensive pumps, in fact very similar designs are still used in developing
countries for irrigation.

The common features observed in these historical designs are the need of storing the
gathered water in a reservoir usually on an elevated level with respect to the one of the
water source. Secondly the need to increase the efficiency of the design occurs since many

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litres of water are lost during the relocation of the water itself due to poor fitting or instability
of the model.

HAND PUMP

The hand pump is still used in some developing countries to pump water from hand-dug
wells or boreholes. The simple mechanism involves a lever attached to a rudimental valve
contained by a cylinder at the bottom of which another valve is situated. During the pumping
action the valve alternate to make the water flow from the bottom valve to the nozzle forcing
the water between the top valve and the output as shown.

Figure 9 hand pump diagram (Franchel P.L1986:3.5.1)

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5.5 Hydro-powered

Used in specific regions of the globe where waterfall is seasonal but there generally is not
shortage of water, hydro-powered pumps can be designed in many different ways
depending on the environment and purpose. This technology shined in mountain areas
where water is confined by the landscape to form relatively small rivers with an overall
constant water flow as it only depends on the melting of glaciers or seasonal rains. The
majority of field irrigation in these areas is usually achieved by gravity irrigation by digging
small channels in order to create a height displacement and let the water flow in the fields
due to the gravitational force. However, the landscape in rural countries can often be limited
and the areas around the river cannot be cultivated using the gravitational force; in these
scenarios hydro-powered pumps are a suitable replacement and can provide water
constantly for years depending on the design. These devices have a high power to cost ratio
and completely green as they don’t use fuel to create propulsion thus ideal for relatively
small communities and villages located in rural areas.

Many different designs are constantly developed implementing turbines or reservoir systems
but, for the purpose of this paper, the author will focus on a hydro-pump designed using
frugal materials.

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6. Methodology

6.1 Open channel flue

The testing will occur in the open channel flue located in the workshop area of the Chesham
building of the University Of Bradford.

The flow height and intensity can be regulated by a valve which will increase the mass-flow
rate in the channel and a metal plate which angle can be changed through a regulator and
positioned near the end of the flue.

Figure 10 photo open channel flue 10cm

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Figure 11 photo of metal plate regulator

The channel is contained by two 1 cm thickness transparent plastic walls which are 10cm
wide distance one-another and about 25cm tall.

6.2 PROTOTYPE 1

The first prototype idea has been developed using the 3D modelling software SolidWorks
2018. The original design has undergone different changes throughout the whole
development phase in order to accommodate the materials already available within the
University’’ will be changed and modified based on the available materials due to of the
nature of the project.

TOOLS USED

- Multipurpose handsaw
- Electric, battery powered, drill
- Hot glue gun
- Plastic tape waterproof
- Cross head screwdriver

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METHOD

The main body consists in a PVC (polymerizing vinyl chloride) disc with a diameter of 170mm
and hole of 30mm at its centre. Near the edge of the disc, a circular series of three holes
with a diameter of 5mm will be used to connect the paddles and allow the rotation of the
prototype through the use of the water propulsion.

Figure 12 photo PVC disc

Three aerofoils 3D printed paddles were already available in the lab from a previous project.
In order to adapt these paddles to the ones needed for this project the following processing
steps were needed:

- Cutting of the excess material using a handsaw

- Drilling of a 4mm diameter hole in the wider side of the paddle using the electric hand
drill

Final fixation of each paddle to the outer disc through the holes above mentioned with the
use of screws.

The final dimensions of the paddles were 92 mm of length, 38.6mm of height and 8.5 mm
of width. The material is a silicon based plastic with 1.95% EVA.

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Figure 13 photo of aerofoil used as paddles

A basic core structure able to make use of the water movement to create motion and
providing sustain for the other parts of the prototype was finally complete.

Figure 14 photo of spiral and sustain structure

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As for the water transportation means a transparent tube made of silicon has been chosen
since it would have been easier to observe the fluid behaviour and therefore to know the
exact position of any flow problems. The tube measures were: 10mm external diameter and
wall thickness of 2mm and total length of 1.5m. The tube has been then rolled up as shown
in the picture above and then firmly fixated on the sustain structure (disk + paddles) with
plastic on plastic glue applied with the use of a hot glue gun.

After letting the glue cool down, a double rotational joint and two plastic adaptors have been
added to the end of the inner coil in order to transfer the fluid from a rotational motion to a
linear one to simplify the measuring of the flow.

TESTING

Unfortunately, soon after the positioning of the prototype in the open flow channel the glue
did not hold the components together.

FAILURE ANALYSIS

The failure consisted in the detachment of the glue from both the silicon tube spiral attached
to the disc and the plastic adaptors. This could have been caused by:

- Insufficient glue cooling times

- The flexibility of the tube caused too much stress for the glue
- Impurities on the surface of the tube or the disc such as dust and grease could have
caused the glue to detach

CONCLUSION

The design needed to be discarded as the glue was one of the main components in the
prototype but also its main weakness. Future designs should try to use other fixation
methods with greater reliability.

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6.3 PROTOTYPE 2: two paddles

The main challenge of the second design was to create a stable system without the use of
glue which caused the failure of the first design.

TOOLS USED

- Electric drill
- Cross head screwdriver
- Hand saw
- Plastic waterproof tape

METHOD

For the new model the spiral tube would have to be attached and held in position without
the use of glue. To do so two plastic rulers will be used to keep the spiral in place; after
drilling four 4mm symmetrical holes at the sides of the spiral, four metal washers and two
4mm bolts were used to fix the rulers.

(rulers picture)

Figure 15 photo of rulers, two paddles design

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One of the rulers did not give enough sustain as it was made out of silicon so the student
opted for two plastic PLA (Polyactic Acid) cut-outs. These two new pieces measured 320mm
length, 40mm wide and 4mm thickness; they have been cut from a larger panel using a table
saw. In a real scenario this material can be substituted by relatively thin wood plates to
further reduce the cost. Using the same procedure as for the rulers two 4mm holes were
drilled and the plates were held together with much more strength.

Figure 16 photo of PLA plates modification

To give propulsion to the spiral the same aerofoils as the first prototype have been used.
After drilling a 4mm hole in the widest section of the aerofoil, and in one of the two plates,
they have been screwed on with 4mm screws and two washers were inserted between the
plate and the screw to avoid cracking the plastic.

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Figure 17 photo of prototype 2 final design

ADJUSTMENT

After checking the dimensions of the prototype the paddles had to be reduced in length in
order to fit the open flow channel. After doing so another hole was drilled at the centre of the
plastic plates in order to insert a 95mm long rod with a diameter of 6mm. This threaded rod
has two 5mm nuts on each side that could be unscrewed after being positioned in the open
flow channel in order to fix the rod between the two walls.
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TESTING

After positioning the device and unscrewing the nuts against the walls of the channel, the
water flow was set so it would cover about one third of the prototype leaving only the
beginning of the spiral and one paddle submerged. Unfortunately, the force on the paddle
was not enough for it to complete an 180° turn.

MODIFICATION

Even by increasing the water flow the force was not enough to keep the prototype rotating
so an additional plate with two more paddles was added to decrease the rotational angle
between each paddle to 90°.

6.4 PROTOTYPE 3: four paddles

Another 320mm by 40 mm plate was positioned at 90° from the already existing paddles
and with the same procedure mentioned before the two paddles were screwed onto the
plate which was then fixed to the main structure by a 3mm nut and bolt and the 6mm rod in
the middle as shown in the figure below.

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Figure 18 photo prototype 3 final design

TESTING

Once positioned and locked to the walls of the open flow channel using two bolts the device
would easily rotate and pick up the water in the spiral. By observing the flow, it could be
noticed that the air bubbles reduced in volume the closer they got to the centre of the spiral
meaning the water compressed the air increasing the pressure.

FOOD COLOURING OBSERVATIONS

To better observe the phenomena diluted food colouring was manually added at the
entrance of the spiral. The water would change from being in a single compact section to
three different subsections when reaching the centre of the spiral. This shows that the
compressed air influences the water by pushing and compressing it with each turn.

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Figure 19 photo of food colouring used

Figure 20 photo of testing with food colouring

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6.5 PROTOTYPE 4: scale model

The last prototype gathers the knowledge acquired through the observations of the previous
designs and is adapted to a real case scenario. The model will be scaled up compared to
previous prototypes and will be built using only frugal materials available in the areas it is
supposed to operate. The ideal location for the prototype would be anchored in a river
situated between two hills or mountains where nearby villages do not have access to
electricity. This would simplify the task of collecting water from the river and bringing it back
to the village both for drinking and irrigation purposes.

MATERIALS USED

- 8 meters in total of flexible tubing for gardening

- One 90° elbow bend component Q-Fit for 15mm tubing
- One push fit tee tube component Q-Fit for 15mm tubing
- One wooden cable drum, 50 by 22 cm
- Tape and rope in order to simplify assembly process
- Two top deck boards from unused wooden pallet
- 12 five-millimetre screws
- One 30cm length plastic rigid tubing with 15 mm diameter.

TOOLS USED

- Table saw for woodwork

- Electric hand drill
- Hand saw
- Crowbar
- Hammer

METHOD

The main body of the prototype would consist in a watermill-like structure to provide both
stability and propulsion for the system. In order to achieve this, a wooden drum has been
used as main structure while the paddles for the watermill would be made out of a pallet’s
deck boards.
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First an unused pallet was partially disassembled by dethatching the wooden boards using
a crowbar and a hammer in order to remove the nails. The boards obtained from the pallet
after accurately measuring the drum dimensions, were cut by a workshop technician using
a table saw. Not all the parts had the same dimensions in fact the length of each paddle
varied from 19 to 21 cm length. The reason behind the dimension change was the drum
minor bends throughout the two main discs as this changed throughout its lifetime. Using a
set square the drum was marked with three lines creating six different segments that would
set the positions of the paddles at the same distance one another. After positioning, the
paddles were fixed by drilling a 4.5mm hole through each paddle and the disc then using
5mm screws to fix them in place.

Figure 21 photo of prototype 4 watermill structure

Secondly the two tube spirals were positioned on each side of the 50cm drum and kept in
place by two strings, these would be substituted in a real life scenario in order to improve
the weight distribution. Furthermore, one of the tubes’ inner coil was connected to a push fit
90° elbow joint while the other to a push fit tee tube component. These two parts were
connected one another through a 30cm rigid plastic tubing whose diameter was the same
as the two parts therefore preventing any leaks. An outflow tube was placed in order to
transport the water to a fictional reservoir.

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Figure 22 photo of prototype 4

FLUE LIMITATIONS

Due to the long inactivity of the two large open channel flues the prototype’s efficiency could
not be tested but a series of theoretical calculations about the prototype will be discussed.

In order to test the prototype on a river course a frame would have to be manufactured and
attached to two or more oil barrels to provide buoyancy. To further stabilize the system two
anchors would have to be connected to the frame with a rope long enough to adapt to the
river height changes throughout the seasons.

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7. Results

By observing the functioning of the prototype number three, and adding food colouring to
better visualize the fluid motion, different aspects of the functioning could be observed.

The initial tests were conducted with an average number of revolutions per minute of 10.
The spiral was submerged about one quarter of its volume by water; that indicated that the
water’s volume picked up at every revolution would be equal to a quarter of the outer coil’s
volume. If the outer coil is considered as a cylinder with a height equal to the circumference
of the outer coil and a radius equal to the internal one of the tube:

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜋𝜋 ℎ = 17756𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3 ≈ 17000𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3

The approximated volume is less that the calculated one as the outer coil is not a perfect
circle but overlaps and reduced its diameter the closer it is to the centre.

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = = 4250𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3
4

The volume of air in the outer spiral is the remaining 1275 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3

The volume of the inner-most coil can be calculated using the same formula

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜋𝜋 ℎ = 7106𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3 ≈ 6700𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3

This shows that the volume of water that used to fill only one quarter of the outer coil now is
63% of the inner coil volume. In addition to this we know that the air will be compressed due
to its gas nature and we can observe that the volume occupied by the gas was 75% of the
outer coil but now is only 37% on the inner most coil. Thus the air volume in the central part
of the spiral is now half of its original volume

Using Boyle’s law, we know that pressure is inversely proportional to the volume so

𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2

If as observed by the experiment 𝑉𝑉2 is half of 𝑉𝑉1 then 𝑃𝑃2 must be twice 𝑃𝑃1 in order to maintain
the equality. If the initial pressure is to be considered ambient pressure, 101400Pa or 1 bar,
the pressure in the inner-most part is now 2 bar. This pressure increase cannot be accurately
measured in this particular test in order to verify the theoretical values but, taking in

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consideration the experiments conducted by the team at Windfarm Museum, the pressure
difference of 1 atmosphere is to be considered true.

Another visual test was conducted on the prototype number 3 by observing the water flow
through the silicon tube, recording the functioning of the pump and adding food colouring to
better visualize the flow in the spiral.

When reducing the revolutions per minute from 10 to approximately 3 (by limiting the spin
of the pump by hand) a particular phenomenon defined by Ewbank in 1849 as flow over or
flow back occurs. This particular phenomenon occurs when the pressure in the spiral is not
enough to compress the volume of air trapped between columns of water causing it, as the
name of the phenomena suggests, to flaw back into the precedent column as observed in
the video taken.

Figure 23 video of flow-over phenomena

This dissipates energy and reduces the pump’s efficiency preventing the outflow of water to
reach the desired distance. In order to avoid this the pump should spin at more than 5 RPM
but less than 20 as mentioned before due to excessive disturbance created by the impact
between the spiral and the surface of the water.

7.1 Theoretical calculations for prototype 4

Tube internal diameter 12mm, radius 6mm

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𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 62 𝜋𝜋 8000 = 904778.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚3

Adding the volume of the rigid tube, the elbow joint and tee tube we approximately obtain
1𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3 which is equal to 1liter.

In ideal conditions and using a scoop to collect more water at every revolution (for example
the top half of a 500ml water bottle) the spiral would be 50% full of water and the same
volume of air.

The average operating speed at which the pump would work in a real case scenario would
be 10 RPM thus:

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.5𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.5𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∗ 10𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 5 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙�𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒

The head pressure of the prototype would have to be measured with appropriate tools to
obtain a precise number.

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8. Technical Information

8.1 PROTOTYPES DIMENIONS

PROTORYPE 1

PVC disc

PART DIMENSION IN mm
EXTERNAL DIAMTER 170
INTERNAL DIAMETER 30
DIAMETER OF HOLES 4.5

Rotary component (Class PB Q fit 15mm (7291/2) 2006)

PART DIMENSION IN mm
VALE TOTAL LENGH 60
INTERNAL DIAMETER 15

PROTOTYPE 2 (two paddles) AND 3 (four paddles) dimensions

PART LENGTH(mm) WIDTH (mm) THICKNESS(mm)

Frame plate 320 40 3
Aerofoil 44.5 40 (figure)

Spiral dimensions

PART DIMENSION IN mm
TUBE TOTAL LENGHT 2000
TUBE EXTERNAL DIAMETER 10
TUBE INTERNAL DIAMTER 6
SPIRAL EXTERNAL DIMETER 200
SPIRAL INTERNAL DIAMETER 80

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PROTORYPE 4

Drum

PART DIMENSION IN mm
EXTERNAL DIAMTER 500
INTERNAL DIAMETER 60
DIAMETER OF SECONDARY HOLES 20

Paddles

PART DIMENSION IN mm
LENGHT 190-210 (depending on limitations)
HEIGHT 75
WIDTH 15

Other components

PART DIMENSION IN mm
TUBES LENGHT 4000 each
TUBE EXTERNAL DIAMETER 15
TUBE INTERNAL DIAMETER 12

8.2 PROTOTYPE 4 cost estimation

TUBES

2 x 4m = 8 meters of 15mm external diameter gardening tubing PVC

Cost estimation 9£ (R.S. Components Ltd. 2019)

COMPONENTS

Push fit tee tube component Q-Fit for 15mm tubing

price 1.61£ (Easy Merchant 2019)

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push fit 90 degree elbow joint Q-Fit for 15 mm tubing

price 1.13£ (Easy Merchant 2019)

Wooden cable drum (50cm diameter and 27cm)

cost estimation 8£

TOTAL APPROXIMATED COST OF THE COMPONENTS: 19.74£

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9. Sustainability and ethics

Based on the model of Maria Antonaccio three different aspects will be analysed when
observing the prototype number 4 starting by the environmental aspect.

Figure 24 view on environment-economy-society (A. Maria 2017)

9.1 ENVIRONMENT
The prototype created using frugal materials is designed to have a constant performance
and require as little maintenance as possible. Since the design uses water itself as a
propulsion system the prototype does not require any type of fuel to run or does, in any way,
eject harmful substances area it is situated in. Furthermore, the pump does not harm
animals situated in the river as the maximum number of revolutions per minute the pump is
designed to achieve is 20 which is slow enough for eventual life forms encountering the
pump to deviate to other directions. The final design is thought to be positioned on top of a
series of floaters, such as empty oil barrels, to provide stability and to adapt the spiral to the
different water levels throughout the seasons. In addition to this the water subtracted to the
flow is a very reduced quantity compared to the capacity of the river and the water that is
not absorbed by the plants in the irrigated fields either evaporates or flows back into the
main water flow as this design is thought to be used in mountain and remote hill areas. This

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system prevents any water to be wasted as the head that the pump provides keeps the
water used for irrigation within 2 kilometres from the water source.

9.2 ECONOMY
Thanks to the materials selected for the prototype and their availability any part of the system
can be replaced without the use of substances that could cause pollution such as glue or
chemicals. The adaptability of the pump based on the water level and the low speed at which
the design works allow it to operate for a long time without any maintenance. The estimated
lifespan of a design with these characteristics is between 5 and 10 years although this time
could be further increased by making adjustments or designing similar prototypes with
stronger and more long-lasting materials such as aluminium. On the other hand, some of
these material would increase the price due to the inability for the local manufacturers to
produce them. For this reason, wood was chosen as excellent frugal material both from the
economical point of view and due to its workability.

9.3 SOCIETY
The design was specifically created to satisfy the demand of water both for irrigation and
drinking purposes for a vast number of population in developing countries who do not have
a clean source of water nearby. Many people in developing countries have to manually
collect and take the water to their habitations or use it to irrigate crops. The use of this pump
would allow those people to collect water from a nearby reservoir within the village and use
excess water to irrigate fields. The 20m head produced by the design allows water to be
transported in a flexible system to different altitudes and distances within the limits.

In addition to this the majority of the components of the prototype especially the main wood
structure can be manufactured or purchased locally, allowing the users make front to any
unexpected events.

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10. SAFETY OF PRODUCT

The prototype does not require fuel nor produces any waste so it is safe for both users and
the environment. Accidents could on the other happen during the life cycle the product as
components could break and cause malfunction. Worst case scenario analysed is the
simultaneous rupture of both anchoring systems that prevent the pump from floating away
with the current. The unlikely scenario can be prevented by removing the pump before the
river flow reaches high speeds caused by heavy rains and floods.

Other possible risks have an even lower chance of occurring, based on the design one of
the accidents could be the rupture of the main valve which would make the water flow back
into the river instead of redirecting it to the reservoir.

11. Conclusions

The observations of the water’s behaviour throughout the testing of prototype 3 allowed to
regulate and modify the new design in order to create a pump that could be used in a real
life scenario. From these different tests is was possible to define a few adjustments in order
to maximize the pump’s efficiency:

- 50% water and air volume in the tubes (regulated by scoop dimensions and design)
- Outer coil diameter has to be twice as much as the internal coil diameter (in order to
maximize the pressurization of air in the spiral)
- Revolutions per minute higher than 5 and lower than 20 (to avoid any flow-back or
excessive turbulence phenomena)

By following these rules almost any variance of previous models could be created while
keeping a good efficiency if the water-pumping mechanism.

The pump provides relatively small volumes of water so small-size fields are ideal for this
kind of irrigation but the lifespan and the maintenance costs of the product would far
outweigh the reduced water flow.

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12. References

M. Antonaccio (2017) Making Finitude Visible: The Ethics of Sustainability

http://enhancinglife.uchicago.edu/blog/making-finitude-visible-the-ethics-of-sustainability
Accessed 3rd April 2019

T. Ewbank (1845) A descriptive and historical account of hydraulic and other machines for
raising water, ancient and modern, including the progressive development of the steam
engine https://archive.org/details/descriptiveaccou00ewbarich/page/n15 accessed 12th
December 2018

P.L. Fraenkel (1986) Water lifting devices http://www.fao.org accessed on 12th December
2018

L. Hamill (2018) What are the best-selling cell phones of all time?
https://www.decluttr.com/blog/2018/07/13/what-are-the-best-selling-cell-phones-of-all-
time/?fbclid=IwAR1Sh2JfzhT04PcWLjp__AbjA3BOUzLmQzdyaY0FQ_OTuxNCmQHiGH-
o77o Accessed 12th January 2019

C. Mackintosh, (2013), ‘energy systems, processing and food preservation

https://permaculturenews.org/2013/01/15/mitticool-clay-refrigerator/ accessed 12th
February 2019

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K. Mukerjee (2012) Frugal innovation: the key to penetrating emerging markets

https://iveybusinessjournal.com/publication/frugal-innovation-the-key-to-penetrating-
emerging-markets/ Accessed 12th January 2019

N.Kumar and P.Puranam, (2012), Frugal engineering: An emerging innovation paradigm,

https://iveybusinessjournal.com/publication/frugal-engineering-an-emerging-innovation-paradigm/
accessed 1st December 2018.

L. Jolin, (2018) CAM Cambridge alumni magazine pages 26 to 29

https://www.cam.ac.uk/frugalinnovation accessed 12th February 2019

P.Tailer (1886-2005) The Spiral Pump A High Lift, Slow Turning Pump
https://lurkertech.com/water/pump/tailer/ accessed 10th October 2018

R.S. Components Ltd. (2019) RS PRO PVC Flexible Tubing, transparent, 11.5mm External
Diameter, 25m Long Reinforced, 28mm Bend Radius https://uk.rs-
online.com/web/p/products/0440874/?grossPrice=Y&cm_mmc=UK-PLA-DS3A-_-google-
_-PLA_UK_EN_Plumbing_And_Pipeline-_-
Pipes_And_Tubing_And_And_Hoses%7CFlexible_Tubes-_-
PRODUCT_GROUP&matchtype=&pla-
415842029220&s_kwcid=AL!7457!3!243856785965!!!g!415842029220!&gclid=EAIaIQobC
hMIyJXNztu44QIVL7HtCh0esAKwEAQYBSABEgJpLfD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds Accessed 3rd
April 2019

Easy Merchant (2019) Push Fit Equal Tee 10/15/22/28mm

https://www.easymerchant.co.uk/push-fit-plumbing/fittings/equal-tee-10-15-22-28mm/
Accessed 3rd April 2019

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Easy Merchant (2019) Push Fit 90 Degree Elbow 10/15/22/28mm

https://www.easymerchant.co.uk/push-fit-plumbing/fittings/push-fit-elbow-10-28mm/
Accessed 3rd April 2019

FWR water themes (2015) the information centre for water, wastewater and related
environmental issues http://www.euwfd.com/html/water-themes.html Accessed 1st
December 2018

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APPENDIX

Gantt chart

Figure 25 Gnatt chart

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INITIAL DESIGNS (Solidworks 2018)

figure 26 Initial designs

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Figure 27 Solidworks concept

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figure 28 possible pressure increase method

Risk assessment

Figure 29 Risk assessment table

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