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An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat

district of Western Nepal

Article  in  Journal of Ethnopharmacology · January 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.057 · Source: PubMed

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 Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Research Paper

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people

in Parbat district of western Nepal
Birendra Malla a,n, Dhurva P. Gauchan b, Ran B. Chhetri a
a
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Science, Kathmandu University, PO Box 6250, Kathmandu, Nepal
b
Department of Biotechnology, School of Science, Kathmandu University, PO Box 6250, Kathmandu, Nepal

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Nepal, a mountainous country having diversified topographic and
Received 16 September 2014 climatic conditions, gives rise to a wide range of flora and fauna. In villages ethnic people, including
Received in revised form Magar and Majhi highly depend on medicinal plants for their primary healthcare. Due to over-
22 December 2014
exploitation, encroachment in forest for arable land and destruction of natural habitat, potentially
Accepted 24 December 2014
useful medicinal plants are going to be threatened in their natural environment. There is a strong need to
Available online 5 January 2015
enlist highly valuable medicinal plants and use traditional knowledge to protect, utilize and manage
Keywords: them in ex-situ and in-situ conservation. The present research investigates and documents traditional
Ethnobotany knowledge on medicinal plants utilization as natural medicine by two ethnic communities Magar and
Medicinal knowledge
Majhi of Parbat district in Western Nepal.
Traditional healers
Methods: Ethnomedicinal data was collected during 2012–2013 by the following standard ethnobotani-
Magar and Majhi
Western Nepal cal methods. Data about medicinal uses of herbs, shrubs and trees were collected using semi-structured
questionnaire, field observation, personal interview and group discussion with 334 (130 men and 204
women) pre-identified local informants, among which 13 male and 2 female were local healers.
Statistical tool, informant consensus factors (FIC) and fidelity level (FL) values were used to analyze the
importance of ethnomedicinal plants.
Results: A total of 132 ethnomedicinal plant species belonging to 99 genera and 67 families have been
documented. These plants are used to treat various diseases and disorders grouped under 12 disease
categories, with the highest number of species (61) being used for gastro-intestinal, parasitic and
hepatobiliary disorders (FIC ¼0.78%), followed by blood and lymphatic system (FIC ¼ 0.76%) category. The
highest fidelity level (FL) values recorded in Paris polyphylla (FL¼ 96.0%) followed by Bergenia ciliata
(FL ¼95.0%) confirms that these plants are the best plant species with medicinal properties.
Conclusions: The two ethnic communities, Magar and Majhi, in Parbat district are rich in ethnomedicinal
knowledge. The high degree of consensus among the informants suggests that current use and
knowledge are still strong, and thus the preservation of indigenous knowledge would show good
foresight in acting before much has been lost.
& 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-
ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Human beings vital interest in plants, primarily as a source of
food, shelter and clothing, dates back to the beginning of human
civilization. Plants contain a large number of spread of pharma-
cologically active ingredients and each herb has its own unique
combination and properties. Ethnic people depend on the plants
around them to acquire knowledge of economic values and
medicinal properties of many plants which is based on need,
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 977 11663736; fax: þ 977 011 661443.
E-mail address: b.malla@nins.edu.np (B. Malla).
observation, experience of older ethnic people, and trial and error.
Indigenous medicines provide considerable economic benefits to
ethnic people. The World Health Organization (WHO) mentioned
that about 25% of modern medicines are developed from plants
sources used traditionally; and research on traditional medicinal
herbal plants lead to discovery of 75% of herbal drugs (Mian-Ying
et al., 2002). World Health Organization (WHO) (2002) recorded
approximately over 21,000 plant species for their medicinal uses
throughout the world. Trade in drug from origins is getting
recognition and popularity globally, and now it is a profitable
business generating lots of income. Bioactive compounds from
medicinal plants can be directly used as healing agent and their
phytochemicals also serve as lead compound for developing

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.057
0378-8741/& 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
104 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117
Fig. 1. Map of the study area in Parbat district, Nepal.
potential drugs to cure various diseases in human (Kamboj, 2000;
Verma and Singh, 2008). Various higher plants are well known for
drug therapy in traditional medicine (Martini-Bettolo, 1980;
Farnsworth et al., 1985; Akerele, 1993; Aniyam, 1995; Martin,
1995a, 1995b; Ghorebani et al., 2006; Shanmugasundaram et al.,
2011).
In Nepal, there are about 8.4 million indigenous people of different
groups inhabiting various terrains. They possess their own culture,
religious rites and rich traditional medicine practices. 6653 species of
Angiospermic plants were documented among which 1792 to 2331
were recorded as potential medicinal and aromatic plants (Rokaya
et al., 2010). Despite having immense potentialities to promote
medicinal plants at national as well as international markets, the
country is still far behind to utilize available resources to generate
revenue. Traditional herbal medicine in Nepal has strong cultural and
religious foundation. It exists in different ways among ethnic groups in
their ritual or ceremonial practices, spiritual practices and self-healing
practices. Indigenous and local communities have been using tradi-
tional and indigenous knowledge for centuries under local laws,
customs and traditions to cure different diseases. Indigenous knowl-
edge not only identifies but also provides the system of management
of natural resources (Koirala and Khaniya, 2009).
Studies on ethnomedicinal plants of Nepal have been con-
ducted in the past by the Nepalese and foreign researcher; and
comprehensive works have already been published (Rajbhandari,
2001; Manandhar, 2002). However, there are limited studies of
this kind with a focus in hilly districts. Plants having medicinal
properties have been studied time to time in different parts of
Nepal by several researchers (Manandhar, 1993, 1995, 1998;
Bhattarai, 1998; Eigner and Scholz, 1999; Joshi and Joshi, 2000;
Shrestha et al., 2001; Shrestha and Dhillion, 2003; Mahato and
Chaudhary, 2003; Kunwar and Bussmann, 2008; Panthi and
Chaudhary, 2003; Sharma et al., 2004; Bhattarai et al., 2006,
2009; Ghimire and Basakoti, 2009; Kunwar et al., 2009; Acharya
and Acharya, 2009; Uptrei et al., 2010; Joshi et al., 2011; Malla et
al., 2014). In Parbat, some of the studies on ethnomedicinal plants
have already emphasized on their importance by some researchers
(Malla and Chhetri, 2012; Thapa, 2012; Malla et al., 2014); but not
much work on their importance has been done especially with
reference to Magar and Majhi. In addition, due to the availability
of modern medical facilities, the tradition of using indigenous
knowledge for the treatment of common ailments is also rapi-
dly disappearing. Keeping in view the importance of traditional
knowledge of ethnic people, the present survey enlists the
 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117 105

Fig. 2. Collected medicinal plants from Parbat district, Western Nepal. (A) Spiranthes sinensis. (B) Acampe papillosa. (C) Bergenia ciliate. (D) Dendrobium moschatum. (E) Paris
Polyphylla (whole plant). (F) Researcher with Taxus wallichiana. (twig & ripened fruits). (G) Plant paste applying on fresh wound. (H) Aerial view of Lespar village (Magar
community) of Parbat district (2100 m).

Fig. 3. A Magar informant with medicinal plant. Fig. 4. A Majhi fishing in Kaligandaki river.
106 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117

medicinal plants used by Magar and Majhi in Parbat district of
Nepal. Emphasis has also been given to prepare ethnomedicines,
their application, management and conservation.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
Parbat, a hilly district situated in the western part of Nepal, lies
between 271580 N to 281390 N latitudes and 831340 E to 831590 E
longitudes; its geographical limit is 536.86 sq. km. area and
altitudinal variation starts from 520 m. to 3309 m. above the sea
level. The headquarter of the district is Kushma. The political
boundaries of the district extend in the east to Syangja and Kaski
districts; Baglung, Myagdi and Gulmi districts in the west; Myagdi
and Kaski districts in the north and Syangja and Gulmi districts in
the south (Fig. 1). It has sub-tropical, temperate and sub-alpine
monsoon type of climate with maximum temperature below 35 1C
during summer (May–June) and above 7.0 1C during winter
(December-January); and the northern part is moistened because
of high rainfall and southern part is dry due to low rainfall. The
average annual rainfall is 1950 ml. The major castes of the district
are Brahmin (35.73%) followed by Chhetri (17.30%), Magar (10.96%)
Kami (9.22%), Damai (7.51%), Sarki (6.66%), Gurung (3.69%), Tha-
kuri (2.50%), Newar (2.38%), Snayasi/Dashnami (1.43%), Sunar
(0.77%), Thakali (0.70%), Gharti/Bhujel (0.49%), and Majhi (0.20%).
Beside agriculture, animal husbandry is the main occupation of the
tribal communities due to excess availability of fodders. Goats,
cows, bulls, buffaloes and sheep are the main cattle of the local
people in the district. On the basis of altitude and different types of
climate, the vegetation pattern of the district is divided into
conifer forest (10.5%), broad leaved forest (69.5%), shrub forest
(7%) and mixed forest (13%). It is traversed by two big rivers
Kaligandaki and Modi as well as other rivulets, streams and
streamlets such as Lingdikhola, Panyukhola, Luwakhola etc.
2011). Thapa, Gharti, Rana, Ale, Roka, Pun, Budhathoki, Saru,
Budha, Paija, Purja, Kham, etc. are different clans of Magars. The
language of Magar belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family. Magars
are short and stocky in built with average height of 5 to 5 ft 7 in.
They are white in complexion, have oval-round face, black hair and
razor cut eyes. The man folk wear tunic bhoto or shirt of the vest
with Nepali topi while women folk wear chaubandicholo, lungi and
patuka. Pote, tilahari, mundri and bulaki are the common orna-
ments used by the women to decorate themselves. Special orna-
ment of Magar is made by the beaten gold pieces in elongated and
circular shaped called sirbandhi and sirphul.
Economical activities of Magars are mainly agriculture, selling
of cash crops and animal husbandry. Large number of Magar
population is involved in dry crop farming and buffalo rearing;
many Magars have not only earned their living but also have
earned name by joining British and Indian Security forces. They
usually built two storey houses with thatched roof; round oval
houses are common in western part but not in the eastern hills.
Houses are painted with different natural colors depending upon
the availability of colors in close vicinity. The houses have stone
walls, wooden shingle roofs, and verandan along the front. The
timbers used are of locally available trees from community forests.
Magars follow both Hinduism and Buddhism. Khas-bhaun
Magar worship Bahaun priest perhaps due to living in same
society for long time. There exist differences in rituals and
tradition of Bara Magarath and Aratha Magarath, and they also
have their distinct dialect. Sorathi, ghatu, jhabre, nachari, salaijeu,
dohori are the songs and dances of Magars. Magar worships idol,
supernatural power dhami and jhakri. They relate them to nature
and worship it. Dead bodies are buried and death is celebrated
with singing, dancing and feeding with the belief that the
deceased go to heaven and that moment should be cherished.
2.4. Majhi

2.2. Ethnic communities in Parbat district Majhis are one of the indigenous people of Nepal having their
own language, culture and tradition (Fig. 4). Majhis have special
Ethnic communities like Gurung, Magar, Majhi, Newar, Thakali, relation with rivers in the sense that their life and living are
Kumal, Sarki, Kami, Damai, Snayasi/Dashnami, Gharti/Bhujel and depend on rivers. Traditional occupation of Majhi people are
Sunarin Parbat district have good association with the plants making boats, fishing and helping people cross rivers. Therefore,
resources used for various purposes in day to day life. These
Table 1
ethnic communities have been long associated with the utilization
Age and gender distribution of ethnic informants.
of plant resources in their immediate vicinity—they have passed
down valuable information chiefly through oral conversation from Age group Gender No. of persons Percentage
generation to generation (Fig. 2). This study has documented
knowledge of traditional plant use existing among some of the Male Female

communities such as Magar and Majhi.

30–39 12 17 29 8.6
40–49 28 47 75 22.4
2.3. Magar 50–59 37 65 102 30.5
60–69 39 50 89 26.6
70–79 þ 14 25 39 11.8
Magars are one of the indigenous peoples having their own Total 130 204 334
distinct language, culture, custom and history (Fig. 3). Based on
their language, culture and distribution, Magars are divided into
four major groups viz., Artha Magarth, Bara Magarth, High-
mountain Magarath and Chhantyals. Among them, Chhantyals Table 2
belonging to Karnali and Gandaki river region and there exists Education level of interviewed ethnic informants.
slight difference in their cultures. It has been noted that the major
Education level No. of individuals Percentage
areas of inhabitation of Magars is the western part of Nepal. The
Magar settlement range from Kaski, Syangja, Gulmi, Parbat, Palpa, Illiterate 132 39.5
Argakhachi, Myagdi, Baglung, Pyuthan, Rolpa, Rukum and Dang Primary 98 29.3
districts. They have spread all along the hills of east Nepal and in Middle 60 17.9
few places in the eastern Terai. Magar represent third largest Secondary 40 11.9
University 04 1.9
ethnic group and eighth major mother language speaker tribe 334
having the population 10.96% of total population of Nepal (CBS,
 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117 107

Table 3
Enumeration of medicinal plants used for curing various human diseases in Parbat district.

Botanical name/ Family Local namen Altitude Locality Parts used Ethnomedicinal uses
voucher number (m)

Abies spectabilis (D. Pinaceae Gobre salla, Talish 2750 Lespar- Leaf, Juice of the leaves about 5 teaspoons twice a day is used for
Don) Mirb. BM 0311 patra (N), Thingre salla kyang needle asthma, bronchitis, colds and rheumatism
(M)
Acampe papillosa Orchidaceae Sungava phul (N, M) 1075 Behulibans Root, leaf A decoction of the root about 5–6 teaspoons twice a day is
(Lindl.) Lindl. BM Sungava ful (Ma) used against rheumatism, backache and neuralgia. A juice of
0317 leaves about 2–3 drop is dripped to the ear in earache
Aeschynanthus Gesneriaceae Ilipile (N), Khagija 1563 Salija Leaf, flower Juice of the crushed leaves about 4 teaspoons twice a day is
sikkimensis (C.B. (Ma) given to treat fever and body pain. It is also applied for
Clarke) Stapf. BM inflammatory glands. Infusion of flowers is given against
0462 tonsillitis
Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthaceae Lunde, Maeshe (N), 1250 Banou Root, leaf Root juice about 4 teaspoons twice a day for 3 days is used to
BM 0009 Lunde (M), Gandri cure fever and urinary problems. It is also used for laxative in
(Ma) children and in diarrhoea
Anaphalis contorta (D. Asteraceae Bukiphul (N, M) 1790 Kyang Whole A decoction of the plant about 4 teaspoons once a day for a
Don) Hook. f. BM plant week is given to relief cough and colds, wounds and boils
0493
Anaphalis margaritacea Asteraceae Bukiphul (N, M) 1920 Chitre Leaf, root Root juice, in doses about 3–4 teaspoons twice a day is taken
(L.) Benth. & Hook. f. to cure diarrhoea, toothache and indigestion. Paste of the plant
BM 0353 is taken to treat cough and cold. The paste of root is applied to
cure cuts, wounds and boils
Anaphalis triplinervis Asteraceae Buki (N, Ma), Phajar 2550 Banou Flower Paste of the flower is applied externally to cure cut and
(Sims.) C. B. Clarke (M) wounds
BM 0481
Anemone vitifolia Asteraceae Dhanero, Kapase (N), 2017 Lespar- Root, leaf A decoction of the leaves about 5 teaspoons twice a day is
Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Bhaisya marelo (M) Kyang given to relief toothache, headache, dysentery, vermifuge,
BM 0503 scabies, and kill head lice. Root paste is also applied to remove
head lice
Angelica archangelica L. Apiaceae Gundang (N, M) 2830 Sirpu- Leaf A decoction of the leaves about 5–6 teaspoons three times a
BM 0384 Lespar day is recommended in abdominal pain, indigestion and
hypertension
Arisaema concinnum Araceae Banko (N), Kal (M) 2003 Lespar- Rhizome A decoction of rhizome is given to cure menstrual disorder
Schott. BM 0063 Kyang
Arisaema flavum Araceae Chari banko (N), 2130 Lespar- Rhizome, Rhizome and red fruits are chewed raw in case of any poison
(Forssk.) Schott. BM Timchu (M) Kyang fruit causing numbness of tongue
0061
Arisaema tortuosum Araceae Banko, Sarpako Makai 1523 Banou Seed Paste of the seeds is applied to remove worms from wounds. It
(Wall.) Schott. BM (N, M) is also used as antidote in snakebite
0496
Asparagus racemosus Asparagaceae Kurilo, Satawari (N), 891 Fabebas Root, tuber, The root powdered is considered as a tonic. Cooked tuber is
Willd. BM 0270 Kurilo (M), Kurila (Ma) Devisthan fruit, stem used for kidney and liver problems, sore throat and
rheumatism
Benincasa hispida Cucurbitaceae Kubindo (N), Bomosya 1190 Ranipani Fruit, leaf Juice of the fruit is antidote in alcohol poisoning. It is also
(Thunb.) Cogn. BM (M), Kuminda (Ma) useful in case of epilepsy and nervous diseases. Leaves juice is
0237 recommended for a week in doses about 5–10 teaspoons in
case of heart diseases, tuberculosis and colic pain
Berberis aristata DC.BM Berberidaceae Chutro (N,M) 1950 Banou Root, bark Root juice about 5 teaspoons twice a day is administered for
0307 fever, dysentery, skin troubles and in blood purification. Stem
bark paste is used in ripening piles, sore throat and skin
disease
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Saxifragaceae Dhungri ko jhar, 2820 Lespar- Rhizome, Latex is applied externally for the gum diseases and decoction
Sternb. BM 0254 Silparo (N), Pakhanbed Kayang latex of the rhizome about 5 teaspoons three times a day for a week
(M), Padambet (Ma) is given for urinary problems especially for kidney stone
Bistorta amplexicaulis Polygonaceae Chyau phul (N, M) 2716 Sirpu- Leaf Paste of the leaves is applied to cure cuts and wounds
(D. Don) Greene BM Lespar
0483
Bistorta macrophylla Polygonaceae Chyau phul (N, M) 2746 Sirpu- Whole A decoction of the plant about 5 teaspoons three times a day
(D. Don) Sojak BM Lespar plant for 3–4 consecutive days is given in case of diarrhoea and
0472 dysentery
Boehmeria platyphylla Urticaceae Gargalo, Kamle ghans 1516 Pang Leaf, root A decoction of the leaves is given to treat diarrhoea, dysentery
D. Don BM 0465 (N), Kharchauti (M) and urinary problems. Paste of the root is applied to fresh cuts
and wounds
Boenninghausenia Rutaceae Dampate, Gwame jhar 1920 Durlung Leaf Leaves juice is applied to stop cut- bleeding and wounds. Paste
albiflora (Hook.) (N), Kopyanchhi (G) is applied to forehead to relief fever and headache
Rchb. ex Meisn. BM
0485
Bryophyllum pinnatum Crassulaceae Ajambari (N, M), 1231 Behulibans Leaf Juice of the leaves about 5 teaspoons twice a day for a week is
(Lam.) Oken BM Ajammari (Ma) taken orally against dysentery. Leaf paste is applied to fresh
0333 cuts and wounds and on forehead to reduce headache
Callicarpa arborea Verbenaceae Mas gede (N), Guyela 1250 Bachchha Root, bark The root is chewed to treat boils on the tongue. Juice of the
Roxb. BM 0341 (M) bark mixed with bark juice of Cordia dichotoma and in doses
about 4 teaspoons is given to treat indigestion and fever
Camellia kissi Wall. BM Theaceae Banchiya (N), Chiya 1910 Bachchha Leaf Leaves are steamed, dried, and used as herbal tea in blood
0288 pate (M) pressure
108 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117

Table 3 (continued )

Botanical name/ Family Local namen Altitude Locality Parts used Ethnomedicinal uses
voucher number (m)

Campanula pallida Campanulaceae Ganobuti, Majari (N, 1750 Behulibans Root Juice of the root is used to cure diarrhoea and dysentery
Wall. BM 0023 M)
Cannabis sativa L. BM Cannabaceae Bhang, Ganja (N), 1027 Bachchha Flower, The dried powder of flowers is given with milk to cure cough
0347 Bhango (M, Ma) seed and asthma. Sometimes, it is useful as an appetizer and to
relieve severe pain. Most of the elders (Majhi and Magar), they
mixed Cannabis sativa with tobacco and used as smoking
Caryopteris nepalensis Verbenaceae Hedera (N, M) 1525 Bihadi Leaf Paste of the leaves is applied to cure mouth blister
Moldenke BM 0394 Ranipani
Centella asiatica (L.) Apiaceae Ghortapare (N), 1900 Banou Whole Paste of the plant is applied to relieve muscular swelling and
Urb. BM 0396 Ghortapre, Tapre jhar plant joint pains. It is also used to cure skin diseases such as eczema
(M) and pimples. A decoction of the plant about 5 teaspoons three
times a day is given to cure fever, indigestion, uric acid and
dysentery. It is also recommended for children to enhance
memory power
Ceropegia pubescens Asclepiadaceae Ban semi (N), Mirke 2025 Kyang Bark A past of the bark is applied to cure boils, pimples, cuts and
Wall. BM 0447 lahara (M, Ma) wounds
Chirita urticifolia Buch.- Gesneriaceae Aankhle (N), Aankhle 2019 Banou Whole A decoction of the plant is given about 4 teaspoons thrice a
Ham. ex D. Don BM jhar (M, Ma) plant day to treat stomach ache
0437
Chlorophytum Liliaceae Ban pyaj (N, M, Ma) 1780 Pang Root Root paste mixed with mustard oil and applied to cure gout
nepalense (Lindl.)
Baker BM 0510
Chonemorpha fragrans Apocynaceae Ghorya, Ghurilo phul 1370 Bihadi Root, leafLeaves juice about 3 teaspoons twice a day is given to cure
(Moon) Alston BM (N, M), Ghibinduri (G) Ranipani diabetes and jaundice. A decoction of the root is taken to cure
0372 worm infestations, ulcers, wounds, fever and constipation.
Leaves are rubbed on the skin to relieve skin diseases
Cissus repens (Lam.) Vitaceae Jogilahara (N), Pureni 1001 Behulibans Leaf, root Leaf and root paste is applied and bandaged over the bone
BM 0352 (M) fracture
Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae Batulpate, Lungri (N), 1017 Pang Whole Juice of the plant about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given after
BM 0262 Lahara, Batulpate, plant delivery to stop bleeding. The juice about 3 teaspoons three
Dallilaharo (Ma) times a day is given in case of fever and indigestion. A
decoction of the leaves is applied to treat skin diseases. It is
also applied as a cooling agent for gonorrhea
Coelogyne corymbosa Orchidaceae Jibanti (N, Ma) 2100 Salija Pseudobulb Paste of the pseudobulb is applied to forehead to relieve
Lindl. BM 0244 headache. It is also eaten raw for cooling body and applied to
cure boils
Commelina maculata Commelinaceae Sinkauli (N, M) 1720 Salija Leaf Leaves paste is used to relaxing tense muscle. Juice of the
Edgew. BM 0451 leaves about 6 teaspoons once a day is used to cure appetite,
stimulate, colic and gastritis
Crateva unilocularis Capparaceae Sipleegan (N), 1295 Bihadi Leaf, bark Leaves paste is about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given to cure
Buch.-Ham. BM 0201 Sipleghan (M), Ranipani rheumatism. Stem bark juice is consumed to cure urinary
Sibleghan (Ma) disorder and kidney problem. Young twigs are cooked as
vegetable to cure high blood pressure
Cryptolepis buchananii Asclepiadaceae Dudhe, Gaisinge (N, 1005 Behulibans Stem Juice of the stem, about 4–5 teaspoons twice a day in a week is
Roem. & Schult. BM M) given to relief diarrhoea and chest inflammation
0263
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Convolvulaceae Akasebeli (N), Akashe 1500 Behulibans Whole Juice of the plant about 4 teaspoons twice a day is given to
BM 0211 (M) plant treat jaundice. Paste of the plant is applied to treat headache
and rheumatism
Cymbopogon flexuosus Poaceae Lemon grass (N), 1215 Bachchha Leaf Root decoction about 5 teaspoons is taken thrice a day to cure
(Nees ex Steud.) W. Kagati ghans (Ma, M) diarrhoea
Watson BM 0278
Dactylicapnos scandens Papaveraceae Paheleful (N), 1250 Bihadi Root A decoction of root soaking with alcohol and about
(D. Don) Hutch. Pechkeniful (Ma) Ranipani 5 teaspoons twice a day is given to treat dysentery, body pain
BM0458 and wounds
Daphniphyllum Daphniphyllaceae Chandan, Rachana (N), 2200 Pang Bark Paste of the bark is applied to cure boils
himalense (Benth.) Olachi (M)
Mull. Arg. BM 0480
Dendrobium Orchidaceae Sugandha (N, M) 1400 Banou Leaf Leaf juice about 3–4 drops twice a day is given to cure earache
moschatum (Buch.-
Ham.) Swartz BM
0293
Desmodium Fabaceae Bangahat (N) Ban 1209 Bihadi Leaf, root A decoction of the plant is tonic and also useful for cough.
heterocarpon (L.) DC. Gahate (M, Ma) Ranipani Juice of the root about 4 teaspoons twice a day is given in
BM 0295 diarrhoea and applied in skin diseases
Desmodium Fabaceae Bakhre ghans (N), 1320 Banou Root A decoction of the root about 4 teaspoons twice a day is
multiflorum DC. BM Bhatte (M) prescribed to cure peptic ulcer. Root powder about a teaspoon
0514 is mixed with boiled water and given in indigestion
Desmostachya Poaceae Kush (N), Kura (M, Ma) 870 Falebas Root Juice of the root about 4 teaspoons three times a day is given
bipinnata (L.) Stapf Devisthan in case of indigestion and dysentery and jaundice. Paste of the
BM 0297 root is applied to treat toothache
Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae Githa (N), Kamlo, Kisi 1620 Salija Root Juice of the root is applied to cure wounds to expel worms. It is
BM 0313 (M), Tarul, Mithe- also given to cure threadworms
japcha (Ma)
 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117 109

Table 3 (continued )

Botanical name/ Family Local namen Altitude Locality Parts used Ethnomedicinal uses
voucher number (m)

Diospyros lanceifolia Ebenaceae Khallu, Teju (N, Ma) 827 Salijfa Leaf, fruit A decoction of the leaves about 4 teaspoons is administered to
Roxb. BM 0260 cure ill waist. Roasted fruit are eaten to cure sore throat
Drynaria propinqua Polypodiaceae Uneu (N), Kammari 1719 Banou Rhizome Paste of the rhizome is applied to treat backache and
(Wall. ex Mett.) (M, Ma) dislocated bone. It is also considered to cure sprains and is
Bedd. BM 0231 applied to forehead to relieve headache
Duabanga grandiflora Sonneratiaceae Kadam, Lampate (N), 821 Falebas Bark Paste of the stem bark is applied on skin diseases and eczema
(Roxb. ex DC.) Walp. Panisaj (M) Deisthan
BM 0261
Euphorbia heterophylla Euphorbiaceae Maitula jhar (N, M) 1520 Banou whole Latex is applied to cure boils. Juice of the plant is applied to
L. BM 0246 plant, latex cuts and wounds
Ficus neriifolia Sm. BM Moraceae Dudhilo (N), Gnara (M) 1741 Salija Latex Latex is applied to boils on the tongue
0315
Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae Ramsinghe, Dabadabe 930 Falebas Root bark A root bark juice in doses about 3–5 teaspoons twice a day is
BM 0266 (N, M) Devisthan administered in respiratory disease
Geranium nepalense Geraniaceae Chunetro ghans, 1322 Bachchha Fruit, root Fruits are chewed freshly to treat shore throat. Juice of the root
Sweet BM 0473 Raktamul (N), Pueran about 5 teaspoons three times a day for a week is prescribed
(M) to cure renal problems
Girardinia diversifolia Urticaceae Chanle sisno (N), Ghyo 1750 Pang Root, leaf The root is boiled with Centella asiatica about 10–15 min and
(Link) Friis BM 0338 (M) filtered, in doses about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given to
treat gastric trouble and constipation. Juice of the leaves is
applied to treat headache and joint aches
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Fabaceae Jethimadhu (N, M) 2420 Lespar- Root Juice of the root about 5 teaspoons twice a day is used in the
BM 0377 Kyang treatment of chronic respiratory and digestive disorders. It is
also useful in the treatment of chronic acidity and peptic ulcer
Gossypium herbaceum Malvaceae Ban kapas (N, M) 1017 Behulibans Root Powder of the root mixed in rice water is taken orally in the
L. BM 0218 morning to cure leucorrhoea
Halenia elliptica D. Don Gentianaceae Gorul tito (N), Baba 2500 Lespar- Leaf, stem Juice of the leaves about 5 teaspoons twice a day is used in
BM 0469 tite (M) Kyang liver and bile disease. A decoction of the stem is given to treat
high fever, headache, cough and cold
Hedychium ellipticum Zingiberaceae Ban besar, rato soro (N, 1820 Pang Rhizome Juice of the rhizome about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given in
Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. M, Ma) case of fever
BM 0250
Hedychium spicatum Zingiberaceae Saisya (M), Kyaro (N, 1700 Salija Rhizome A decoction of the rhizome about 3–5 teaspoons twice a day is
Sm. BM 0499 Ma) prescribed to cure indigestion and high fever
Hemiphragma Scrophulariaceae Lahure phul (N), Nash 2530 Lespar- Whole Juice of the plant three times a day is applied to treat fresh
heterophyllum Wall. jhar (M) Kyang plant cuts and wounds
BM 0511
Herminium lanceum Orchidaceae Kath Jhakri (N, M) 2922 Lespar- Leaf,stem A decoction of the leaves and stem in doses about 5 teaspoons
(Thunb. ex Sw.) J. Kyang twice a day is given to cure diabetes, fever and bleeding
Vuijk BM 0504
Herpetospermum Cucurbitaceae Kurkure kankro, 1850 Salija Root Pounded root in doses about 6 teaspoons three times a day is
pedunculosum (Ser.) Musako-kankro (N), given to treat trouble of the bile ducts
Baill. BM 0453 Murmure (M)
Hydrocotyle nepalensis Apiaceae Hathi paila, Jhar timur 2020 Lespar Leaf Juice of the leaves about 5 teaspoons three times a day is given
Hook. BM 0530 (N), Pelnti (M) to treat fever, cough and cold. The juice is mixed with water
and used to bath children suffering from fever
Hypericum elodeoides Hypericaceae Jibre ghans (N), Tida 1817 Kyang Root Juice of the root about 3 teaspoons three times a day is given
Choisy BM 0294 (M) in case of fever
Hypericum japonicum Hypericaceae Kanikeghans (N), Boksi 1910 Kyang Whole Juice of the plant is used in asthma and dysentery. The juice
Thunb. ex Murray jhar (M, Ma) plant about 4 teaspoons three times a day is given in case of fever
BM 0505 and indigestion
Hypericum Hypericaceae Khareto (N, M, Ma) 1800 Pang Leaf Juice of the leaves is used as an antidote against snakebite
oblongifolium Choisy
BM 0345
Impatiens bicornuta Balsaminaceae Tiuri (N), Manchuto 1780 Kyang Whole Paste of the leaves is used in joint pains. A decoction of the
Wall. BM 0492 ghans (M) plant plant is used in inflammation of the body
Impatiens puberula DC. Balsaminaceae Bhenda ghans, Masino 2181 Lespar Whole The whole plant is recommended in indigestion
BM 0512 ratanaulo (N, M) plant
Impatiens urticifolia Balsaminaceae Tiuri (N, Ma) 2026 Pang Root, leaf A root paste is used to cure burns. A leaf juice about two
Wall. BM 0367 teaspoons thrice a day is given to cure urinary infection
Indigofera bracteata Fabaceae Sakhino (N, M) 1586 Salija Leaf Paste of the leaves is applied to relieve muscular swelling.
Grah. ex Baker BM Juice of the leaves about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given to
0494 treat leprosy and menstrual disorder
Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Convolvulaceae Ajamari, Behaya (N, M) 1200 Bihadi Whole Paste of the plant is applied to relieve joint pains
sub sp. fistulosa BM Ranipani plant
0343
Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Convolvulaceae Syudelaharo (N, Ma) 1537 Bihadi Leaf A decoction of the leaves about 2 teaspoons twice a day for a
Roth. BM0502 Ranipani week is given to cure bronchitis, jaundice and diarrhoea
Iris clarkei Baker ex. Iridaceae Bojho jhar (N, M) 1490 Bachchha Root Paste of the root is applied to cure fresh cuts and wounds
Hook. f. BM 0374
Isodon coesta (Buch.- Lamiaceae Jwahane jhar, Mirre 1809 Banou Leaf, root Juice of the leaves about 5–6 teaspoons three times a day is
Ham. ex D. Don) (N, M) given in fever. It is also used to cure boils. Juice of the root is
Kudo BM 0477 used for ophthalmic medicine
110 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117

Table 3 (continued )

Botanical name/ Family Local namen Altitude Locality Parts used Ethnomedicinal uses
voucher number (m)

Lecanthus peduncularis Apiaceae Gaulato, Ganthe golia, 2150 Salija Whole Paste of the plant is applied to cure sprain. A decoction of the
(Royle) Wedd. BM Khole sag (N), Gaulat, plant plant about 5 teaspoons three times a day is given to relieve
0456 Til (M) fever
Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Lauraceae Siltimur (N, M), 1750 Pangrang Leaf, root Root bark and leaves are ground and the paste is applied to
Pres. BM 0272 Siltiimuur (Ma) bark relief against athlete’s foot pain and other skin diseases
Lygodium japonicum Schizaeaceae Aankhle jhar, Lute jhar, 1470 Durlung Whole Juice of the plant is applied for boils, wounds, whitlow and
(Thunb.) Sw. BM Janai lahara (N), Ukuse plant scabies. Paste of the plant is applied to treat joint pains
0259 jhar (Ma)
Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Ericaceae Angeri, Thaune (N), 1600 Pang Leaf Juice of the leaves is applied externally to treat scabies and
Drude. BM 0276 Angare, Pakasing (M) itching
Mazus surculosus D. Scrophulariaceae Khasre Buti (N), Buti 1892 Pang Whole A decoction of the plant, about 3 teaspoons twice a day is
Don BM 0464 jhar (Ma) plant given to treat stomach disorder. It is also applied to fresh cuts
and wounds
Neanotis ingrata (Wall. Rubiaceae Pani ghans (N, Ma) 1827 Salija Plant with Dried powder of plant with leaf powder of Ziziphus mauritiana
ex Hook. f.) W. H. flower and is heated with water and gargle about 5 days daily to cure
Lewis BM0446 fruit toothache
Neohymenopogon Rubiaceae Banbiri, Bangaja (N, M) 2003 Leapar- Fruit Paste of the fruits is applied to treat toothache
parasiticus (Wall.) kyang
Bennet BM 0486
Nepeta lamiopsis Benth. Lamiaceae Kankarne (N, Ma) 2117 Lespar- Leaf Leaves juice, in doses about 4–5teaspoons three times a day
ex Hook. f. BM 0436 Kyang for a week is given to relieve stomach problem and painful
urination
Neolitsea pallens (D. Lauraceae Simalte, Pyapya (N), 2000 Banou Fruit, seed Juice of the fruits is applied to treat scabies and eczema. Seeds
Don) Momiy. & H. Khane phul (M) oil is used as antidote
Hara ex H. Hara BM
0532
Nephrolepsis auriculata Davalliaceae Panisaro (N, Ma) 1650 Kyang Leaf, tuber Leaf paste is used to cure itching. Tubers are eaten fresh to
(L.) Trimen BM 0335 cure hypertension and inflammation
Notochaete hamosa Lamiaceae Kuro (N), Golo kuro 1890 Kyang Leaf Juice of the leaves is used as antidote to cure snakebite and
Benth. BM 0488 (M) indigestion
Oxalis corymbosa DC. Oxalidaceae Chari amilo (N, M), 1230 Pangrang Whole Juice of the plant about 6 teaspoons three times a day is
BM 0321 Chariumal (Ma) plant prescribed in case of hyper acidity, peptic ulcer, diarrhoea, and
dysentery. It is also used in ear and eye problems. Juice of the
leaves is taken for fever and haemorrhoids
Paris polyphylla Sm. BM Liliaceae Satuwa (N), Bajuro (M) 2470 Lespar Rhizome Juice of the rhizomes about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given to
0407 cure gastric and menstruation pain. It is also used as tonic.
Paste of the rhizomes is used in cuts, wounds and to remove
worms
Parnassia wightiana Parnassiaceae Sunakhari (N, M) 1397 Behulibans Leaf Leaves juice about 2 teaspoons three times a day is
Wall. ex Wight & recommended to cure constipation and ulcer. It is also used in
Arn. BM 0412 sprains and cuts
Parochetus communis Fabaceae Chengi phul (N, M) 1517 Behulibans Whole A decoction of the plant is used to cure boils, cuts and wounds
Buch.-Ham. ex D. plant
Don BM 0382
Pedicularis gracilis Scrophulariaceae Chijpa (N, Ma) 1990 Salija Root Root extract about 5 teaspoons twice a day is used for stomach
Wall. ex Benth. BM ache
0474
Pedicularis scullyana Scrophulariaceae Chijpa (N, Ma) 2190 Salija Whole Paste of the plant is applied to remove pimples
Prain ex Maxim. BM plant
0012
Persicaria runcinata Polygonaceae Kapre sag (N), Kapre 1516 Pangrang Leaf, young Young shoots and leaves are cooked and taken in tonic and
(Buch.-Ham. ex D. saag (Ma) shoot cardiac problems
Don) H. Gross. BM
0463
Phyllanthus parvifolius Euphorbiaceae Khareto, Paitei (N), 1740 Pangrang Whole Paste of the plant is applied to boils and pimples. Powdered of
Buch.-Ham. ex D. Khargaja (Ma) plant the plant is put on obstinate wounds to encourage healing.
Don BM 0300 Powdered leaves are used to remove dandruff and lice
Piper chaba Hunter BM Piperaceae Chabo (N, M, Ma) 1135 Pangrang Stem, fruit, The root and fruits are chewed to relieve in asthma, bronchitis,
0387 root constipation and inflammation. Stem juice about 4 teaspoons
twice a day is taken to cure rheumatic pains and diarrhoea
Piper longum L. BM Piperaceae Pipla (N), Ban mircha 1165 Behulibans Fruit Dried fruits powder, in doses about 4–5 teaspoons three times
0389 (M) a day is recommended to overcome the constipation of
dyspeptics. It is also used to relief cough and asthma
Pogostemon glaber Lamiaceae Rudilo (N), Khole 1350 Pangrang Leaf, root Paste of the leaves is applied to the forehead to relieve
Benth. BM 0356 dhyak (M) headache. Juice of the leaves about 2 teaspoons three times a
day is given to relieve fever. Juice of the root is given in case of
indigestion
Pogostemon Lamiaceae Kalo Rudilo (N, M, Ma) 1135 Salija Root, leaf Juice of the plant is given in case of cough and cold. The plant
benghalensis is boiled in water for bathing to relieve fever
(Burman f.) Kuntze
BM 0357
Polygala arillata Buch.- Polygalaceae Luinche phul (N, M), 1920 Kyang Leaf, root Juice of the leaves is applied to cure muscular swellings. Paste
Ham. ex D. Don BM Luinche ful (Ma) of the root is applied to the forehead to cure headache
0393
 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117 111

Table 3 (continued )

Botanical name/ Family Local namen Altitude Locality Parts used Ethnomedicinal uses
voucher number (m)

Potentilla polyphylla Rosaceae Bajradanti (N, M) 2300 Lespar- Root Root juice about 4 teaspoons twice a day for a week is given to
Wall. ex Lehm. BM Kyang treat throat and tooth infection, peptic ulcer, cough and cold.
0482 Paste of the root is applied for fresh cuts and wounds
Pyracantha crenulata Rosaceae Ghogailo, Kanime (N), 1751 Kyang Fruit Dry fruits are ground and make it powdered and mixed with
(D. Don) M. Roem. Ghangaru (M) yogurt is taken twice a day in dysentery
BM 0531
Ranunculus laetus Wall. Ranunculaceae Bokua (N, Ma) 1547 Pangrang Leaf Fresh leaves paste is applied on skin twice a day for a week
ex D. Don BM 0305 treating skin infection. A decoction of the leaves about
5 teaspoons twice a day is used in indigestion
Rhynchospermum Asteraceae Ghode gava (N, M) 1800 Kyang Whole A decoction of the plant is used to cure cold pain in knee
verticillatum Reinw. plant
BM 0350
Rhynchostylis retusa Orchidaceae Ghoge, Gava (N), Gam 950 Falebas Root Juice of the roots is applied to cuts and wounds
(L.) Blume BM 0257 (M) Devisthan
Roscoea capitata Sm. Zingiberaceae Bhuisaro (N), Kyaro 2300 Banou Rhizome A decoction of rhizomes, in doses about 3 teaspoons three
BM 0359 (M) times a day for 4–5 consecutive days is recommended to treat
fever, cough and cold
Rubus nepalensis Rosaceae Bhui kafal (N, M, Ma) 1790 Bihadi Leaf, root The leaves are boiled in water and filtered extract (4–5
(Hook. f.) Kuntze BM Ranipani teaspoons) is given twice a day to cure fever. A decoction of
0497 the roots once a day about 6 teaspoons is given in gastric
trouble
Rumex nepalensis Polygonaceae Halhale (N), Kelai (M) 1561 Behulibans Whole The plant is boiled in water about 10 min and the filtered
(Spreng.) BM 0025 plant water used to wash the body to alleviate body pain. Juice of
the root about 4 teaspoons is given for cough and cold. Paste
of the root is applied to swollen gums. Juice of the leaves is
applied to relieve headache
Salvia campanulata Lamiaceae Bethejhar (N), Bethe 1920 Lespar- Leaf Juice of the leaves is used to treat asthma and nose bleeding
Wall. ex Benth. BM (M), Bethe saag (Ma) Kyang
0455
Salvia plebeian R. Br. Lamiaceae Banbawari (N, M), 1538 Behulibans Flower Dried powder of flowers, in doses about 3–4 teaspoons twice a
BM 0457 Banbawaari (Ma) day is prescribed to cure urine problems and thread worm
infection. The paste of the bark is used to cure piles
Sambucus adnata Wall. Adoxaceae Mayakot, Moti phul (N, 1910 Bihadi Leaf, fruit Leaves and fruits juice about 5 teaspoons twice a day is given
ex DC. BM 0391 Ma) Ranipani to relieve fever
Sambucus canadensis L. Adoxaceae Kanike phul (N,M) 1890 Kyang Fruit, Flowers and fruits juice about 5–7 teaspoons three times a day
BM 0067 flower is given to treat fever and measles
Satyrium nepalense D. Orchidaceae Gamdol, Thamni (N), 2790 Sirpu- Pseudobulb Roasted pseudo-bulbs are eaten raw to treat throat problems
Don BM 0517 Gamdol (M) Lespar
Saurauia napaulensis Saurauiaceae Gogane (N), Gogan, 1370 Bihadi Bark, fruit Juice of the bark about 6 teaspoons four times a day is taken to
DC. BM 0299 Gowan (M) Ranipani treat fever. Juice of the fruits about 5 teaspoons once a day is
given to cure cough and cold
Senecio scandens Asteraceae Bakhre kane, Paheli 1950 Pang Leaf Leaves juice of the plant about 6 teaspoons is given daily to
Buch.-Ham. ex D. lahara (N, M) treat asthma, gastritis and skin disease
Don BM 0478
Solanum Solanaceae Kantakaari (N), 1707 Bachchha Root, fruit, Pounded roots are applied to cure swelling of the gums and
aculeatissimum Jacq. Golbhera puju (Ma), seed toothache. Powdered dried fruits are also smoked to treat
BM 0339 Kantageri (M) intestine diseases. Fruits are ground and paste is applied to the
forehead to relieve headache. Seeds are also chewed to treat
toothache
Solena amplexicaulis Cucurbitaceae Ban kankro (N), 1745 Pangrang Root A decoction of the roots about 4 teaspoons thrice a day for
(Lam.) Gandhi BM Bankankari (M, Ma) 4 days to given menstrual disorder. 2–3 drops of root extract
0320 used to cure earache
Sphenomeris chinensis Lindsaeaceae Amaro (N,M), Amaaro 2590 Sirpu- Leaf Paste of leaves is rubbed against swollen portion of the body
(L.) Maxon BM 0513 (Ma) Lespar and the feet sprain
Spiranthes sinensis Orchidaceae Sungava (M), 2672 Sirpu- Rhizome Roasted rhizome is chewed for sore throat. Paste of the
(Pers.) Ames BM Sunakhari (N) Lespar flowers, is applied to cure boils
0515
Swertia chirayita (Roxb. Gentianaceae Chiraito (N), Tento (G), 2157 Salija Whole A decoction of the plant is used as tonic. Chopped stems are
ex Fleming) H. Karst. Ranka (M) plant boiled in water, filtered it, and about 4–5 teaspoons is given
BM 0290 three times a day in case of blood pressure, fever and
headache. Paste of the plant is applied to treat skin diseases
such as eczema and pimples
Swertia nervosa (Wall. Gentianaceae Tite (N, G), Vale 2190 Lespar- Whole The whole plant is boiled in water and filtered, in doses about
ex G. Don) C. B. Chiraito, Ranka (M) Kyang plant 5 teaspoons twice a day is given in case of malarial fever
Clarke BM 0362
Taxillus umbellifer Loranthaceae Hagero (N, M) 2620 Lespar- Leaf Juice of the leaves and grounded powder are applied to treat
(Schult.) Danser BM Kyang malaria, skin infection, cold pain in wrist and knee
0487
Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Taxaceae Lothsalla (N), Salin (M) 2450 Lespar- Leaf A decoction of the leaves, in doses about 4–5 teaspoons twice
BM 0398 Kyang a day is given for cough, bronchitis, and asthma. Bark and
leaves juice is used to cure cance.
Thalictrum reniforme Ranunculaceae Dampate (N, Ma) 2271 Lespar- Whole Plant is ground with black pepper (3:1) and about 3 teaspoons
Wall. BM 0326 Kyang plant twice a day is given to cure leucorrhoea for a week. Root is
chewed to get relief from tooth ache
112 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117

Table 3 (continued )

Botanical name/ Family Local namen Altitude Locality Parts used Ethnomedicinal uses
voucher number (m)

Tinospora sinensis Menispermaceae Gurgo (N, M) 1091 Behulibans Whole Juice of the plant is used as a tonic and febrifuge. It is also
(Lour.) Merr. BM plant given for a week, doses about 5 teaspoons twice a day to cure
0213 urinary troubles and stomach ailments
Trewia nudiflora L. BM Euphorbiaceae Ranipha (N), Belar, 1570 Banou Root, leaf Juice of the root about 4 teaspoons twice a day for 5 days is
0495 Gamari (M) given in case of indigestion, diarrhoea and dysentery
Tupistra aurantiaca Liliaceae Tamurke (N, Ma), 2025 Salija Leaf Leaves juice about 4 teaspoons three times a day for 4–5 days
(Baker) Wall. ex Kyaro (M) is recommended to cure cough and uterine problems
Hook. f. BM 0401
Urena lobata L. BM Malvaceae Nalukuro (N), 1217 Bihadi Root, leaf The root is mixed with Achyranthes aspera and pounded;
0337 Bishkhapre (M), Ranipani extract juice about 5 teaspoons is given three times a day for
Soranto (Ma) 4–5 days to treat tonsillitis, diarrhoea and dysentery. Paste of
the leaves is applied to treat skin diseases and rheumatism.
Leaf juice is used as antidote against snakebite
Valeriana hardwickii Valerianaceae Nakkali jatamasi (N), 1977 Kyang Root A decoction of the root in doses about 4–5 teaspoonful three
Wall. BM 0289 Jaatamai (M) times a day is used to cure rheumatism and low blood
pressure. It is also taken as a nerve tonic and to cure epilepsy
and hysteria
Viburnum erubescens Adoxaceae Ashaare (N), 1928 Salija Bark, fruit A decoction of the bark about 3 teaspoons once a day is
Wall. ex DC. BM Chhyonde, Gneko (M) recommended to cure respiratory diseases
0031
Vitex negundo L. BM Verbenaceae Simali (N), Tara (M) 850 Falebas Leaf, seed Juice of squeezed leaves in doses about 5 teaspoons twice a
0265 Devisthan day is given to treat cough, cold, fever and gastric troubles. It is
also inhaled to treat sinusitis. Seeds are ground and given with
water to cure cough and cold
Wikstroemia canescens Thymelaeaceae Phurke pat (N, M) 1581 Banou Leaf Leave juice is dripped 3–4 drops three times a day to stop nose
Wall. ex Meisn. BM bleeding
0242
Zanthoxylum Rutaceae Annkhe Timur (N), 2527 Lespar- Leaf, fruit A decoction of the leaves is used externally to cure abdominal
acanthopodium DC. Bhote timur (N), Kyang pain. Paste of the fruits is applied to relieve toothache
BM 0528 Bhaise timur (M, Ma)
Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae Bayar (N), Bhayar (M), 851 Falebas Root, bark, A decoction of the root about 5–7 teaspoons twice a day is
Lam. BM 0271 Boyar (Ma) Devisthan leaf recommended to treat in case of fever and menstrual disorder.
Juice of the bark, in doses about 6 teaspoons three times a day,
is given to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Fresh leaves are
chewed to treat bleeding gums

n
N, Nepali; M, Magar; Ma, Majhi.

most of their houses are built near rivers, mainly in inner Terai and
valleys of Nepal.
Majhi people look dark brown in skin complexion, medium in
height and well built. They are mongoloid face typical of east Asia.
Language of Majhi is categorized into Indo-European. Tantrik is the
religion of Majhi. Majhis do not have their temples as they
establish god and goddess at the base of tree near rivers. Their
principal god is gribhimshen, gorsiddhi, mahadev, satidevi, shikari
and jaurekhee. Flowers are very specific offerings to the gods. Koshi
pooja, saune sankaranti, purnima are the greatest festival of Majhi
but unfortunately these festivals are at the verge of extinction.
They have their traditional dresses for male and female. Kachhad,
dhoti, bhoto, istakot and feta on the head is the dress code of Majhi
men while women wear fariya, guynu, patuka and majetro. Besides
boating and fishing, Majhi men are involved in agricultural farm-
ing and women are involved in making and selling alcoholic
beverages (mercha and jhand) in the local market.
2.5. Field survey and data collection
The present study was carried out in different seasons – spring,
summer, winter and autumn – with the ethnic communities
during 2012 to 2013. The research work focused on investigation
and documentation of indigenous knowledge and techniques, the
use of medicinal plants by Magar and Majhi community. Parbat
district was chosen for the study site as the area is important for
medicinal plant resources and the district is far from the city area
with a large number of Magar and Majhi inhabitants and these
communities are using traditional herbal healing practices. Several
visits were made to different places namely Salija, Kayang, Banou
and Pang VDC’s in the northern part of the district; Falebas-
Devisthan, Pangrang, Bachchha, Bihadi-Ranipani and Behulibans
in the southern part of the district at different time intervals to
collect primary data. The identification of key informants in the
treatment of various diseases was based on the information
obtained from the ethnic people. Plants were collected from the
forest with the help of ethnic people; the healers allowed for
confirmations of the medicinal plants they use for the treatment of
various diseases. Data was collected in four survey trips in
different seasons; and voucher specimens were collected follow-
ing standard method of Martin (1995a, 1995b).
Altogether 334 native informants were selected for interview
to gather information pertaining to name, age, sex, level of
education and ethnicity. Series of interviews were conducted in
Nepali or Magar or Majhi language. In case of the informants who
did not understand Nepali language, the script was translated by a
local interpreter. Semi-structured questionnaire comprising local
names, plant part used, ailment, method of preparation, manu-
facture and doses were administered through interviews, group
discussion and personal field observation (Martin, 1995a, 1995b;
Cotton, 1996). Among all the informants, 89 were old age people
(53 males, 75 females), which were aged between 59 and above.
Whereas, ages of 102 informants (37 males, 65 females) ranged
between 50 and 59, 75 informants (28 males, 47 females) 40 and
49, 29 informants (12 males, 17 females) 30 and 39 were inter-
viewed. These informants were social workers, farmers, rural
healers, teachers and housewives. Before data collection, a brief
group discussion was held with the key informants in which the
objectives of research were explained to them. This was done
in order to acknowledge informants’ cooperation in preserving
 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117
traditional knowledge of the study area and build their confidence
for providing reliable information.
2.6. Plant collection, identification and preservation
Voucher specimens and ethnomedicinal information were collected
from the field during the flowering and fruiting periods. Traditional
healers and knowledgeable persons were interviewed. While noting
ethnomedicinal information, every care was taken to record local
names of the plants, parts used, method of drug preparation and uses.
Photographs were taken for each specimen not only to confirm the
taxonomic identification but also for future specimen record.
The specimens were identified with the help of local floras
(Hara et al., 1978, 1982; Hara and Williams, 1979; Polunin and
Stainton, 1984; Press et al., 2000). Local names and medicinal uses
were documented critically. The herbarium specimens were made
accordingly (Jain and Rao, 1997). Voucher specimens were depos-
ited at the Department of Environmental Science and Engineering
(DESE), Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal.
2.7. Statistical analysis
Informants’ data on their background and the plants used in
Parbat were schematically recorded in an excel spread sheet
Habits of plants
6%
8%
20%
66%
Fig. 5. Habits of documented medicinal plant species.
60
50
40
No. of Plants
30
20
10
Fig. 6. Different plant parts used by Magar and Majhi community in Parbat district.
113
software. The gathered data were represented systematically in
tabular form. The information such as botanical name, voucher
specimen number, local name, altitude, locality, family, parts used
and ethnomedicinal uses were provided for each species (Table 3).
2.8. Informants consensus factor (FIC)
Informants consensus factor was calculated to find out the
homogeneity in the information given by the informants. The FIC is
calculated by the following formula (Trotter and Logan, 1986;
Heinrich et al., 1998; Singh et al., 2012; Bhat et al., 2013).
N ur  Nt
F IC ¼
N ur  1
where Nur is the number of use report in a particular illness
category by informants and Nt is the number of taxa or species
used to treat that particular category by informants.
2.9. Fidelity level (FL) value
The fidelity level (FL), the percentage of informants claiming
the use of a certain plants for the same major purpose was
calculated according to the following formula (Alexiades, 1996):
Ip
FLð%Þ ¼ :
I u 100
where Ip is the number of informants who independently sug-
gested the use of a plant species for a particular disease and Iu is
the total number of informants who mentioned the same plant for
any disease.
Herbs
Shrubs 3. Results and discussion
Trees
3.1. Demographic feature
Climbers
A total of 334 informants (130 male and 204 female) aged
between 30 and 79 years were interviewed in which 38.92% were
male and 61.07% females (Table 1). The average age of the
informants was 59 year old. Illiteracy rate was 39.5% and literacy
level at primary was 29.3%, middle level at 17.9% and secondary
level at 11.9% (Table 2).
Plant parts used for medicinal purpose
114 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117

3.2. Phytodiversity, utilization and its application
The present research revealed the ethnobotanical use of 132
plant species of 67 families and 99 genera to cure 12 human
ailments. The first-hand information on the ethnomedicinal plants
used by the two ethnic groups, Magar and Majhi, were arranged
alphabetically by genus and species name along with ethnome-
dicinal uses (Table 3, Fig. 2). The fact that the most ethnomedicinal
plants were herbs could be because the study sites are located in
high elevation ranges where the plant diversity especially herbs
and shrubs are higher than that of trees and climbers. We
observed that ethnic groups collected medicinal plants in wild
forms; it showed that the area had poor cultivation of economic-
ally valuable medicinal plants. This situation could, in the long
term, lead to the depletion of plant resources or even extinction
from natural habitat if the plant specimens are used in huge
amounts for medicinal and other purposes. There was no
permanent storage practice: the villagers collected fresh medicinal
plants from forest as per their requirements. Bhattarai et al. (2005)
provided information on 45 plant species belonging to 32 families
under 44 genera; the species were found to be useful for treating
34 different ailments in Panchase region in the middle hills of the
Nepalese Himalayas. Malla and Chhetri (2012) made extensive
studies on indigenous knowledge on medicinal non-timber forest
products among four ethnic tribes (Gurung, Magar, Kumal and
Majhi) in Parbat district. The present study contributed 57 med-
icinal plants in Parbat district in addition to previous identification
(Thapa, 2012). The herbs were primary sources of medicine 87
(66%), followed by shrubs 26 (20%), trees 11 (8%) and climbers 8
(6%) (Fig. 5). This proportion was similar to other studies on
medicinal plants carried out in different parts of Nepal (Bhattarai
et al., 2005; Koirala and Khaniya, 2009; Upreti et al., 2010).
3.3. Plant parts used

Table 4 The present investigation provides ample information about

Taxonomic diversity of medicinal plants in Parbat district. the traditional medicinal practice of using native medicinal plants
in the studied area. The traditional knowledge of two ethnic
Family Number of Percentage of Number of Percentage of
people of Parbat district has tremendous ethnobotanical and
genera genera species species
ethnomedicinal importance. They commonly use plants and their
Lamiaceae 5 3.78 7 5.30 parts such as roots, rhizomes, tubers, leaves, stem, wood, bark,
Orchidaceae 7 5.30 7 5.30 flowers, seeds, latex, pseudobulb cone, whole plant and fruits for
Asteraceae 4 3.03 6 4.54
various purposes in their daily life (Fig. 6). Our findings resembled
Fabaceae 4 3.03 5 3.84
Apiaceae 4 3.03 4 3.03
with other studies amongst Chepang community in Chitwan
Gentianaceae 3 2.27 4 3.03 district (Rijal, 2008), Rai and Tamang community in Sunsari
Polygonaceae 3 2.27 4 3.03 district (Deokota and Chhetri, 2009), Tamang community in
Scrophulariaceae 3 2.27 4 3.03 Rasuwa district (Upreti et al., 2010), Tharu and Magar community
Araceae 1 0.75 3 2.27
in Rupendehi district (Singh et al., 2012)and Tamang communityin
Balsaminaceae 1 0.75 3 2.27
Adoxaceae 2 1.51 3 2.27 Makawanpur district (Luitel et al., 2014).
Convolvulaceae 2 1.51 3 2.27 The medical remedies were based on many kinds of formula-
Cucurbitaceae 3 2.27 3 2.27 tions ranging from preparation made out of a single plant for a
Euphorbiaceae 3 2.27 3 2.27
single ailment to the use of plants in combination. The most
Hypericaceae 1 0.75 3 2.27
Liliaceae 3 2.27 3 2.27
frequently used plant parts for preparations were leaves (55
Rosaceae 3 2.27 3 2.27 species 41.6%), root (42 species 31.8%), whole plant (24 species
Verbenaceae 3 2.27 3 2.27 18.2%), fruits (18 species 13.6%), bark (11species 8.3%), rhizomes (9
Zingiberaceae 2 1.51 3 2.27 species 6.8%), flowers, seeds and stem (6 species 4.5%), latex (3
other 48 families 42 56.89 58 43.93
species 2.2%), tuber and pseudobulb (2 species 1.5%), and corm
67 99 100% 132 100%
(only 1 species 0.75%) (Fig. 6). Different plant parts are used in the

80

70

60
No. of used species

50

40

30

20

10

Forms of medication
Fig. 7. Medication forms used by Magar and Majhi community in Parbat district.
 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117 115

preparation of human ailments which is similar to previous
studies (Malla and Chhetri, 2009; Bano et al.,2014).
Out of 67 families, Lamiaceae and Orchidaceae represented the
highest number of medicinal plants (7 species 5.30%), which was
followed by Asteraceae (6 species 4.54%), and Fabaceae (5 species
3.84%). However, other researches (Teklehaymanot and Giday,
2007; Mesfin et al., 2009; Bhattarai et al., 2010) reported that
Asteraceae is the leading family with highest number of medicinal
plants. Similarly, family Apiaceae, Gentianaceae, Polygonaceae,
Scrophulariaceae were represented by four species eachand Ara-
ceae, Balsaminaceae, Adoxaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Hypericaceae, Liliaceae, Rosaceae, Verbenaceae
and Zingiberaceae were represented by three species each.
Remaining 48 families contributing (58 species 43.93%) have one
or two species (Table 4).
most commonly used followed by paste (48 species 36.3%),
decoction (41 species 31.06%), powder and eaten raw (10 species
7.5%), vegetables (5 species 3.7%), latex (4 species 3.0%), fragrance
(2 species 1.5%), and pills, infusion, smoke and seeds oil (1 species
each 0.75%) (Fig. 7). The popular form of therapeutic preparation
from medicinal plants in western Nepal are juice, decoction, paste,
and powder (Burlakoti and Kunwar, 2008). Most of the herbal
preparation is given orally to cure human ailments except skin
diseases. Similar observations were reported in various ethnic
communities in Nepal, adjoining counties and abroad (Bhattarai
et al., 2005; Upreti et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2012; Kunwar et al.,
2013; Lulekal et al., 2013; Luitel et al., 2014).
3.5. Informants consensus factors (FIC)

3.4. Forms of medication used In the ethnomedicinal studies, informants consensus analysis
provides a measure of reliable reliability for the given claim of
The medicinal plants were used to prepare various forms to evidence (Malla and Chhetri, 2012). Medicinal plants used against
cure different human ailments. Plant juice (67 species 50.7%) was different ailments and treated ailments were classified into 12
groups and FIC values for each category are given (Table 5). The
Table 5 results of the FIC showed that the gastro-intestinal, parasitic and
Informant consensus factor (FIC) by categories of diseases.
hepatobilary category had the greatest agreement with an FIC of
Disease category Use reports Number of taxa FIC (0.78%), followed by blood and lymphatic system (0.76%), cardiovas-
(Nur) (Nt) cular category and hormonal disorder (0.75%), other (0.74%), urino-
genital and venereal (0.73%). The least agreement between the
Gastro-intestinal, parasitic and 268 61 0.78
informants was recorded in the musculoskeletal and nervous system
hepatobiliary
Blood and lymphatic system 26 7 0.76 with an FIC of (0.50%) followed by Dermatological category (0.51%).
Cardiovascular disease 17 5 0.75 Similar FIC values were calculated as important tool for the
Hormonal disorder 21 6 0.75 ethnobotanical research works (Upreti et al., 2010; Cheikhyousef
Other (fever, cold, cough, cancer) 106 28 0.74 et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2012; Megersa et al., 2013; Lulekal et al.,
Urinogenital and venereal 67 19 0.73
Oral, dental and ENT 90 29 0.69
2013; Song et al., 2013), which shows a rather high level of an
External injuries, bleeding 56 20 0.65 agreement among different indigenous people in Nepal. This
Pulmonary disease 93 34 0.64 research signified that the consensus among different ethnic infor-
Antidote 12 5 0.64 mants used medicinal plants for the treatment of various human
Dermatological 76 38 0.51
ailments are still in practice and indigenous knowledge has been
Musculoskeletal and nervous system 71 36 0.50
passed down to the new generations especially in the family circle.

Table 6
Fidelity level (FL) value of medicinal plants against a given ailment category.

Medicinal Plant Therapeutic categories Ip Iu FL Value (%)

Paris polyphylla Gastro-intestinal, parasitic and hepatobiliary 24 25 96.0

Bergenia ciliata Urinogenital and venereal 19 20 95.0
Swertia chirayita Blood pressure 12 13 92.3
Potentilla polyphylla External injuries, bleeding 23 25 92.0
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium Musculoskeleton 9 10 90.0
Centella asiatica Nervous system 6 7 85.7
Camellia kissi Blood and lymphatic system 10 12 83.3
Benincasa hispida Antidote 13 16 81.3
Valeriana hardwickii Blood and lymphatic system 15 19 78.9
Cuscuta reflexa Oral, dental and ENT 9 12 75.0
Berberis aristata Gastro-intestinal, parasitic and hepatobiliary 14 19 73.7
Bryophyllum pinnatum External injuries, bleeding 7 10 70.0
Tinospora sinensis Gastro-intestinal, parasitic and hepatobiliary 11 17 64.7
Dendrobium moschatum Oral, dental and ENT 5 8 62.5
Nephrolepis auriculata Cardiovascular disease 5 8 62.5
Vitex negundo Pulmonary 14 24 58.3
Wikstroemia canescens Cardiovascular disease 10 18 55.6
Acampe papillosa Oral, dental and ENT 9 19 47.4
Indigofera bracteata Hormonal disorder 7 15 46.7
Taxus wallichiana Cancer 6 13 46.2
Zizyphus mauritiana Oral, dental and ENT 5 11 45.5
Spiranthes sinensis Oral, dental and ENT 4 9 44.4
Sambucus adnata Common cold & cough 7 17 41.2
Chlorophytum nepalense Urinogenital and venereal 5 13 38.5
Neolitsea pallens Antidote 4 17 23.5
Coelogyne corymbosa Dermatological 2 9 22.2
116 B. Malla et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 165 (2015) 103–117
3.6. Fidelity level (FL) value
We recorded the diseases to highlight the most important
plants species in each disease category. For this analysis, the plants
mentioned once were not considered. Fidelity level (FL) values
were calculated for medicinal plants which were mentioned by
four or more informants for being used against a given ailment.
We found that the most important species, according to their
fidelity level were gastro-intestinal, parasitic and hepatobiliary
(Paris polyphylla, Fl ¼96.0%), followed by urinogenital and venereal
(Bergenia ciliata, Fl¼ 95.0%), blood pressure (Swertia chirayita,
Fl ¼92.3%), external injuries and bleeding (Potentilla polyphylla,
Fl ¼92.0%) and musculoskeleton (Zanthoxylum acanthopodium,
FL ¼90.0%) (Table 6). The highest fidelity level values were also
obtained in other previous research works (Srithi et al., 2009; Song
et al., 2013; Lulekal et al., 2013) under gastro- intestinal and
parasitic category.
4. Conclusion
The present study showed that the two ethnic communities
depend on a variety of plants to meet their requirements and to
cure various diseases. Different plant parts are used for medicinal
preparation, mode of administration, medicinal doses and other
human consumption. However, their understanding and use of the
medicinal plants grounds on traditional beliefs. So, the plant with
medicinal properties must be chemically investigated for correct
identification of bioactive compounds which can be further used
for designing drugs. This will be a great contribution for pharma-
ceutical and herbal industries in Nepal. Our findings revealed that
human encroachment such as unplanned development works,
habit loss, over exploitation of medicinal plants are the root causes
of diminution of highly potent medicinal plants. An appropriate
conservation planning is most essential to preserve the medicinal
biodiversity in Parbat district. To preserve the plants in natural
habitat, it is essential to establish medicinal gardens for ex-situ
conservation by mobilizing the local ethnic people. In-situ con-
servation will help highly usable and depleting species by propa-
gating, reintroducing, regularly monitoring and evaluating
processes. Reported medicinal plants need to be systematically
screened through phytochemical and pharmacological for poten-
tial bioactive compounds. Experimental validation of these reme-
dies may help in developing new drugs which can be used to cure
inevitable disease such as cancer, Alzheimer, Parkinson’s and HIV.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the ethnic communities, knowledge-
able persons and traditional healers of Parbat district, Nepal. We
are very much grateful to Harka Bahadur Pun Magar and Kamal
Majhi, who shared their indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge
and experiences with us for making it possible to learn more from
their experience. Thanks are due to those people who helped us
during field trips to identify informants and local ethnic inhabi-
tants. We are grateful to Khagendra Acharya, Assistant Professor
(English) for language editing. We thank the National Herbarium
and Plant Laboratories (KATH) Godawari, Lalitpur Nepal for pro-
viding their service to identify medicinal plants.
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