Geotechnical Engineering-1

Course Code –CE-221

Credit Hours -3+1

Contact Hours -3+3

1
 One dimensional Consolidation
• Terzaghi put forward a theory for primary
consolidation of soils, with its help it is possible to
make reasonable estimate of the magnitude and rate
of settlement of a structure placed on soils.
• This theory is referred to as one dimensional
consolidation theory because of the assumption in this
theory that flow of water in soil pores takes place in
vertical direction only.
• Consolidation test in the laboratory simulates this
condition.
2
 One dimensional Consolidation
In the development of one dimensional consolidation
theory, following assumptions are made
– The soil mass is completely saturated. Consolidation
settlement can be obtained for unsaturated soils but
predicted time for settlement to occur is highly unreliable.
– The water and soil solids are incompressible
– There is linear relation between applied pressure and
volume change. Change in effective stress (pressure) in soil
causes a corresponding change in the void ratio
– The seepage flow is restricted to one direction only.
(vertical)
3
 One dimensional Consolidation
– Darcy’s law is applicable (v=ki)
– The deformation is one dimensional (i.e the direction of
flow)
– The soil mass is homogenous
– The coefficient of permeability is constant

• In reality these assumptions are not fully met.

The result from consolidation studies, however
revealed that large discrepancies between the
nature and theory are brought about due to
presence of large volume of air in the voids of
soil. 4
 One dimensional Consolidation
• The consolidation characteristics of the soils
are the compression index Cc and coefficient
of consolidation Cv.
• The compression index Cc relates to how much
consolidation or settlement will occur.
• The coefficient of consolidation Cv relates to
how long it will take for an amount of
consolidation to take place.

5
 One Dimensional Consolidation Test
• The compressive properties of a soil are usually
determined in the laboratory by consolidation test.
The basic apparatus known as consolidometer or
oedometer is schematically shown in the figure.

6
Collection of Sample for the Test

7
 One Dimensional Consolidation Test
• Briefly, a consolidometer consists of a ring into
which a clay sample, undisturbed or remoulded is
carefully trimmed or fitted.
• On top and bottom of the sample, porous stones are
placed which permit vertical drainage of the water
expelled from the soil sample.
• A load is applied to the specimen via steel ball
bearing in order to apply uniform pressure to the soil.
• A dial gauge is used to measure the deformation of
the sample.
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 One Dimensional Consolidation Test
• The sample is totally submerged in water during the
test, simulating assumed total saturation of the in-situ
sample. It is fully saturated clay stratum that displays
lowest strength and greatest compressibility.
• The typical soil sample may very from about 3 to 10
cm in diameter and from 1 cm to 5 cm in thickness.
• The thicker samples are not used frequently, since
they require a long period of time for complete
consolidation. Also, the thickness of the soil sample
is usually small relative to its diameter (one half or
one third of the diameter) in order to minimize the
effects of friction between the soil and the ring. 9
 One Dimensional Consolidation Test
• Two types of rings are used i.e fixed and floating.
• Although various load increments may be used, it is
customary to use a sequence of loads of ¼, ½, 1, 2, 4
and 8 kg/cm2 (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 tsf). Each
load increment is double the preceding load.
• Although it is desirable that every load increment be
sustained for 24 hours, it is often satisfactory to load
the soil every 4 to 5 hours for small load and adopt
the 24 hours recommendations only for the
increments for which more reliable results are
required.
10
 One Dimensional Consolidation Test
• Dial readings are recorded at the beginning of the test
and usually at 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120,
240, 480 and 1440 minutes. Sometimes more
frequent readings are recorded.
• After the largest load for the test has been applied, the
load is usually decreased in two to three increments,
permitting a plotting of pressure with the void ratio
during the reloading phase of the test.

11
 CONSOLIDATION TEST
Sample No. BH-3, UDS-3, Depth 8.0 m Diameter of Consolidometer Ring, D 50 mm

One Dimensional Consolidation Test

Elapsed Loading (kg)
Height of Consolidameter Ring, H 19 mm
Unloaading (kg)
Time 0 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32 8 2 0.5 0

0 hrs 1000 1000 970 948 920.5 885 836 788.5 735 745.5 763 775

0.25 min 986.5 962 936 903 862 814 763 744 755 768 778

0.5 min 984 960.5 934.5 899 858 810 759 744.5 759 770 779.5

1 min 983.5 960 934 898 857.5 809 758 744.5 759.2 770.5 780

2 min 981 958.5 932 895.5 852 805 753 745 760 772 783

4 min 978.5 956.5 929.5 892 848 801 749 745

8 min 977 955 928.5 889 845 798 746

15 min 975 954 928 887.5 844 796 744.5 795

30 min 974 953.5 927.5 887 842 794 742.2

1 hr 972 953 926 886.5 841 793 740 745.5 763 775 800

2 hr 970 952 924 886 840 791.5 738

4 hr 970 951 923 885 839 790 737

8 hr 970 950 921 885 837 788.5 736

24 hr 1000 970 948 920.5 885 836 735

Before Test NMC After Test

Weight of Ring + Wet Soil Weight of Ring + Wet Soil
136.8 gm Wet Soil + Can = 63.18 gm 133.96 gm

Weight of empty Ring Weight of dry soil + Ring

59.18 gm Dry Soil + Can = 55.42 gm 123.57 gm
12
Wt of Can = 14.94 gm
 Calculation of Consolidation Test
CONSOLIDATION TEST

Sample BH-4, UDS-1, 2.0-2.55 m

Initial Final
Ring dia = 50 mm Gs= 2.67 Ring dia = 50 mm Gs= 2.67
Ring ht = 19 mm eo= 0.529 Soil ht = 17.00 mm ef = 0.368
Volume = 37.306 cc So = 96.70 % Volume = 33.38 cc Sf = 116.98 %
wt of ring= 59.18 gm Hs= 12.42 mm wt of ring= 59.18 gm Hs= 12.42 mm
ring+soil = 136.8 gm ring+soil = 133.96 gm
m.c. = 19.17 % f.m.c. = 16.14 %
Bulk den = 20.4 kN/m3 Bulk den = 22.0 kN/m3
Dry dens= 17.1 kN/m3 Dry dens= 18.9 kN/m3

Load Pressure D Reading Change Acc Cha Ht of sam Strain Void Ratio Cc mv E = 1/mv
2
kg kPa *0.01mm mm mm mm % e m /MN MPa
0.0 0.0 1000.0 0.000 0.000 19.00 0.00 0.529
0.5 27.5 970.0 0.300 0.300 18.70 1.58 0.505
1.0 54.9 948.0 0.220 0.520 18.48 2.74 0.487 0.0588 0.428 2.3
2.0 109.9 920.5 0.275 0.795 18.21 4.18 0.465 0.0735 0.268 3.7
4.0 219.8 885.0 0.355 1.150 17.85 6.05 0.437 0.0949 0.173 5.8
8.0 439.5 836.0 0.490 1.640 17.36 8.63 0.397 0.1310 0.119 8.4
16.0 879.0 788.5 0.475 2.115 16.89 11.13 0.359 0.1270 0.058 17.3
32.0 1758.1 735.0 0.535 2.650 16.35 13.95 0.316 0.1430 0.033 30.7
8.0 439.5 745.5 0.105 2.545 16.46 13.39 0.324
2.0 109.9 763.0 0.175 2.370 16.63 12.47 0.339
0.5 27.5 775.0 0.120 2.250 16.75 11.84 0.348
0.0 0.0 800.0 0.250 2.000 17.00 10.53 0.368
13
 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE
CONSOLIDATION TEST
0.60

0.50 0.505
0.487
0.465
0.437

0.40 0.397
VOID RATIO

0.359
0.348
0.339
0.324
0.316
0.30

0.20

Project:

Sample No. BH-3, UDS-3, Depth 8.0 m

0.10
10 100 1000 10000
PRESSURE, kPa

14
 Use Consolidation Test Data
• Load-deformation curve (i.e. void ratio versus log(p)
plot) is utilized to compute compression index, Cc,
which is used for the computation of total settlement
in settlement analysis.
• Time-deformation curves (i.e. degree of
consolidation, U, versus time plots) are used to
compute coefficient of consolidation, Cv which is
utilized in rate of settlement analysis.
• Consolidation test data can be used to calculate the
co-efficient of permeability, k from the following
relation: k
Cv =
mv w
15
 Constants and Definitions Arising from
Theory of Consolidation
Coefficient of Compressibility, av
• It is defined as ratio of the change in void ratio and
change in pressure. It is denoted by av . It is found
from the graph drawn at natural scale between pressure
and void ratio
e
av =
p

• Units are ft2/lbs

16
 Constants and Definitions Arising from
Theory of Consolidation
Compression Index, Cc
• It is defined as ratio of the change in void ratio and
change in pressure plotted on semi-logarithmic scale.
It is denoted by Cc .
eo − e1 e
Cc = =
log( p1 / po ) log( p1 / po )

• It is unitless

17
 Constants and Definitions Arising from
Theory of Consolidation
Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv
• Cv is constant derived from theory where
k
= Cv
mv w

• Where k is coefficient of permeability, mv is

coefficient of volume change and w is unit weight of
water
• It is ft2/sec

18
 Constants and Definitions Arising from
Theory of Consolidation
Coefficient of Volume Change, mv
• The coefficient of volume compressibility, mv
(ft2/lbs), is the compression of a soil layer per unit of
original thickness due to a given unit increase in
effective stress (pressure)
1  eo − e1  1  e  av
mv =  =   mv =
1 + eo  p1 − po  1 + eo  p  1 + eo

• It’s unit is ft2/lbs

19
 Constants and Definitions Arising from
Theory of Consolidation
Degree of Consolidation, U
• The degree of consolidation (or per cent
consolidation), U, is the ratio, expressed as a
percentage of the amount of consolidation
(settlement) at a given time, within a soil mass to the
total amount of consolidation (settlement) obtained
under a given stress condition
eo − et
U=
eo − e f
• It is unitless
20
 Constants and Definitions Arising from
Theory of Consolidation
Time Factor, T
• Time factor (T) is a constant derived from theory
t Cv
T= 2
H
• Cv- is coefficient of consolidation, H is drainage
path, t is time settlement has been occuring.
• To find time factor T, the following relations are used

 U 
2

For U < 60%, T=  

4  100 
For U> 60%, T= 1.781-0.933 log (100-U %)

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

Constants and Definitions Arising from

Theory of Consolidation
Time Factor, T Uavg T
0.1 0.008
• For practical purposes, the 0.2 0.031
relationship between T and U may 0.3 0.071
be taken as follows 0.4 0.126
• If the sample is drained from top 0.5 0.197
and bottom then H is always equal 0.6 0.287

to half thickness of the sample. 0.7 0.403

0.8 0.567
• It is unitless 0.9 0.848
0.95 1.163
1.0

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Problem
Problem
Problem
 Problem
• A consolidation test was performed on the
sample with initial dimensions of H=20 mm
and ring diameter = 63 mm. At the end of the
test, the sample height was 13.3 mm and the
oven dry weight of the soil was 78.3 gms.
Assuming Gs= 2.66 find
– Initial void ratio
– Final void ratio and Total sample strain.
 Determination of Cv from Laboratory
Consolidation Test
• Coefficient of consolidation for a particular pressure
increment in the oedometer test can be evaluated by
means of laboratory test by fitting the experimental
curve with the theoretical.
• The characteristics of the curves are brought out
clearly if time is plotted to square root or logarithmic
scale
• There are two methods which are commonly being
used for determination of Cv.
– Casagrande’s Logarithm of Time Fitting Method
– Taylor Square Root of Time Fitting Method
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 Logarithm of Time Fitting Method
(Casagrande’s Method)
• Figure is a plot showing relationship between
compression dial reading and the logarithm of time in
minutes of a consolidation test.
• The theoretical curve is a plot of average degree of
consolidation against the logarithm of time factor.
• The theoretical curve consist of three parts : an initial
curve which approximates closely to a parabolic
relationship, an intermediate portion which is linear
and a final curve to which horizontal axis is an
asymptote at u =100% or 1.

28
Logarithm of Time Fitting Method

Asymptote a straight line that

continually approaches a given
curve but does not meet it at
any finite distance.

29
 Logarithm of Time Fitting Method
• On the laboratory curve, the intersection formed by
the final straight line produced backward and the
tangent to the curve at the point of inflection is
accepted as the 100 per cent primary consolidation
point and the dial reading is designated as R100. The
time-compression relationship in the early stages is
also parabolic just as the theoretical curve.
• The dial reading at zero primary consolidation R0 can
be obtained by selecting any two points on the
parabolic portion of the curve where times are in the
ratio of 1: 4.
30
 Logarithm of Time Fitting Method
• The difference in dial readings between these two
points is then equal to the difference between the first
point and the dial reading corresponding to zero
primary consolidation.
• For example, two points A and B whose times are 10
and 2.5 minutes respectively, are marked on the
curve. Let Z1 be the ordinate difference between the
two points. A point C is marked vertically over B
such that BC = Z1. Then the point C corresponds to
zero primary consolidation. An average horizontal
line is drawn through these points to represent the
theoretical zero percent consolidation line. 31
 Logarithm of Time Fitting Method
• The interval between 0 and 100% consolidation is
divided into equal intervals of percent consolidation.
Since, it is found that the laboratory and theoretical
curves have better correspondence at the central
portion, the value of Cv is computed by taking the
time t and time factor T at 50 percent consolidation.
The equation to be used is:
2
T=
Cv t50 TH
Cv =
H2 t50
• T = time factor for t 50 = 0.197
32
 Square Root of Time Fitting Method
• This method is devised by Taylor. In this method, the
dial gauge readings representing the compression of
the specimen as ordinate are plotted for any pressure
increment in the consolidation test against the square
root of time as abscissa.
• On the theoretical curve, the straight line exists up to
60% consolidation while at 90% consolidation, the
abscissa of the curve is 1.15 times the abscissa of the
straight line produced. The use of this characteristics
of the theoretical curve to determine the 90%
consolidation point on the laboratory time
consolidation curve was suggested by Taylor. 33
Square Root of Time Fitting Method

Initial Compression

34
 Square Root of Time Fitting Method
• The fitting method consists of first drawing the
straight line which best fits the early portion of the
laboratory curve.
• Next a straight line is drawn at with all points at
abscissa 1.15 times as great as those of the first line.
The intersection of this line and the laboratory curve
is taken as 90% consolidation point. It is read as t90.
• The point corresponding to consolidation (U=0) is
obtained by producing back the linear part of the
curve to the ordinate at zero (0) time.

35
 Square Root of Time Fitting Method
• Usually straight line through the early portion of the
laboratory curve intersects the zero time line at a
point differing somewhat from the initial point. The
intersection point is called Corrected zero point.
• If one-ninth of the vertical distance between the
corrected zero point and the 90% point is set off
below the 90% point, the point obtained is called
100% primary consolidation point.
• At 90% consolidation, the value of T=0.848, the
equation for consolidation may be written as
Cv t90
T= 36
H2