UNIT -1

INTRODUCTION 10hrs
1.1 Air Transport.
1.2 Growth of Air Transport.
1.3 Airport Organisations.
1.4 Classification of Airports and Airfield Components.
1.5 Air Traffic Zones and Approach Areas.
1.6 Development of Airport Planning Process.
1.7 Consumers.
1.8 Airline Decision and other Airport Operations.
 UNIT-1
1.1 Introduction
Strategic Planning
Strategic planning is a process in which organizational leaders determine their vision for
the future as well as identify their goals and objectives for the organization. The process
also includes establishing the sequence in which those goals should fall so that the
organization is enabled to reach its stated vision.
Strategic Planning Process
Strategic planning is an ongoing process by which an organization sets its forward
course by bringing all of its stakeholders together to examine current realities and define
its vision for the future. It examines its strengths, weaknesses, and strengths, resources
available, and opportunities.

1.2 Air Transport

Air Transportation subsector provide air transportation of passengers and/or cargo
using aircraft, such as airplanes and helicopters. The subsector distinguishes scheduled
from non-scheduled air transportation.

A number of different types of air transportation exist, both commercially and

privately. Some of these types have been developed over the course of decades or even
centuries to meet the needs of modern humans. Each different type is unique in the way it
achieves flight, the speed it travels and the sustainability.

Many of the inventions have developed into large scale industries. However, some
methods are still in their infancy, or they merely represent a small niche within the world
of flight.

Air transport is an important enabler to achieving economic growth and

development. Air transport facilitates integration into the global economy and provides
vital connectivity on a national, regional, and international scale.

The movement of passengers and cargo by aircraft such as airplanes and helicopters. Air
transportation has become the primary means of common-carrier traveling. ... Air
transportation also provides a communication or medical link, which is sometimes vital,
between the different groups of people being served.
Different Types of Air Transportation
Hot Air Balloons
The first successful type of air transportation that carried humans was the hot air balloon. The
Montgolfier brothers developed the idea of designing a large bag or balloon that held hot air in
the late 1700s. Passengers and the heat source were placed in a gondola or wicker basket
underneath the balloon. Since hot air rises, the balloon flew according to the direction of the
wind. By cooling the balloon's temperature, the passengers safely floated back to earth. Today's
hot air balloons use almost the exact same technology, however, they are able to design the
balloons into nearly any shape imaginable.
Airplanes
The fixed-wing aircraft is the most popular form of air transportation available. According to
Flight Aware, a flight tracking organization, there are 49,315 commercial flights around the
world each day that use fixed-wing aircraft. Nearly 1.1 billion people are flown each year. Fixed-
wing aircraft are distinguishable from other types of air transportation in that they achieve lift
through forward motion. A long runway is needed for the vehicles to achieve enough velocity to
become airborne. Airplanes use a propeller or jet engine to power the aircraft, and the wings act
as a stabilizer for keeping the vehicle in the air.
The first design for functional fixed-wing aircraft dates back to the 1800s. Most of these designs
were models that were not large enough to hold passengers. The first official sustained flight was
performed by the Wright Brothers on Dec. 17, 1903. Over the next decade, advances in the
technology continued. World War I became the first full-scale testing ground for fixed-wing
aircraft. Thousands of planes were built for the purpose of spying, bombing and fighting. By the
time the war ended, aviation had become a science. Following the war, larger passenger planes
were produced, and ultimately, the jet engine was designed, making way for one of the fastest
modes of transportation in the world. Airplanes are used by militaries and civilian agencies
around the world. They have been incorporated with luxurious facilities in the case of passenger
planes and extensive weapons systems for military use.
Helicopters
With the success of the fixed-wing aircraft, engineers and technicians looked for a way to make
the general principles of airplanes, sustained and fast flight, more efficient. The goal was to
develop a flying vehicle that could take off from a sitting position and carry people to another
location. This invention is the helicopter. Helicopters are propelled using horizontal rotors
consisting of two or more blades. These blades rotate around the top of the machine, and achieve
lift, pulling the body of the helicopter along. Designs for the helicopter had been conceived as far
back as the 1480s, with Leonard da Vinci. However, it wasn't until the early 1900s that
individuals created working models. The post-war era saw the birth of the helicopter industry.
However, most models can only carry four to six people, limiting its commercial use. The
primary applications for helicopters are in the military, law enforcement, medical, news or fire
control sectors.
Personal Air Transportation
The mid-1900s saw the birth of a new type of air transportation: the personal vehicle. Individuals
invented autogyro, gliders and jet packs for the purpose of transporting a single person from one
place to another. Some of the earliest styles of helicopters were single-seat vehicles. This was the
inspiration for the autogyro. The autogyro uses elements from both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft
in order to fly. The lift is supplied by a rotor positioned on the mast. The stability and power for
flight is achieved by a rear propeller and a set of wings. Gliders use no power to control flight.
They simply use the stability of fixed-wings to soar through the air. The controller can move
flaps on the wings in order to hit updrafts that keep the vehicle in the air. A jet pack is a device
that is generally strapped to the back and releases a powerful blast of gases that allow the user to
fly. These devices are very inefficient, as most models can only contain enough gases to sustain
flight for a few minutes.
Rockets
Perhaps the most advanced form of air transportation comes in the form of rockets. Rockets use
thrust obtained via the chemical reaction of a fluid that is ejected at high velocities from the
vehicle. The force from the explosion within the vehicle's combustion chamber forces gases out
of the tail of the rocket, pushing the vehicle to extremely high speeds. The principle is based on
inertia, in that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Rockets have been used at least
since the 13th century for small-scale military applications and recreational displays. However,
the first full-scale implementation was during World War II with Germany's V-2 rockets and
various rocket-powered aircraft. The post-war era saw the rocket implemented as a mode of
transportation that allowed for suborbital and orbital flights in the upper atmosphere. These
vehicles are used for both public and private enterprises.
1.3 Growth of Air Transport

Between 1950 and 2020, air passenger and freight traffic grew systematically faster than gross
world product (or GDP) as the unique ability of air transportation to collapse space and time
drew more traffic. Correlation analysis reveals strong associations between air transport activity
and GDP; thus, the economic growth is directly associated with a corresponding level of growth
in passenger and cargo air transportation.

Air transportation endured a strong period of growth during the 1960s with passengers
and freight growth systematically in the 10%-20% range. Airports were being increasingly
congested and airline companies were looking for jet planes with higher capacities. The surge of
passengers-km in 1970 is mainly attributed to the introduction of the Boeing-747, a large
capacity airplane that revolutionized air transportation by offering lower fares, high capacity, and
a longer range of operation (thus more passengers-km).

A setback for air transportation came in 1973 with the Arab oil embargo and the
subsequent recession (1974-1975). The 1981-1984 recession, the Gulf War (1991), and the Asian
Financial Crisis (1997) were also economic setbacks that impacted air transportation.

The events of September 11, 2001, linked with a recession had considerable impacts on
air transportation which experienced a global loss of 35 million passengers between 2000 and
2001. This was the second time in history that passenger air transport experienced a year of
negative growth. The third occurrence of negative growth took place in 2009, the outcome of a
major financial crisis and an issuing recession. The industry experienced a drop of 9 million
passengers between 2008 and 2009.

The Covid-19 pandemic represents the fourth time the industry experienced a decline
with a strong divergence between passengers and freight activity, which was not apparent in
previous phases. While the number of passenger-km declined by 65.6% between 2019 and 2020
(a loss of 57 million passengers), the number of tons-km only declined by 0.1%.

The most recent estimates suggest that demand for air transport will increase by an average of
4.3% per annum over the next 20 years. If this growth path is achieved by 2036 the air transport
industry will then contribute 15.5 million in direct jobs and $1.5 trillion of GDP to the world
economy.

1.4 Classification of Airports and Airfield Components

Definition of Airport Categories

Different airports create a different experience for travellers. Some airports, like Portland
International Airport, have won awards for their positive passenger experience. Others, like
Gatwick Airport, have gained infamy for frustrating travellers.

But however a particular airport may come off to you, not all airports are created equal, and not
just in the way they serve passengers. While the interior of many airports may seem the same to
you, the fact of the matter is that their functions are quite different.

While you may not have to deal with this reality first hand, it nevertheless shouldn’t shock you.
After all, there are many different types of planes with many different jobs. Transportation,
cargo, domestic flights, international flights, military – whatever the purpose of the flight, there’s
an airport specifically designed for it.

All of this makes for a diverse flight experience when using different airports for different
reasons.

The most common types of airports in the world and what characterizes each of them are
mentioned below

▪ 1. Commercial Service Airports

▪ Non Primary
▪ Primary
▪ https://aerocorner.com/blog/types-of-airports/ - 2-commercial-service-airports-non-primary2.
Cargo Service Airports
▪ 3. Reliever Airports
▪ 4. General Aviation Airports
▪ 5. National Airports
 ▪ 6. Regional Airports
▪ 7. Local Airports
▪ 8. Basic Airports
▪ 9. Unclassified Airports

1. Commercial Service Airports are publicly owned airports that have at least 2,500
passenger boardings each calendar year and receive scheduled passenger service. Passenger
boardings refer to revenue passenger boardings on an aircraft in service in air commerce whether
or not in scheduled service. The definition also includes passengers who continue on an aircraft
in international flight that stops at an airport in any of the 50 States for a non-traffic purpose,
such as refueling or aircraft maintenance rather than passenger activity. Passenger boardings at
airports that receive scheduled passenger service are also referred to as Enplanements.

Of all the airports on this list, these are the ones with which you are almost certainly most
familiar, especially if you’re just a passenger and not involved in aviation yourself. LAX, JFK,
Heathrow, Charles de Gaulle – all of these are prime examples of commercial service airports.

Their international flavor also hints at one of the primary distinguishing features of this
type of airport. If you have been on a long cross-country flight or have crossed the Atlantic or
Pacific for an international flight, chances are you did so at an international airport such as these.

Commercial service airports tend to be quite busy, with flights coming in from all four corners of
the globe on a 24-hour basis. They are also where a lot of transfers and connections flights to
other international destinations occur.

a. Primary Airports are Commercial Service Airports that have more than 10,000
passenger boarding each year. Hub categories for Primary Airports are defined as a percentage of
total passenger boarding within the United States in the most current calendar year ending before
the start of the current fiscal year.

b. Non-primary Commercial Service Airports are Commercial Service Airports that

have at least 2,500 and no more than 10,000 passenger boardings each year.

2. Cargo Service Airports are airports that, in addition to any other air transportation services that
may be available, are served by aircraft providing air transportation of only cargo with a total
annual landed weight of more than 100 million pounds. "Landed weight" means the weight of
aircraft transporting only cargo in intrastate, interstate, and foreign air transportation. An airport
may be both a commercial service and a cargo service airport.
These types of airports specialize in handling cargo planes, shipping and delivery flights.
In order to be classified as a cargo service airport, the airport in question must have 100 million
pounds of “landed weight” there, according to the FAA.

Landed weight is defined by the FAA as the weight of a plane which is transporting “only
cargo in intrastate, interstate, and foreign air transportation.” Once again, we see overlap, as
airports can be commercial as well as cargo airports.
 This is certainly the case for some of the busiest airports in the world. Indeed, the fact
that they are both shuttling out more than 10,000 passengers a year and taking in more than 100
million tons of cargo makes them continuous international hubs of activity.

3. Reliever Airports are airports designated by the FAA to relieve congestion at

Commercial Service Airports and to provide improved general aviation access to the overall
community. These may be publicly or privately-owned.
The overlap between different types of airports is once more present here, with reliever airports
being a specific subset of cargo airports. Once more, the name gives a clue as to its role, as
reliever airports are used to “relieve” the traffic at some of the busiest cargo airports.

Beyond that basic definition, however, unlike some of the other airports on this list,
reliever airports don’t always have the most defined roles. They simply take flights which would
otherwise go to far busier airports.

One important thing to note about reliever airports is that unlike other airports, they can
be either publicly or privately owned. As such, private owners can benefit from diverting flights
from larger, public airports to their own.

4. General Aviation Airports are public-use airports that do not have scheduled service or
have less than 2,500 annual passenger boarding. Approximately 88 percent of airports included
in the NPIAS are general aviation.

In cooperation with the aviation community, FAA completed two top down reviews of
the existing network of general aviation facilities included in the NPIAS. The results of these
efforts are contained in two reports (General Aviation Airports: A National Asset) and have
been fully incorporated into the biennial NPIAS. The airport roles capture the diverse functions
and economic contributions GA airports make to their communities and the Nation. Five
categories for airports serving general aviation (includes non-primary commercial service,
relievers and general aviation) were developed based on existing activity levels.
5. National Airports: - The first of the four types of general aviation airports, national
airports are tasked with providing communities which might not otherwise have aviation support
with a means by which to access both national as well as international markets.

In an era where the world is becoming more interconnected every year, this type of
service is invaluable. No matter your interests or industry, chances are they are tied back into the
global economy and community, and you should have the opportunity to join in as well.

This can be especially useful in areas which are too small to be serviced by large airports.
This can also be highly beneficial for islands and other places which are too remote to be
serviced by a primary commercial airport.
6. Regional Airports: - This is the second type of general aviation airports. Whereas national
airports are concerned with facilitating trade and traffic across national and international
boundaries, regional airports tend to handle interstate trade.
This can be important for a couple of reasons. First, as indicated by the existence of
reliever airports, a lot of traffic can pass through commercial airports. Having airports
specifically dedicated to regional interstate trade can thus be very beneficial.

In addition, having more choices regarding the airports through which you can ship your
products can give those engaging in interstate trade increased freedom. Their smaller size can
also be beneficial to those for whom that is a convenience.

7. Local Airports
This is the third in the subset of generation aviation airport types listed here, and it makes
our focus even narrower. Whereas national airports handle national and international flights and
regional airports handle interstate trade, local airports handle intrastate trade.

This alone should give a hint as to where you might be able to find these types of
airports. A state needs to be big enough to require airport service to span its territory. You thus
won’t tend to find these in little states like Rhode Island and Mississippi.

For big states like California, Texas, and Alaska, however, local airports can be useful for
handling intrastate trade. Doing so also frees up the regional and national airports as well as
commercial airports in these states.

8. Basic Airports
The fourth and final of the general aviation airport types listed here, basic airports are
another node in the system tasked with connecting everything together. In particular, these types
of airports are tasked with linking communities to the national airport system.

In addition, they can be useful for helping to link communities to the type of service
provided by general aviation activities. Not all of these services are featured in large commercial
airports. As such, basic airports serve as connection points between niche and commercial airport
services.

Some of the most important services offered in these types of airports include servicing
aircraft flown by emergency services, offering chartered flights for important passengers,
handling certain cargo flights, and providing a space for flight training schools and personal
flights.

This helps make basic airports the small yet essential “jack of all trades” of the airport system.

9. Unclassified Airports
Finally, we conclude with a category which is intentionally vague. The FAA itself lists
these airports as unclassified without much in the way of defining features to them, in large part
because this category is really a grab bag.
 The only unifying feature of this category of airports is that they offer “access to the
aviation system.” Then again, can you imagine an airport that isn’t able to do that? If it’s
technically a US airport and doesn’t fit in any of the above categories, it winds up here.

That said, the chances of that happening obviously aren’t too high. Nearly all airports are
covered by the descriptions listed above. As such, these unclassified airports mainly exist as
technicalities and exceptions to the definitions in place.

Airports Are Classified Into Different Types on the basis of Aircraft characteristics

a) Based on Take-off & Landing: - Aircraft have different ways to take off and landing.
Convention airplane accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for take-off and
reverse process for landing. Some aircraft can take off at slow speed, this being a short take off
and land.
i) Conventional Take off and Landing (CTOL)Runway Length >1500 m
ii) Reduced Take off and Landing (RTOL)Runway Length 1000-1500 m
iii) Short Take off and Landing (STOL)Runway Length 500-1000 m
iv) Vertical Take off and landing (VTOL) Operational area 25 – 50 Sq m.

b) Based on Aircraft approach speed: It is to ensure aircraft operators are aware that the
aircraft approach category used during an instrument approach is determined by the aircraft’s Vref
at the maximum certificated landing weight or 1.3 Vso at the maximum certificated landing
weight.

Aircraft approach category means a grouping of aircraft based on a Vref (reference landing
speed), if specified, or if Vref is not specified, 1.3 Vso (stalling speed or minimum steady flight
speed in the landing configuration), both at the maximum certificated landing weight. Vref, Vso,
and the maximum certify cated landing weight are those values as established by the certification
authority.

c) Based on Function.
i) Civil Aviation: It is one of two major categories of flying representing all non-military
aviation, both private and commercial.
a) Domestic Airport: - Domestic airport is an Airport which handle only flight
within the same country and does not have custom and immigration facilities with
custom and boarder control facilities enabling passenger to travel between the
countries.
b) International Airport: -International Airport is an airport
ii) Military Aviation: -Military aviation is aviation used by military aircraft and other
flying machines for the purpose or enabling for the aerial warfare including national airlift
capacities to provide logistic support during the natural calamities.

d) Based on Geometric Design:- Proper designed airport geometry provide optimum

efficiency in traffic operation with proper safety.
Geometric design of runway is considered major part of the design of the runway.
 Airport Basic Runway Length (m) Width of Runway
Type Maximum Minimum Pavement(m)
A >2100 2100 45
B 2099 1500 45
C 1499 900 30
D 899 750 22.5
E 749 600 18

e) Based on aircraft wheel characteristics: - Aircraft wheel are an important component of

landing gear system. Depending upon the tyres mounted on it support the whole weight of the
aircraft during taxiing, landing and take off. Typical aircraft wheels are light weight, strong and
made up of aluminium alloy or magnesium alloy.

Code No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Single isolated 45000 34000 27000 20000 13000 7000 2000

wheel load (Kgs)
Tyre Pressure 8.5 7 7 7 6 5 2.5
2
(Kg/cm )

Main Airfield components are as below

a) Runway
• According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a
"defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft".
Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural
surface.
Runway is a paved land strip on which landing and takeoff operations of aircrafts
takes place. It is in leveled position without any obstructions on it. Special markings are made
on the runway to differ it from the normal roadways. Similarly, after sunset, specially provided
lightings are helped the aircrafts for safe landing. Many factors are considered for design of
runway. The direction of runway should be in the direction of wind. Sometimes cross winds
may happen, so, for safety considerations second runway should be laid normal to the main
runway.
The number of runways for an airport is depends upon the traffic. If the traffic is more
than 30 movements per hour, then it is necessary to provide another runway. Runway can be
laid using bitumen or concrete. Bitumen is economic but concrete runways have long span and
requires less maintenance cost. The width of runway is dependent of maximum size of aircrafts
utilizing it. The length of runway is decided from different considerations like elevation of land,
temperature, take off height, gradients etc.
 Runway with Night Facilities Taxiways connecting Runway
b) Taxiway
• A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars,
terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or concrete,
although smaller general aviation airports sometimes use gravel or grass. Most airports do not
have a specific speed limit for taxiing.
In modern airports, taxiways are laid at an angle of 30 degree to the runway so that aircrafts
can use it to change from one runway to other easily. The turning radius at taxiway and runway
meets should be more than 1.5 times of width of taxiway.
c) Apron
• The airport apron, apron, flight line, ramp, or tarmac is the area of an airport where aircraft
are parked, unloaded or loaded, refuelled, boarded, or maintained. Although the use of the apron
is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more accessible to users than
the runway or taxiway.
• The size of area to be allotted for apron and design of apron is generally governed by the
number of aircrafts expected in the airport. The aircraft characteristics also considered while
design. Proper drainage facilities should be provided with suitable slope of pavement. Sufficient
clearances must be provided for aircrafts to bypass each other.

Apron Terminal
d) Control Tower : - The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is
controlled whether they are in land or in air. The observation is done by the controller through
radars and information is carried through radio. The controller from the control tower observes
all the aircrafts with in that zone and informs pilots about their airport traffic, landing routes,
 visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc. based on
which the pilot decides and attempts safe landing. So,
control tower is like nerve system of an airport.
The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent
collisions, organize and expedite the flow of air
traffic, and provide information and other support for
pilots. In some countries, ATC plays a security or
defensive role, or is operated by the military.

e) Hanger
Hangars are buildings in which airplanes are repaired or serviced. Most airlines have their
own hangars, in which they can park many jets at the same time. Most hangars are far away from
terminals and runways so that they do not interfere with airport traffic.
Taxiway connects the hanger with runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can
be moved to hanger easily. It is constructed in the form of large shed using steel trusses and
frames. Large area should be provided for Hanger for comfortable movement of aircrafts.

f) Parking Area
This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers which is outside
the terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.

1.5 Airport Organisations: -

 OBJECTIVE : - The objective of the aviation regulation is to enable to understand the
legal background of the world civil aviation and all the rules and regulations connected
with Air Transportation the International regulations as well as national regulations.
The primary goal for a regulatory organisation is to protect the public, such as the
providing and enforcing an adequate standards for safety and security in an organization.
INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY BODIES: - Aviation law is the branch of law
that concerns flight, air travel, and associated legal and business concerns. In the
International realm, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) provides
general rules and aviation law and International Air Transport Association (IATA) is the
Trade Association for the world’s airlines. IATA was described as "the world aviation
cartel".

Role of IATA- IATA aims to achieve the following mandate: -

➢ To promote safe, regular and economic air transport,
➢ To foster air commerce,
➢ To study problems connected with airline industry,
➢ To provide a means of collaborating between air transport companies and
agencies,
➢ To co-operate with other international air transportation organizations

International Civil Aviation Organization - The International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) is a specialized and funding agency of the United Nations. It changes the
principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and
development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.
Its headquarters is located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
The ICAO Council adopts Standards And Recommended Practices (SARPs) concerning
air navigation, its infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and
facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation.
ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation that are followed by transport
safety authorities in countries signatory to the Chicago Convention on International Civil
Aviation
The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the technical body within ICAO. The
commission is composed of 19 commissioners, nominated by the ICAO's contracting states and
appointed by the ICAO Council.
Commissioners serve as independent experts, who although nominated by their states, do
not serve as state or political representatives. International Standards and Recommended
Practices (SARPs) are developed under the direction of the ANC through the formal process of
ICAO Panels. Once approved by the commission, standards are sent to the council, the political
body of ICAO, for consultation and coordination with the member states before final adoption.

National Organisation: -
a) Ministry of Civil Aviation (India) MoCA –
The Ministry of Civil Aviation of Government of India is the nodal Ministry responsible
for the formulation of national policies and programmes for development and regulation of Civil
Aviation and for devising and implementing schemes for the orderly growth and expansion of
civil air transport.
 Its functions also extend to overseeing airport facilities, air traffic services and carriage of
passengers and goods by air. The Ministry also administers implementation of the Aircraft Act,
1934, Aircraft Rules, 1937.

Composition of the Ministry - The ministry is under the charge of Hon'ble Minister of Civil
Aviation and Hon’ble Minister of State.
The Secretary, an IAS officer, is administrative the head of the Ministry and is assisted
by one Additional Secretary & Financial Adviser, three Joint Secretaries, seven officers of
the level of Director / Deputy Secretary / Financial Controller and ten officers of the level of
Under Secretary. It is located at New Delhi
The Ministry has under its purview the following organisations:
i) Directorate General of Civil Aviation.
ii) Airports Economic Regulatory Authority of India.
iii) Air India Ltd.
iv) Airports Authority of India.
v) Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited.
vi) Bureau of Civil Aviation Security.

b) Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is the regulatory body in the field of Civil
Aviation, primarily dealing with safety issues. It is responsible for regulation of air transport
services to/from/within India and for enforcement of civil air regulations, air safety, and
airworthiness standards
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is a statutory body of
the Indian Central Government to regulate civil aviation in India. Formed under the Aircraft
(Amendment) Bill, 2020, the DGCA investigates aviation accidents and incidents, maintains
all regulations related to aviation and is responsible for issuance of licenses pertaining to
aviation like PPL's, SPL's and CPL's in India.
The Government of India is planning to replace the organisation with a Civil Aviation
Authority (CAA), modelled on the lines of the American Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA).
Functions of DGCA : -
i) Registration of civil aircraft
ii) Certification of airports
iii) Licensing to pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers and flight
engineers, and conducting examinations and checks for that purpose
iv) Carrying out amendments to the Aircraft Act 1937, the Aircraft Rules 1934.
v) Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft
vi) Coordination of ICAO matters with all agencies
vii) Approval of institutes engaged in flying training, AME training, air traffic services
training or any other training.

c) Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS) - The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security
(BCAS) was initially set up as a Cell in the DGCA in January 1978 and the BCAS was
reorganized into an independent department under the Ministry of Civil Aviation on 1st April,
1987. The main responsibilities of BCAS include laying down standards and measures with
respect to security of civil flights at international and domestic airports in India. BCAS Head
quarter is located at New Delhi.
It is headed by an officer of the rank of Director General of Police and is designated as
Director General of Bureau of Civil Aviation Security.

VISION
Lay down standards and measures in respect of security of civil flights at International and
domestic airports in India while remaining sensitive to the globally evolving aviation security.
MISSION
Enforce all Standards & Recommended Practices of ICAO for International as well as
Domestic operations. Coordinate, monitor, inspect and train personnel in Civil Aviation
Security matters thereby maximizing effectiveness of aviation security and minimizing acts of
unlawful interference with civil aviation operations. Implementation of AVSEC Quality control
programme, and up gradation of technology for securing civil aviation operations.

Functions of BCAS:
i) Implementation of Aviation Security Standards in accordance with Annex 17 to
Chicago Convention of ICAO for airport operators, airlines operators, and their security
agencies responsible for implementing AVSEC measures.
ii) Monitoring the implementation of security rules and regulations and carrying out
survey of security needs.
iii) Planning and coordination of Aviation security matters.
iv) Surprise/Dummy checks to test professional efficiency and alertness of security staff.
v) Mock exercise to test efficacy of Contingency Plans and operational preparedness of
the various agencies.
vi) Ensure that the persons implementing security controls are appropriately trained and
possess all competencies required to perform their duties.
.
d) Airport Authority of India (AAI) –
It provides Communication Navigation Surveillance / Air Traffic Management
(CNS/ATM) services over Indian airspace and adjoining oceanic areas. AAI is currently
managing a total of 137 Airports, including 23 International Airports, 10 Customs Airports, 81
Domestic Airports and 23 Civil enclaves at Defence Airfields.
AAI also has ground installations at all airports and 25 other locations to ensure safety of
aircraft operations. AAI covers all major air-routes over Indian landmass. 52 runways are
provided with Instrument landing system (ILS) installations with Night Landing Facilities at
most of these airports and Automatic Message Switching System at 15 Airports.

Functions & responsibilities of AAI

The functions of AAI are as follows:
i) Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic
airports and civil enclaves.
ii) Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territorial limits
of the country, as accepted by ICAO.
iii) Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals.
iv) Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic
 airports.
v) Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the passenger terminals at
airports.
vi) Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, Taxiway etc.
vii) Provision of visual aids.
viii) Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar.

1.6 Air Traffic Zones and Approach Areas

Aerodrome Traffic Zone
Definition

An aerodrome traffic zone (ATZ) is defined according to ICAO Annex 2 "Rules of the air" and
Regulation & "Standardised European Rules of the Air (SERA)" as: an airspace of defined
dimensions established around an aerodrome for the protection of aerodrome traffic.

Description
The ATZ is intended to protect the aerodrome traffic, i.e. the traffic on the manoeuvring area and
the traffic in the immediate vicinity of an aerodrome. This includes, but is not limited to, the
aircraft in the aerodrome traffic circuit. There are no worldwide-accepted definitions about the
size of ATZs in terms of lateral or vertical limits.
Generally, the ATZ is considered to be a "small-volume" airspace, usually a cylinder
extending from the surface up to a few thousand feet with a radius of a few miles. The centre of
the ATZ may be the aerodrome reference point (ARP), the centre of the (longest) runway, or
another suitable point.
The airspace within the ATZ may be either controlled (or served by an aerodrome control
tower) or uncontrolled (in which case e.g. aerodrome flight information service (AFIS) is
offered).
The precise form and dimensions of the ATZ may vary from country to country. For
instance, the following policy is adopted in the UK:
• A zone extending from the ground up to 2000 feet with a radius of 2.5 NM around the midpoint
of the longest runway for aerodromes where the longest runway is longer than 1850 m.
• A zone extending from the ground up to 2000 feet with a radius of 2.0 NM around the midpoint
of the longest runway for aerodromes where the longest runway is shorter than 1850 m.
• A zone extending from the sea level up to 2000 feet with a radius of 1.5 NM around an offshore
installation.

A control zone (CTR or controlled traffic region) in aviation is a volume of controlled

airspace, normally around an airport, which extends from the surface to a specified upper limit,
established to protect air traffic operating to and from that airport. Because CTRs termed as
controlled airspace, aircraft can only fly in it after receiving a specific clearance from air traffic
control. This means that air traffic control at the airport know exactly which aircraft are in that
airspace, and can take steps to ensure aircraft are aware of each other, either using separation or
by passing traffic information.

The areas of responsibility for tower controllers fall into three general operational
disciplines: local control or air control, ground control, and flight data / clearance delivery—other
categories, such as Apron control or ground movement planner, may exist at extremely busy
airports.

Approach control service:-

When an aircraft enters the controller's area of responsibility, they resume control of the
aircraft to ensure it approaches the incoming airport and lands safely. Approach and departure
control is an air traffic function provided by air traffic control facilities in Class B and C airspaces.

Approach control service shall be provided:

a) by an aerodrome control tower or an ACC, when it is necessary or desirable to
combine under the responsibility of one unit the functions of the approach control service
and those of the aerodrome control service or the area control service; or
b) by an approach control unit, when it is established as a separate unit.

1.7 Development of Airport Planning Process

It involves planning, designing, and construction of terminals, runways, and other ancillary
facilities for airlines to operate. Developing an airport requires huge amount of capital and
anticipation of future growth of airlines and passengers. AAI is responsible for the development
of airports in India.

Airport Designing
Airport projects are involved with many considerations and issues hence they are highly
collaborative. Designing of airport is taken up by architectural firms. The architects work in
collaboration with civil engineers to come up with the Airport Layout Plans. The experts come
up with master plans which is referred to for further developments.
Planning an Airport
To plan an airport, the AAI is concerned for three approvals −
i) Technical Approvals
Review and approve Airport Layout Plan (ALP).
Review and acceptance of forecast.
Airspace and procedure changes.
Land acquisition.
ii) Financial Approvals
Funding for the airport is approved once the project gets clearance for safety, security,
capacity, and airport access systems.
iii) Environmental Approvals
 Review and assess environmental issues.
Find out solutions to address the environmental problems.
Airport planning is vital to understand problems and potential environmental issues. Out
of the reactive and proactive planning methods, an appropriate planning method is selected
depending upon the requirement.
Airport Development
It includes the development of the land to build the terminals and base, and building the
infrastructure for the ancillary facilities. All the infrastructural development is done in accordance
with the ICOA standards.
Airport − Terminal Planning
The following criteria need to be considered while planning and designing a terminal −
• Passenger flow and traffic peaking.
• Minimum walking distance.
• Level of service for passengers and sophistication.
• Performance standards.
• Area for Retailers: Duty free shops, food joints, and spas.
• Area for Facility points such as Restrooms, ATM machines, and kiosks.
Easy access to retail area and facility points.
Compatibility of facilities with aircraft characteristics.
Ability to handle changes in technology and automation.
Expandability for future growth.
Area and processing time for checking-in, immigration/customs clearance, baggage security
screening, and baggage delivery.
Airport − Terminal Configurations
Introduction: - The size and shape of the Air passenger terminals have changed significantly
during the last 25 years. In early days, terminals were very simple buildings which consists of
few passenger processing facilities such as ticketing and baggage handling. The passengers
usually walk to the aircraft which were parked closed to the terminal in the apron. Baggage
handling were manually. Most of the terminals were small and single level buildings. The cost of
the terminal was just the fraction of the total cost of the airport.
In present scenario, with the increased in demand for air travel and introduction of high
speed and wide body aircrafts, there is need for the bigger and more complex terminal buildings.
Due to the heavy traffic of aircraft and service vehicles at the airside area of the terminal,
passengers are not allowed to apron area.
 Aircraft parked positions are connected to the terminal building by using aero-bridges or
passengers are transported to the remotely parked aircraft by using special vehicles to avoid any
conflict at the airside. The links that have been introduced to connect aircraft parking positions to
the terminal contributes to the evolution of various terminal configurations.
At present, constructing a new passenger terminalis a multi millions dollar projects. A
significant portion of airport cost is spent on the terminals. Hence it important to select a suitable
terminal configuration to avoid any unproductive spending.
Unfortunately, terminal planner and designer have not paid much attention to the
evolution of performance of the different terminal configuration with respect to the possible
operational changes. (such as hub and spoke operation)
Much emphasis were given to form the terminal rather than the function of the terminal.
In many situations, the designer have tried to come up with architectural monuments
disregarding the passenger’s convenience. A few big terminals are functioning successfully
(Tampa International Airport) but many other have resulted in passengers inconvenience and
confusion (Dalla Airport).
However in discussion with representative of Airport and Airlines, it was apparent that
both are aware of the problems of excessive passengers walking distance within the terminal and
are prepared to considerate as major area in their future planning assignments.
Terminal Configuration: -
Airport terminals have usually been configured into four main groups/ categories are:-
i) Pier
ii) Satellite
iii) Linear
iv) Transporter
The designer tried to incorporate terminal operation concept into the terminal
configuration system. It is considered that pier and satellite terminals as a single group called
centralized terminal. Linear terminals were treated as gate arrival or decentralized terminal
whereas transporter concept was considered as separate category.
However, it is possible to have an intermediate operational concept which is neither fully
centralized nor fully decentralized terminals termed as semi-centralized terminals.as the function
of terminal will not only on the configuration but also on operational concept. So it is advisable
to use the classification system which takes into account with both the configuration and
operational concept. Further, to facilitate the evaluation of different terminals on the basis of
operational concept with respect to the terminal configuration used as reference for strategic
planning for different terminals at the airports.
Terminals are grouped or categorized on the basis of configuration concept and
operational concept are as follows: -
 a) Configuration concept –
i) Pier Configuration Concept
ii) Satellite Configuration Concept
iii) Linear Configuration Concept
iv) Transporter Configuration Concept
i) Pier Configuration Concept- In the Pier concept, the aircrafts are parked on either side
of the pier (concourses) that are extended from terminal block. Passengers access to the aircraft
gate along the axis of the pier.
A pier design usually a small, narrow building with aircraft parked on both sides.
One end connects to a ticketing and baggage claim area.
The pier concept provides interface with aircraft along piers extending from the main
terminal area. In the pier concept, aircraft are usually arranged around the axis of the pier in a
parallel or perpendicular parked relationship. Each pier has a row of aircraft gate positions on
both sides, with the passenger right-of-way or concourse running along the axis of the pier and
serving as the circulation space for enplaning and deplaning passengers. Access to the terminal
area is at the base of the connector (pier). If two or more piers are used, spacing for aircraft
maneuvering between the piers by means of an apron taxi lane is required.

ii) Satellite Configuration Concept: - Satellite Concept. The satellite concept consists of
a building, surrounded by aircraft, which is separated from the terminal and usually reached by a
surface, underground, or above-grade connector. Aircraft are normally parked in radial or parallel
positions around the satellite. The satellite can have common or separate departure lounges. Since
enplaning and deplaning of aircraft are accomplished from a~ common area, mechanical systems
may be employed to transport passengers and baggage between the terminal and satellite
iii) Linear Configuration Concept: - In the linear concept, aircraft are parked along the face
of the terminal building. Concourses connect the various terminal functions with the aircraft gate
positions. This concept offers ease of access and relatively short walking distances if passengers
are delivered to a point near gate departure by vehicular circulation systems. Expansion may be
accomplished by linear extension of an existing structure or by developing two or more linear-
terminal units with connectors.
iv) Transporter Configuration Concept: - In the transporter Configuration concept, the
aircrafts are parked at remote parking position. The passengers are transported to and from the
aircraft by means of special vehicles deployed at the airside area by individual airlines. There are
special loading position at airside face of the terminal building for transporter vehicles.

b) Operational Concept: - on the basis of the operational concept, the terminals are
classified into three Categories such as: -
i) Fully Centralized
ii) Decentralized
iii) Semi-centralized
 i) Fully Centralized – In the fully centralised terminals, all the elements in the passenger
processing sequence are located as much as possible in one area such as ticketing facilities,
baggage make up area, baggage break up area, baggage reclaim area, security process and other
passengers processing area are located in one main terminal block with respect to all the gates
connected to airport airside area for passenger boarding and de-boarding. Centralised terminals,
all the facilities available, staff services and all other resources are effectively and efficiently
used by the passengers. But some passenger experiences certain inconvenience during the
passenger’s peak hours.
The main advantages of centralized terminals are that they maximize the use of the
facilities and staffing, maximize passenger processing capacity and eliminate unnecessary
facility duplication. Centralized terminals also minimize staffing requirements for functions like
passenger security screening checkpoints, provide the opportunity to operate as a common-use
facility, and minimize interline connections. As airlines operate within consolidated terminal
facility the connections of passengers and baggage between airlines are typically closer and less
complex. The opportunities for concession revenues are also increased in a centralized terminal.
There is maximum exposure of departing passengers to centralized concessionaires which boosts
revenue production and eliminates the need to duplicate concession locations. In addition, macro
wayfinding in a centralized terminal is straightforward. There is usually one location for arrivals
and departures which simplifies the ground access infrastructure and decision making and
minimizes duplication of landside facilities such as rail transit stations. Moreover, the need for
connecting services such as within a multiple unit terminal complex is eliminated.

ii) Decentralised: -In decentralized terminals, each gate position has its own passenger
processing facilities. This concept increase the operational cost of the terminal.

Many airports in the US utilize this arrangement. At some high activity airports each
airline (or several airlines combined) may be located in a separate terminal building. This is the
arrangement of a decentralized or unit terminal. Multiple unit terminals represent the most
decentralized terminal function. Each terminal operates independently of the other terminals and
duplicates most facilities such as restrooms, building services, vertical circulation, and related
structures.
Most airports with multiple terminals do not evenly split operational activity and each
terminal must be capable of responding to individual peaks in activity. This requirement
generally results in a combined capacity greater than combined peak facility demand. A unit
terminal can also have characteristics of a decentralized terminal within a single structure. To
keep walking distances within desired maximums for O&D passengers a terminal may require
multiple security checkpoints which results in multiple passenger paths and vertical circulation
cores. These multiple paths may then require duplication of concessions and other services in
order to be visible to all passengers .An airport also may have different types of airline service
that require different types of terminals such as domestic service, low-cost carriers and
international service .
 iii) Semi-centralized: - In the semi- centralized terminals, separate passenger processing
facilities are provided to a group of aircraft/ airline gates. This types of terminals may consists
of single or several terminal blocks depending upon the degree of decentralisation. The terminal
blocks are connected to the individual terminal blocks by means of up-grade, at grade or below
grade connector. It is assumed that distance between the terminal blocks is kept at minimum
possible value for semi-centralised terminals.

Depending on the availability of land, semi centralised terminals can be arranged in many
different ways. For semi-centralised terminal, in certain cases, it is assumed that the airside and
landside of the airport are separated by the individual terminal block.
Examples of Airport Layouts
Airport planning is a systematic process used to establish guidelines for the efficient
development of Airports that is consistent with local, state and national goals. A key objective of
airport planning is to assure the effective use of airport resources in order to satisfy aviation
demand in a financially feasible.
 It involves planning, designing, and construction of terminals, runways, and other ancillary
facilities for airlines to operate. Developing an airport requires huge amount of capital and
anticipation of future growth of airlines and passengers.

1.8 Consumers
Consumer perceptions, attitudes and motivations
In the early age of this industry the consumers were not aware about the safety features of this
mode of traveling which was the major factor for not using the airline as a mode of traveling, but
later on when work has to be done in lesser time then people preferred airlines for their traveling
purpose in order to be more efficient personalities and preference was to be more in time rather
than on time. Specially the “me” attitude generation, commonly known as baby boomer
generation their behavior is more individualistic, more lively and free spirited.
Out of all the discussions about consumer behavior, three contemporary issues are the e-
consumer behavior, consumers’ buying behavior towards the services regarding airline,
considering the environmental friendly nature of service and the ethical concerns about consumer
behavior. With more and more airlines ensuring their presence on the internet and by
conventional method of promoting their airline services, it is essential for the analysts to study
the factors affecting the target market.

In travel industry different organizations have different strategies they use to make their
consumers their customers as the people traveling from same air lines gains points, on the basis
of those points they get discounts on their travels more over organizations design loyalty clubs
for those frequent travelers so they can make loyal customers not consumers.

As far as concern with the consumer psychic they will always go for best deals more over
thinking about to stick to a brand who is not providing them benefits compared to the other brand
but when we talk about customers the scenario changes as they would stick to the brand till they
can and organizations always hold their customers to them moreover old customers are more
preferred than compare to making new one.

It is also essential to look for the factors which make a customer to switch from one airline
service to another particularly young generation perceive value about the facility due to presence
of the different substitutes where purchase are a matter of only few minutes. With increasing
number of airline services being available, it is a matter of increasing importance by consider the
young generation to facilitate them with the perceive value of time saving, status symbol, and the
perception of consumers that air travel is the safest mode of traveling.

The baby boomers are more likely to spend money in traveling because they are more curious
then elder generation, and having a perception of availing different facilities during their journey.
As the purchasing power is an important factor to discuss, the baby boomers perception, attitude,
and motivation of buying anything is leading towards brand consciousness, and brand awareness
which is the perceive value of the customer.
Decision-making processes
The decision always based upon the demographic factors of consumers such as their income
level they spend, their age, and their traveling experience. As the awareness of everything is
increasing, young people have great exposure, so the traveling industries and their research
authority are planning strategically according to the behaviors of the consumers, the facilities
they are willing to avail and much more just to make their journey a memorable one.

The decision making process of baby boomers is evolving expectation around the perception
made by the particular airline giving services including the complementary services just to create
difference among its competitors.

The consumers take decisions on the bases of services facilities them which belongs to the status
symbol, the human psyche, the concept of self-expressiveness as the consumers are become
more up to date and fit themselves in fixed time, the time saving cost is important to take into
consideration. Apart from the entire psychological factor, it is important to take airplanes
accidents into consideration, but it is still consider the safest mode of traveling

From the consumer perspective the baby boomer left undue liability over coming new
generation. New generation go for brands, luxury, fine education institutions they are willing to
give more exposure, more knowledge to their coming generation. As far as the income ranges
concern the new generation is more diversify, and prefer to travel by airplane in order to saving
time rather than focusing on the expenses of traveling. The people belong to 18-40 age group are
more enthusiastic, more curious, and want to avail luxury, fine facilities in order to satisfy their
selves, and associate themselves with the wealth and fine service they are getting and exploring
the new ways by spending on traveling by air.

The consumer doesn’t need to take care of their luggage. It is the airline responsibility to take
care of consumer luggage. It is so obvious to the consumer about the facilities they get while
traveling.

Airlines have a huge number of strategies for making their customers loyal to particular brands
more over different studies shows that they have big influence on kids and their family on the
decision making of boomers as they advertise in such a way that it influence travelers and the
money they spend on it have to give out something which is more likely to influence the decision
on a family as people traveling with their families have different opinions and people doing
research on this part are smart enough to understand that family and friends and people who are
around you have a good influence on ones buying decisions, so as they spend their millions of
dollars in portraying ones feelings are never a loss more over is always a good gain. As the way
their advertise their adds it is always appealing too consumer more over kids are more attracted
and more children are always influence on family decisions its the consumer psychic a nuclear
family always have plans that are a family decision.
1.8 Airline Decision and other Airport Operations

Airport operations encompass all of the processes involved in an airport to

ensure your experience runs as smoothly as possible. This includes airport customer
service, TSA, gateway operators, and more. Like many fields, airport operations is
a very diverse industry with a plethora of opportunities to be explored.

Airport operations
Before we learn about the software, let’s start with the main airport operations.
They can be divided into four types: landside operations, airside operations, billing
and invoicing, and information management.

Landside operations are aimed at serving passengers and maintenance of terminal

buildings, parking facilities, and vehicular traffic circular drives. Passenger
operations include baggage handling and tagging. Terminal operations comprise
resource allocation and staff management.

Airside operations include aircraft landing and navigation, airport traffic

management, runway management, and ground handling safety.

Billing and invoicing operations cover aeronautical and non-aeronautical

revenue. Ledger or accounting systems contain information regarding airport
finances: flight bills, handling invoices, cash, sales within the airport (points-of-
sales), staff payrolls, etc.

Information management relates to the collection and distribution of daily flight

information, storing of seasonal and arrival/departure information, as well as the
connection with airlines.

Airport management systems, as airport software is often called, serve to optimize

all these operations: passenger processing, baggage tagging and handling,
arrival/departure operations, departure control systems, information distribution,
and air traffic control (ATC). Airport software can also include other solutions,
like CRMs and environmental management systems. Let’s take a closer look at the
modules of airport management software.
Modules of airport management software
Airport management systems usually have most of the following modules, but they
are not limited to them.

Airport software system

Airport Operational Database (AODB)

Software providers: Amadeus IT Group, Leidos, SITA, Rockwell Collins,
Siemens

Each airport has its own central database that stores and updates all necessary data
regarding daily flights, seasonal schedules, available resources, and other flight-
related information, like billing data and flight fees. AODB is a key feature for the
functioning of an airport.

This database is connected to the rest of the airport modules: airport information
systems, revenue management systems, and air traffic management. The system
can supply different information for different segments of users: passengers,
airport staff, crew, or members of specific departments, authorities, business
partners, or police. AODB represents the information on a graphical display.
AODB functions include:

• Reference-data processing
• Seasonal scheduling
• Daily flight schedule processing
• Processing of payments
The most important information that this database holds is the seasonal schedule. It
displays information about commercial flight movements for a season. Usually, it
contains the flight code, type of aircraft, their estimated arrival and departure
times, multi-stop flights, operation days of the week, exception dates, and other
relevant information. This information entered manually or downloaded allocates
such resources as arrival or departure gates, air-bridges and stands, check-in desks.

While AODB stands alone and doesn’t belong to any operations, it is the backbone
of the airport. Information stored in AODB facilitates the planning and allocation
of the physical and financial assets of an airport.