Completion 6

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com/
Introduction to well completion
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(Part.VI)
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Formation damage
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https://oil-com.blogspot.com/
(Part.VI) -Table of contents

1 Introduction
3
2 The main causes of skin damage
4
3 Classification of Formation Damage
5
The role of fluid invasion on formation damage
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4
7
5 Drilling, Completion and Workover Damage
8
6 Formation Damage Associated With Fluid Filtrate 9
7 Émulsion blocks 10
8 Water Blocks
9
10
11
Capillary Pressure
Effective Permeability
Relative Permeability
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12
14
15
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12 Understanding the skin damage 16
13 Detection of Formation Damage 23
13.1 Productivity Index 24
13.2 Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests 25
13.3 PBU test plot 26
13.4 Flow efficiency 28
https://oil-com.blogspot.com/ VI.2
Introduction
“Formation damage” is the main reason of low
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productivity or injectivity in oil, water and gas wells.
This damage is often expressed as "skin" or "zone"
damage, which results when the original permeability of
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the producing formation is reduced.
The net result of such damage is a decrease in the flow
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capacity of the well.
Formation damage is caused by many factors and can
occur as the formation is drilled, or at any time during
the life of the well
The main causes of skin damage are:-
1. Solids Invasion
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2. Wettability Changes
3. Perforation Damage
4. Chemical Precipitation (compatibility)
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5. Emulsion Blocks
6. Water Blocks
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7. Bacteria by Products
8. Clay Swelling and Dispersion
9. Organic Deposition
10. Scale Deposition
Classification of Formation Damage

Shallow Damage
✓ Commonly occurs during the drilling of new wells and workover
operations.
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✓ The invasion of drilling mud and other solids into the formation
creates a cylinder of reduced permeability around the wellbore.
✓ This reduces the flow rate of fluids into the borehole .
✓ A tough, impermeable filter cake forms on the face of the borehole,
✓
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consisting mainly of the solid particles from drilling fluids.
Some of these particles may even penetrate into the formation,
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plugging the pores and fractures of the system.
✓ The depth of penetration is difficult to determine, though it is
generally agreed that the solids penetrate no more than a few
inches.
Moderate to Deep Damage

The filtration or water loss of drilling or completion fluids
will penetrate further into the formation.
The depth of filtrate penetration is commonly one or two
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feet, but may go up to as deep as seven or eight feet in
some cases.
The volume of leak-off is dependent upon various
✓
factors, such as:
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The contact time of the drilling/completion fluid with the
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formation
✓ The properties of the drilling/completion fluid
✓ The characteristics of the formation
✓ Pressure differentials
✓ The formation thickness
The role of fluid invasion on

formation damage
This form of damage can be induced by interactions
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between the in-situ fluids and the invading fluids.
Formation clay swelling and dispersion
Chemical precipitation (compatibility).
Emulsion block
Water block l.c
Wettability reversals
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Bacterial growth.
Scale deposition.
Organic deposition.
Drilling, Completion and Workover Damage

Invasion of mud particles into the formation, which can
include clays, barite, other weighting agents, lost
circulation materials and cuttings.
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Drilling and cement filtrate damage may result in polymer
plugging, scale formation, clay swelling, clay dispersion,
and oil-mud slugging.
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The mud filter cake deposited on the exposed formation
face during drilling operations consists of solid drilling
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mud particles and some drill cuttings.
This filter cake forms a cylindrical barrier in vertical wells
or a truncated cone in the case of horizontal wells, of
reduced permeability around the wellbore
Formation Damage Associated With Fluid Filtrate

The liquid filtrate lost to a formation during well operations may be water
containing varying types and concentrations of positive and negative ions
and surfactants.
The liquid is forced into porous zones by differential pressure, displacing or
commingling with a portion of the virgin reservoir fluids.
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This may create blockages due to one or more of several mechanisms that
may reduce the permeability or restrict the flow due to relative permeability
or viscosity effects.
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Viscosity effects include emulsions, but also plugging by high viscosity
treating fluids which for some reason do not "break", or is not sufficiently
diluted to readily return to the wellbore under the influence of the available
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differential pressure
Increased water saturation causes water blocking, or reduced permeability to
oil and gas.
Liquid filtrate may create a viscous emulsion with the virgin reservoir oil or
water may tend to oil-wet the formation rock, reducing the relative
permeability to oil.
Emulsion blocks
An emulsion is defined as a
system that consists of a liquid
dispersed in another immiscible
liquid, usually in droplets of
larger than colloidal size.
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Stabilisers must collect at the
interface between the fluids to Oil In Water Water In Oil
keep the emulsion from Thick Thin
breaking. Viscous Less Viscous
materials, asphaltene,
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The most significant stabilisers
are fine particles of clay or other
and
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surfactants. Invisible Skin
In extreme cases, emulsions
can in fact kill a well. 0il (Interface)
The reduction in productivity
caused by emulsion is directly Water
related to the viscosity increase
created by the emulsion
Water Blocks
Water blocks often accompany an increase in water
saturation in low to medium permeability reservoirs.
A water block is defined as a decrease in a formations
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relative permeability to oil due to high capillary
pressures resulting from the interfacial tension between
water and oil.
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When the permeability is in excess of 200 md water
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blocks seldom, exist.
To better understand the phenomena, a description of
capillary pressure is important.
Capillary Pressure
When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a clearly defined interface
exists between them.
The molecules near the interface are unevenly attracted, and this
creates what is known as interfacial tension.
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If the interface is curved, the pressure on the concave side is higher
than the pressure on the convex side.
The difference between the two pressures is known as capillary
pressure
inch. l.c
The capillary pressures may run to hundreds of pounds per square
The pressure drop during production may not be high enough to drive
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filtrate out of these pore spaces, especially in the immediate vicinity of
the well bore
The water block mechanism can cause permanent impairment, or even
complete shut-off in highly depleted reservoirs.
Laplace capillary pressure equation

1 1
= ( +
Water
pc = pe - pw )
r1 r2
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Where,
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Pc =Capillary pressure (absolute units)
 =Interfacial tension
r1 and r2 Principal radii of curvature at any point on
the interface where the pressures in the oil and
water are pe and pw respectively.
Water Entrapment in
water wet reservoir
Effective Permeability
When two immiscible fluids such as oil
and water are flowing through a porous
media, each fluid has its own effective
permeability. K K
The effective permeability's are directly Absolute
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Permeability
related to the saturation of each fluid.
Effective Water Permeability Kw

Effective Oil Permeability Ko
Two points on the saturation axis are
known Swc the irreducible water
saturation, and Sw = 1.
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Water will not flow when the water
saturation is at Swc and kw = 0.
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When Sw = 1, then So = 0 and kw = k, the
absolute permeability. Swc 1-Sor
If Sw = 0, then So = 1 and ko = k.
0 0
When the oil saturation decreases to Sor 0
Water Saturation Sw
1.0
the residual oil saturation, there will be

no oil flow and ko = 0
Relative Permeability
It is easier to describe the relationship
between effective permeability's and
saturation with a term called “Relative
Permeability”. 1.0 1.0
Relative permeability plots as shown
can be generated by normalising the
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Relative Water Permeability Krw

values for “Effective Permeability”
Relative Oil Permeability Kor

which is done by dividing the
“Effective Permeability” values by the
“Absolute Permeability” for each fluid.
following.
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The true significance of these curves
is realised when one considers the K'ro
K'rw
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✓ An increase in water saturation from
the residual connate saturation (Swc)
of 25% to Sw = 0.5 the reduction in Swc 1-Sor
relative oil permeability can be
reduced to 25% of the end-point 0 0
permeability 0 1.0
Water Saturation Sw
Understanding the skin damage

➢ For a wellbore, that has a radius (rw) and a
formation radius (re). If the thickness of the
formation is (h), then the flow situation is
described by the following form of Darcy's Law
-3
for radial flow: q q 1.127x 10 k dp
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v= = =
A = area of flow perpendicular to wellbore, ft2 A 2rh  dr
Q = flow rate - STB/day (Stock tank barrels/day)
K = permeability - md -3
M = Viscosity - centipoise
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H = formation thickness - feet q=
7.08 x 10 kh ( pe - pw )
 ln ( re / rw )
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Pe = pressure at outer radius - psi
Pr = pressure at wellbore - psi
Re = outer radius - feet q   ln ( r e / r w )
pe - pw = -3
Rw = wellbore radius - feet 7.08x10 k h
Ln = natural logarithm
B = Formation volume factor - reservoir bbl/STB
Radial Fluid Flow (no damage)
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➢ If a damage zone exists
from the wellbore out to a
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radius (r1), the total
pressure drop is that
across both the damaged
and undamaged zones.
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( pe - pw ) = ( pe - p1 ) + ( p1 - pw )
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q ln ( r e / r w ) q ln ( r e / r1 ) q ln ( r1 / r w )
-3
= -3
+ -3
7.08x 10 k avg h 7.08x 10 kh 7.08x 10 k 1 h
ln ( r e / r w ) ln ( r e / r1 ) ln ( r1 / r w )
= +
k avg k k1

Van Everdingen and Hurst introduced the
q
idea of a “skin factor” after noticing that
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for a given flow rate, the bottom hole
flowing pressure measured, was less than
the calculated theoretical value  P skin = - 3 S
This pressure drop from a damaged or 7.08x10 kh
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invaded zone close to the wellbore, is
represented by the skin factor (S) and has
been defined by van Everdingen as
kh( p ) skin
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shown on the right:
The skin factor in wells can vary from +1
s=
. q
to +10 or even higher.
Skin factor (s) is dimensionless. 1412

Darcy's equation for -3
7.08x10 kh( p e - p w )
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radial flow with the q=
pressure drop due to re
skin factor becomes: ( ln + S)
rw
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re
q( ln + S)
rw
kh = -3
7.08x10 ( p e - p w )

This graph shows that if the region in the vicinity of the wellbore is damaged, a
major reduction in productivity occurs. For example, if the permeability out to four
feet is reduced to one tenth of the original formation permeability during drilling
and completion, well productivity could be reduced to less than one-fourth of the
original productivity.
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Detection of Formation Damage

➢ The existence of formation damage is usually
indicated by a loss of production or lower than
expected production from a given well.
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➢ There are many ways to detect and evaluate the
existence of near wellbore damage, three major
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tools used for this purpose are:
1. Productivity index.
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2. Pressure draw down and build-up tests.
3. Flow efficiency
1. Productivity Index
One of the common q
methods of evaluating PI =
formation damage is the
productivity index of a well.
( pe - p w )
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If the productivity index of a q=flow rate - STB/day
given well is much lower pe=static reservoir pressure at outer radius, psi
than that of surrounding pw=wellbore bottom hole flowing pressure, psi
wells completed in the same Refer to darcy’s eqn for radial flow:-
formation damage l.c
zone, it is indicative of
Productivity index is defined q =

3
7.08 x 10- kh ( pe - pw )
 ln ( r e / r w )
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as the volumetric flow rate 3
divided by the pressure 7.08x 10- k h
PI =
draw down at the wellbore.  [ ln ( r e / r w )]
If damage exists it will be This eqn can be solved to get kh:-
reflected in the calculated q [ ln ( r e / r w )]
flow capacity, kh. kh = 3
7.08x 10- ( pe - pw )
2. Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests

To determine the amount of damage by a
pressure draw down and build-up tests.
Pressures are measured at the formation
while the well is flowed for a given flow time 162.6 q
(tp). m=
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Pressures are again recorded at the same
place after the well is shut in for a time (t).
kh
These pressures are then plotted on semilog
graph paper with the pressure on the y-axis Solving above equation for the
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and log [tp + t)/t] on the x-axis.
A straight line normally results if the test was
of long enough duration.
flow capacity, kh, results in:
162.6 q
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The slope of this straight line is labelled “m”
as shown kh =
This kh is the undamaged flow capacity of
the formation away from the wellbore
m
The flow capacity of the formation away from
the wellbore should normally be higher than
the damaged flow capacity near the wellbore
Pressure Build-up Plot

Pressure draw down and build-up tests
2,000
are normally run with a pressure gauge SLOPE (M) = 1910 -1500
to the bottom of the well. 1,900
= 410 psi/cycle
Flow times and rates are noted, and the 1,800
pressures are recorded. 1,700
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Once this information is obtained, the 1,600
pressures are tabulated opposite the
Pressure, psi
1,500
flowing time and shut-in time.
1,400
These data points are then plotted as
shown on similog paper.
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The slope is the "m", psi per log-cycle.
With this slope, m, and the skin factor,
1,300
1,200
1,100
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pressures, etc., the well flow efficiency 1,000
may be calculated. 900
This is the most direct measure of 800
formation damage.
700
If the flow efficiency is much less than
600
unity (one), then the well has been 1 10
damaged T + t / t
2. Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests - continued
The skin factor can be Draw-down:
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calculated as follows: pi - p1hr k
s = 1.151( - log + 3.23)
m  ct r 2
w
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p1hr - pwfs k
s = 1.151( - log + 3.23)
m  c r 2
t w
Flow Efficiency
Flow Efficiency (FE) = Ideal draw down/ Actual draw down
FE = Pe – Pwf – pskin/ (Pe – Pwf)
pskin = 0.87ms
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9ß S
 p skin = -3
(7.08 x 10 kh)
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Griffin and Zaki introduced the concept
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of damage-ratio (D.R), which in effect is
essentially the reciprocal of the well
completion efficiency as defined above
1
D. R. =
FE

Completion 6

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Completion 6

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https://oil-com.blogspot.

Introduction to well completion

(Part.VI) -Table of contents

The main causes of skin damage are:-

Classification of Formation Damage

Moderate to Deep Damage

The role of fluid invasion on

Drilling, Completion and Workover Damage

Formation Damage Associated With Fluid Filtrate

Laplace capillary pressure equation

Effective Water Permeability Kw

the residual oil saturation, there will be

Relative Water Permeability Krw

Relative Oil Permeability Kor

Understanding the skin damage

Radial Fluid Flow (no damage)

Understanding the skin damage

Understanding the skin damage

Understanding the skin damage

Understanding the skin damage

Understanding the skin damage

Detection of Formation Damage

Productivity index is defined q =

2. Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests

Pressure Build-up Plot

2. Pressure Draw Down and PBU Tests - continued

The skin factor can be Draw-down:

l.c Build up:

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