GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY

(See Greenbaum, Chapter 2)

PHONEME

 Biber, chapter 2; Delahunty & Garvey, chapter 5

MORPHEM
E

 Biber, chapter 2; Greenbaum, chapter 4

WORD
 Greenbaum, chapters 5, 6, 7. 8 and 9

 Biber, chapter 3; Greenbaum, chapter 4

PHRASE
 Greenbaum, chapters 10, 11 and 12

 Greenbaum, chapter 5
CLAUSE
 (additional info can also be found in Greenbaum, 13.1 and chapter 14)

 Greenbaum, Chapter 2
SENTENCE

TEXT

PHRASES
A phrase is a grammatical unit which may consist of just one word (its head) or its head and
expressions (including other phrases) that modify or complement it. (Delahunty and Garvey,
2010.

- Phrases behave as syntactical units (subject, verb, object, complement, adverbial). Phrases
can consist of either a single word or a unified group of words.
- A single word may be a phrase when it is the head1 of that phrase.

1
“The head of a phrase is the phrase’s central element; any other words (or phrases) in the phrase orient to it,
either by modifying it or complementing it. The head determines the phrase’s grammatical category: if the head
is a noun, the phrase is a noun phrase; if the head is a verb, the phrase is a verb phrase, and so on. The head
can also determine the internal grammar of the phrase: if the head is a noun, then it may be modified by an
article; if the head is a transitive verb, it must be complemented by a direct object.” – Delahunty and Garvey,
2010.
- Phrases can be identified by substitution and movement tests. If an expression can be
replaced by a pronoun (that process is called pronominalization), or it can be moved from one part of
a sentence to another without any internal reorganization, then that expression is a phrase.
- Phrases can be embedded (one phrase can be part of the structure of another phrase).
- The head of a phrase may be modified or complemented by other words or phrases.

The article about science has been published recently.

Form Def. Art. Noun Verb Adverb
Function Det. Head Head Head

Form: Prep. Phrase

Function: Post-modifier

Form Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Adv. Phrase

Function S V Adverbial of Time

NOUN PHRASE  Determiner + pre-modifier + NOUN= head + post-modifier

“A film”
“Those successful films”
“The successful Hollywood films”
“Some successful Hollywood films about love”
“Some really successful Hollywood films about love”
“The details that are available”  Relative clause: post modifier

ADJECTIVE PHRASE  Pre-modifier + ADJECTIVE= head + complement

“rather simple”
“pretty excited about the wedding” Prep. phrase: Adj. complement
“really excited to hear from him” Sub. Non-finite to infinitive clause: AC
“so excited that we’re going to New York” Sub. Finite that Clause: Adj. C

ADVERB PHRASE  Pre-modifier + ADVERB= head + post-modifier

“nearly always”
“almost automatically”
“very carefully”
“efficiently enough”
VERB PHRASE  Auxiliary verb(s) + LEXICAL VERB: head

Modal auxiliary verb (must, should, can, etc)

Primary auxiliary verb (be, do, have)

“went”  simple VP
“could have written”  Complex VP
“must have been writing”
“may have been fixed”

“have written”
“have been writing”
“are talking”
“was learning”
“don’t bother”

Points to consider:

 When the verb phrase has only one element (the verb, head) is a SIMPLE verb phrase.
 When the verb phrase has more than one element (auxiliary/ies + head) is a COMPLEX verb
phrase.
 The first element of a complex VP functions as the operator.
 In the examples above “could”, “must” and may” are modal auxiliary verbs (form) that function
as operators (function).
 The verbs “to be”, “have” and “do” are primary auxiliary verbs. They can function as both
auxiliary and main verbs (see Biber, 5.2.2 – page 104)
 Lexical verbs: verbs that function only as main verbs. They cannot be auxiliary verbs. For
example: “promise”, “forget”, “hate”, “remember”, “ think”, “run”, etc.

PREP. PHRASE  Preposition + Complement to the preposition (also called “prepositional

complement).
The Prep. C. is typically a noun phrase (in italics below)
 “at night”
Prep
Head NP
Prep. C.

Prepositional Phrase

“by accident”

“at high speed”

Prep Adj. (pre-mod) Noun (head)

Head NP
Prep. C.

Prepositional Phrase

CLAUSE  Grammatical unit that functions as one part of speech and that includes a subject and a
verb (Subject + Predicate).
Classification of clauses:
o Independent or main clause: It is a type of clause which contains a subject and a verb. It
expresses a complete meaningful thought. This clause can stand alone as a complete
sentence. This type of a clause can also join other independent clauses or dependent clauses
to make a compound sentence using coordinators such as and, but, or, etc. In other words,
independent clauses are grammatically complete statements.
o Dependent or subordinate clause: As the name suggests, a clause which cannot stand
alone as a complete meaningful sentence is called the dependent clause. This clause also has
a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought. The thought or idea expressed
by a dependent clause is unfinished. The dependent clause must be joined using subordinates
with another clause to make a meaningful sentence. Let’s take a look at some example of
dependent clause. The dependent clauses are underlined.
For example:
- If that’s a corn sandwich, I’m having it.
- They went for a walk while the sun was still out.
 - I am not cleaning the dishes unless Parker helps.
- When she was dating Peter, she had an accident.

o Finite  A finite clause includes a primary verb — a verb that can be inflected for tense,
person and sometimes number — and includes a subject
o Non-finite  contain a verb which does not show tense

o Nominal clauses
o Relative clauses
o Adverbial clauses
o Comparative clauses

PHRASES: MORE EXAMPLES

Noun phrase / The old building /

Form  Definite article adjective noun
Function  Determiner pre-modifier head

Noun phrase / A stunning picture of a country village /

Form  Indefinite article adjective noun Prepositional phrase
Function  Determiner pre-modifier head Post-modifier

Simple verb phrase / wrote /

Form  Lexical verb (past form)
Function  head

Complex Verb phrase / was reading /

Form  Primary Aux verb Lexical verb (-ing participle form)
Function  Operator head

Complex Verb phrase / don’t go /

Form  Primary Aux verb Lexical verb (base form)
Function  Operator head

Complex Verb phrase / could have taken /

Form  Modal auxiliary Primary Aux verb Lexical verb (past participle form)
Function  Operator second auxiliary head

Adj. phrase / terribly frightened/

Form  adverb adjective
Function  pre-modifier head

Adj. phrase / deeply sorry for my mistake /

Form  adverb adjective prep. phrase
Function  pre-modifier head Adj. Complement

Adj. phrase / completely sure that she will come /

Form  adverb adjective Sub. Finite that Clause
Function  pre-modifier head Adj. Complement

Adj. phrase / absolutely impossible to win /

Form  adverb adjective Sub. Finite to infinitive Clause
Function  pre-modifier head Adj. Complement

PRACTICE:
Exercise 1: After reading the previous examples, analyse the following phrases.
Define the type of phrase and describe their elements (their form and function).

1) ______________ phrase / an ancient language /

Form 
Function 

2) ______________ phrase / on a diet /

Form 
Function 

3) ______________ phrase / very eagerly /

Form 
Function 
 4) ______________ phrase / really frustrating /
Form 
Function 

5) information about their family history

6) don't drink
7) in the exam
8) an absorbing hobby
9) was working
10) increasingly heavy  
11) employees who work behind the scenes
12) have learnt
13) on the table
14) a massive increase in food production
15) this truly amazing food
16) have been denying
17) quite frankly
18) the advertisements of these companies
19) didn't know
20) on our language course
21) dealing with
22) uncomfortable with changes
23) resistance to infection
24) has received
25) really easily
26) in the virtual classrooms of the future
27) are interviewing