ARTICLE IN PRESS

Energy 33 (2008) 1711– 1718

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Development of a tube-type solar still equipped with heat

accumulation for irrigation
Kazuo Murase , Yusuke Yamagishi, Yusuke Iwashita, Keita Sugino
Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Chuo University, Tokyo 1128551, Japan

a r t i c l e in fo abstract

Article history: A tube-type solar still is found to be suitable for use in desert irrigation. The effectiveness of a heat
Received 23 July 2007 accumulator with regard to distillate productivity is experimentally and numerically verified. The heat
accumulator consists of tube bundles immersed in wax in order to utilize the latent heat of wax. The
Keywords: dynamic response to stepwise variation of irradiative intensity verified the contribution of wax to an
Solar still increase of productivity only when the phase change of wax occurred. The effective distillate productivity
Irrigation was found to be 294.3 g/m2 during the cyclic stepwise change of irradiative intensity, from 200 to 600 W/m2
Solar energy and back. Velocity vectors driven by natural convection and temperature contours estimated by numerical
Heat accumulation simulation verified the effectiveness of the heat accumulator especially after peak solar intensity. The latent
heat of wax effectively contributed to a 15% increase in total distillate productivity per day. The still can
feasibly meet irrigation water supply demands above an irrigative threshold of 17 MJ/m2 d.
& 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Solar stills are usually either a single-effect type or a multi-

Arid regions around the world are expanding as the result of
dramatic increase in industrialization and population. Global
warming is accelerating this desertification as is change in the
intensity of solar irradiation around the world. Solar energy is a
major source of environmentally suitable, renewable energy but a
comparatively low-energy density and a variable energy level
caused by climate conditions or the inherent characteristics of
sunrise and sunset has limited its utilization. Heat-accumulation
technology assists the stable supply of solar energy. Desalination
technologies considerably contribute not only to the alleviation of
the shortage of water resources, but also to environmental
problems such as desertification. In addition, water vapor
evaporated from water resources humidifies around arid area
and cools down the atmosphere temperature. A variety of
desalination technologies such as multi-stage flash, multi-effect,
reverse osmosis and electrodialysis are currently used to desalt
brackish water or seawater to supply potable water in arid areas.
These technologies, however, have been designed and constructed
for large-scale production and industrialization, and have brought
about numerous associated environment-and energy-related
problems. Although solar distillation is one of the best solutions
for arid regions due to the utility of free energy and a clean
environment, poor motivation to overcome the low water
productivity of solar distillation system is a major obstacle [1–4].
effect type [4], the latter reusing the wasted latent heat for
condensation [5]. The integration between solar collectors and
stills is categorized as passive [6] or active [7]. The single-effect
passive stills are composed of a convectional basin type, diffusion
type, wick type and membrane type [8,9]. The validities of a still
with cover cooling operation [10,11] and a still with multi-effect-
type basin [12] have been studied. For desert applications
complicated systems of a variety of solar stills are not available.
A networked system of tube-type solar stills combined with
solar ponds [13] is proposed here for use in the desert
environment. The still operates to both distill and distribute the
water. The preceding paper [13] showed the static characteristics
of the still in the laboratory and provided validation of the
simulation model. Improvement of the basin was necessary for
any enhancement of the distillate productivity, and the double
layer structure of the basin and a heat accumulator were found to
effectively utilize the latent heat to increase the distillate
productivity. This paper shows the dynamic characteristics of
the still in indoor and outdoor test and the effect of a heat
accumulator on the distillate productivity with the aim of using in
practical situations.
2. Concept for a desert plantation

Fig. 1 shows the concept of a desert plantation networked with

 Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +81 3 3817 1912. solar stills [13]. As a first step, a large number of artificial ponds as
E-mail address: hmurase@kc.chuo-u.ac.jp (K. Murase). seawater reservoirs are scattered in desert areas. Natural

0360-5442/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2008.05.013
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

1712 K. Murase et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 1711–1718

Nomenclature Greek

d water level in the basin, m a thermal diffusivity, m2/s

D distillate productivities, kg/m2 s b thermal coefficient of volumetric expansion, 1/K
g gravitational acceleration, (m/s2) l latent heat of water, kJ/kg
0
Gr grashof number g r2 DbT 0 RO3 =m2 m viscosity, Pa s
I irradiative intensity of infrared lamps or solar energy, n kinematic viscosity, m2/s
W/m2 y angle in cylindrical coordinates, radians
Pr prandtl number ¼ n/a r density, kg/m3
r dimensionless radical distance in cylindrical coordi-
nate Subscripts
Ra rayleigh numberRGr  Pr
RO radius of outer tube, characteristic length, m b lower part of outer tube
T0 dimensional temperature, K c upper part of outer tube
T dimensionless cal simulated data
temperature T 0  T 0 Bottom =T 0 p  T 0 Bottom exp experimental data
DT0 temperature difference ¼ T 0 c  T 0 w ; ðKÞ I inner tube
T 0 Bottom temperature at the lowest bottom, K O outer tube
u dimensionless radical component of convection velo- p paraffin wax
city w saline water
v dimensionless azimuth component of convection
velocity
V0 characteristic velocity ¼ a/RO, m/s

evaporation of seawater from these reservoirs by solar radiation was adopted for the still cover due to its heat-proof nature and its
leads to a humidification of the areas. Secondly, the developed resistance to solar degradation. An inner half-cut tube made of
tube-type solar stills are connected between the reservoirs, gray vinyl chloride (inner diameter 67 mm, length 1000 mm and
constituting pipelines in the network for transportation of saline 4.5 mm in thickness) was installed as the basin with its inner side
and distillate water. The stills do not need to collect the distillate coated with a black acrylic paint for effective absorption of
or irrigate water, as water condensing under the cover of the still irradiation. The inside of the outer half-cut tube was also
flows along the inner surface of the still cover and immediately blackened for the more effective absorption. The basin consisted
discharges into the ground. The plantation plan is easily designed of two parts, the heat accumulator and a separate feed water layer.
with points (solar ponds) and lines (tube-type solar stills). The heat accumulator was comprised of 7 polyethylene tubes
(6 mm in inner diameter) filled with paraffin wax and sealed into
the bottom of the basin. Both the void in the accumulator and the
3. Experimental upper part of the basin were subsequently filled with the feed
water. The latent heat of paraffin wax (Nippon Seiro Co. Ltd.,
Tests on the effectiveness of a solar still in producing distilled EP125, m.p. ¼ 52.6 1C) made it a suitable material for the heat
water from a feed solution were condensed both in the laboratory accumulator. The inner half was coaxially fixed with the outer
and outdoors. A cross-sectional view of the developed solar still tube at both edges for a uniform vapor diffusion gap.
was given in Fig. 2. A half-cut vinyl chloride outer tube (inner Only the upper half part of the tube was exposed to irradiation
diameter 100 mm, length 1100 mm and 7 mm in thickness) acted by using the shield plate. Condensing water flowed down
as the role of the insulator and supporter for the cover tube. Pyrex the inside of the glass tube and was discharged through the
glass tube (100 mm in outer diameter and 2.4 mm in thickness) drain tube, employed here for measuring the amount of
distillated water per unit tube length. The still was tilted slightly
to facilitate this collection. The distillation productivity was
A
sti
ll tu
be measured by weight of distilled water, meaning the error in this
r Seawater
s ola ty
pe result is that for the electrical balance, 1 mg. In order to minimize
of reservoir
e of fluctuations in the distillate weight due to the dropwise
typ so
e la condensation of water, 1 h was selected as the collection time
tub rs
till
A interval. An hour is the appropriate time interval for the
Plantation Plantation
productivity rate due to good repeatability within a range of
72% in spite of instantaneous fluctuation in weight estimated to
Seawater Seawater Seawater be 10 g/m2. Therefore, the maximum error for the distillation
reservoir reservoir reservoir productivity rate per hour was estimated to be 720 g/m2 h at
Plantation Plantation highest irradiation intensity. The feed was kept at the constant
A
tu level by using a head tank.
be
till
ty
pe la rs T-type thermocouples were attached at the marked positions
of f so in Fig. 2, designated as top, m-top, side, m-bottom and bottom of
so eo
la yp the glass tube, feed and the heat accumulator. All thermocouples
rs et
till Seawater tub were calibrated with a standard thermometer to within 70.1 1C
A
reservoir due to the good linear relationship. The uncertainty with respect
to temperature measurement was 70.1 1C. Two corresponding
Fig. 1. A conceptual view of a desert plantation. positions along the longitude of the still were set up. Measured
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

K. Murase et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 1711–1718 1713

Top natural convections were numerically simulated using the

momentum and energy balances at the steady state. A prime (0 )
designates dimensional variables while no-sign variables of a
1 prime, (0 ) denote the dimensionless counterpart of the same
M - Top
variables. Momentum and energy balances non-dimensionalized
by the characteristic length scale R0 (where R0 is the radius of the
outer tube in meters) and velocity scale, V ¼ a/R0 (in m/s, which a
is the thermal diffusivity in m2/s) were as follows:
3 Side
Saline Water 1 q 1 q
3 Continuity Eq: ðruÞ þ ðvÞ ¼ 0 (1)
5 5 r qr r qy

Navier–Stokes Eqs.

4 "   #
2
qu v qu v2 qp q 1 q 1 q u 2 qv
u þ  ¼ þ Pr ðruÞ þ 2  (2)
M - Bottom qr r qy r qr qr r qr r qy2 r 2 qy
2

Bottom
y [-]
6 1
1. Pyrex glass tube
2. Outer half-cut tube /insulator Tc (θ)
(gray vinyl chloride )
3. Inner half- tube /basin
0.5 v u
(gray vinylchloride )
4. Heat accumulating tubes with paraffin
5. Shield plate r
6. Drain for distilled water
Red shading is saline water 0 θ
Blue shading is condensing distilled water x[-]
• Copper-Constantan Thermocouples Tw

Fig. 2. A cross-sectional view of the tube-type solar still.

Tp
-0.5

temperatures at each position were adopted for the average Tb (θ)

temperatures for the two corresponding positions.
Solar radiation was substituted with 32 infrared lamps (250 W) -1
in the laboratory test. The irradiative intensity adjusted by volt-
sliders in the range from 200 to 800 W/m2 and calibrated using a -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
pyranometer (EKO Instruments Co. Ltd., Model MS-42). Distribu-
tions of irradiative intensity over the still were adjusted within Fig. 3. Simulation model and grid generation.
the range 71.8% for the average intensity. The difference between
our measured data for solar intensity in the outdoor experiment
800
and the official data released by the Meteorological Agency
existed within the rage of 71.0%.
In order to establish the effect of the heat accumulator, a solar with paraffin wax
Distillate productivity [g/(m2 h)]

still without the paraffin tubes was set up as part of the laboratory without paraffin wax
600
test. Static characteristics and the effectiveness of heat accumu-
lator were evaluated with indoor experimental data, while data
obtained in the outdoor study contributed to the analysis of the
dynamic characteristics. Measured temperatures along the glass
were adopted for boundary conditions in the numerical simula- 400
tion of heat convection within the still.

4. Numerical simulation 200

4.1. Simulation model for natural convection

Heat transfer within the still at the unsteady state leads to a 0

0 200 400 600 800 1000
measure of the effectiveness of a heat accumulator. Fig. 3 shows
the cylindrical coordinates system for the numerical simulation. Irradiative intensity of infrared lamps [W/m2 ]
By applying the experimentally obtained temperature profiles Fig. 4. Effect of irradiative intensity of infrared lamps on distillate productivity
along the glass cover (T 0 b;exp ðyÞ; T 0 c;exp ðyÞ) and for the brine with and without paraffin wax at the steady state in indoor test—the indoor test
(T 0 w;exp ) and paraffin wax (T 0 p;exp ) as the boundary conditions using infrared lamps.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

1714 K. Murase et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 1711–1718

"   #
qv v qv uv 1 qp q 1 q 2
1 q v 2 qu Evaporated water : u ¼ v ¼ 0; T w ¼ T w;exp (6)
u þ þ ¼  þ Pr ðrvÞ þ 2 þ
qr r qy r r qy qr r qr r qy2 r 2 qy
Paraffin wax : u ¼ v ¼ 0; T p ¼ T p;exp (7)
 Ra  Pr  T (3)
Upper part of the glass tube : u ¼ v ¼ 0; T c ¼ T c;exp ðyÞ
"   #
qT v qT 1 q qT 2
1 q T at r ¼ R0O ; 0pypp=2 (8)
Energy Eq: u þ ¼ r þ 2 (4)
qr r qy r qr qr r qy2
Lower part of the glass tube : u ¼ v ¼ 0; T b ¼ T b;exp ðyÞ
Temperature profiles at the glass cover are taken to depend on at r ¼ R0O ; p=2pyp0 (9)
the circumferential angle; it is not reasonable to assume a
constant temperature profile for the outer cover since it is neither qv qT
Symmetry : u ¼ ¼ ¼0
horizontal nor flat. The profiles at the upper and lower part of the qy qy
outer tube, Tb,exp(y) and Tc,exp(y), respectively, were interpolated at 0prpRO ; y ¼ p=2 (10)
by cubic polynomials with sets of three measured temperatures,
(top, m-top, side) and (side, m-bottom, bottom) along the outer
tube. Temperatures at the sides of evaporated water (Tw,exp) and at
paraffin wax (Tp,exp) were set to be uniform; namely heat 4.2. Finite element method
convection within the water and paraffin wax were ignored. The
numerical integration is performed only to one vertical half region The Galerkin finite element method, in which isoparametric
due to symmetrical geometry. elements are applied for the coordinate and independent
The boundary conditions were set as follows: variables, was used to determine the numerical solution
of Eqs. (1)–(4) under the boundary conditions given by
Outer wall of the inner tube : u ¼ v ¼ 0; T p ¼ T p;exp Eqs. (5)–(10). Two-dimensional bilinear shape functions for
at r ¼ R0I ; yw pyp0 (5) pressure and biquadratic for the velocities were adapted for the

200 400
Distillate productivity [g / (m2 h)]
Distillate Productivity [g/(m2 h)]

150 300

100 200

with paraffin wax with praffin wax

50 100
without paraffin wax without paraffin wax

0
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0 50 100 150 200
Elapsed time [min]
Elapsed time [min]

200 400
Distillate productivity [g/(m2 h)]
Distillate Productivity [g/(m2 h)]

150 300

100 200

50 with paraffin wax 100

with paraffin wax
without paraffin wax
without paraffin wax

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Elapsed time [min] Elapsed time [min]

Fig. 5. The dynamic response of distillate productivity with elapsed time for Fig. 6. The dynamic response of distillate productivity with elapsed time for
stepwise variation in irradiative intensity during the indoor test using infrared stepwise variation in irradiative intensity during the indoor test using infrared
lamps: (a) from 200 to 400 W/m2 and (b) from 400 to 200 W/m2. lamps: (a) from 200 to 600 W/m2 and (b) from 600 to 200 W/m2.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

K. Murase et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 1711–1718 1715

isoparametric elements. The computational domain was divided
into 30 discrete quadrangular elements in the radical and angular
directions, respectively, as shown in Fig. 3. The velocity and
temperature fields were calculated by applying the Newton–
Raphson method.
The application of the finite element method was verified by
the close agreement with the simulated velocity and temperature
results for the common problem of natural heat convection in a
two-dimensional cavity. The Boussinesq’s approximation for the
natural heat convection in which physical properties except
density in the buoyancy term are set up to be independent of
temperature, was employed to verify the conservation of
momentum and energy. The number of discrete elements, 900
was sufficient to estimate similar results due to the use of
biquadratic elements for velocity. The convergence criterion
adopted was 1.0  103 for the relative error of iterated velocity
and temperature values. All convergent results were acquired
within the maximum number of iterations (100) even when the
relaxation factor for the iteration was set to be 0.5.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Indoor experiments
5.1.1. Static characteristics
Fig. 4 shows the effect of irradiative intensity using infrared
lamps on distillate productivity at the steady state with and
without paraffin wax in the indoor test. The larger heat capacity of
paraffin wax as compared to air did not contribute to a significant
increase in distillate productivity. Thus, the latent heat of paraffin
wax at the steady state had no effect on distillate productivity.
5.1.2. Dynamic characteristics
Fig. 5 shows the dynamic response of distillate productivity
with elapsed time for positive (from 200 to 400 W/m2) and
negative (from 400 to 200 W/m2) stepwise variation in irradiative
intensity. The temperature of paraffin wax exposed to an
irradiative intensity of 400 W/m2 did not reach the melting point

70 1000
Top
Side
Bottom
60 800
Feed
Paraffin

Solar intensity [W/m2]

phase change of wax Brine
Temperature [°C]

SolarIntensity
50 600

40 400

30 200

20 0
5:20 7:20 9:20 11:20 13:20 15:20 17:20 19:20
Time [hr]

500 1000

Distillate

400 Solar 800

Distillate productivity [g/(m2 h)]

Intensity
Solar intensity [W/m2]

300 600

200 400

100 200

0 0
5:20 7:20 9:20 11:20 13:20 15:20 17:20 19:20
Time [hr]

Fig. 7. (a) Temperature at each measuring point, the solar intensity and (b) distillate productivity over time on September 3, 2006 in Japan.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

1716 K. Murase et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 1711–1718

of 52.6 1C. Consequently, there was no significant observable
difference in distillate productivity between stills with and
without the wax for a stepwise change of irradiative intensity.
However, paraffin wax changed from solid state to liquid state
when exposed to 600 W/m2. Fig. 6 shows the dynamic response of
distillate productivity with elapsed time for positive (from 200 to
600 W/m2) and negative (from 600 to 200 W/m2) stepwise
variation in irradiative intensity that cover this phase change.
The difference in distillate productivities between stills with and
without the wax were 55.8 g/m2 for an increase in irradiation
(Fig. 6(a)) and +350.1 g/m2 for a decrease in irradiation (Fig. 6(b)).
Consequently, the paraffin wax contributed to a substantial
increase in distillate productivity equal to 294.3 g/m2 during the
cyclic stepwise change of irradiative intensity of the infrared
lamps. The effectiveness of the latent heat of the wax during
phase change on distillate productivity was, therefore, recognized.
5.2. Outdoor experiments
5.2.1. Temperature profiles and distillate productivity during 1 day
The dynamic characteristics observed during the indoor
experiment verified that the paraffin wax was effective for
improving the productivity of the heat accumulator. This result
is reinforced in the case of using a dynamic energy source like
solar energy. The outdoor experiment was performed only for the
solar still employing the paraffin wax as part of the heat
accumulator. Fig. 7 shows the temperature at each measuring
point, the solar intensity and distillate productivity over time
on September 3, 2006 in Japan. The maximum solar intensity
and water temperature were reached on the same time, 12:20
(Fig. 7(a)), while the maximum paraffin wax temperature and
distillate productivity peaked 1 and 2 h later, respectively. All
temperature profiles had the shape similar to that of the solar
intensity and only in case of paraffin wax were a temperature
reached that was greater than the brine. The phase change for
paraffin wax (from solid to liquid) began at 11:20 and, although
both brine and wax temperature began to decrease after 13:20.
The temperature difference between water and paraffin wax was
reduced to zero by 15:20, after which the temperature of the wax
fell below its melting point. Constant distillate productivity was
observed during the phase change (Fig. 7(b)), after which distillate
productivity increased despite a reduction in solar intensity. The
increase in productivity for several hours after solar maximum
was due to heat retention by wax; that is, the latent heat of the
wax. The total distillate productivity per day was 2.59 kg/m2 for
the total solar intensity per day, 22.6 MJ on September 3, 2006 in
Japan. This performance is adequate to meet the demands of
irrigation.
5.2.2. Temperature profiles along the glass cover
Velocity vectors driven by natural convection and temperature
contours within the still are essential for validating the effect of
the heat accumulator by simulation. Fig. 8 shows the temperature
distribution at each point of the still cover over a time during
1 day as well as the range of temperatures of the brine and
paraffin wax. From these observations, the assumption of uniform
water and paraffin wax temperatures for the simulation is
reasonable. The temperatures distributed along the circumferen-
tial angle of the glass cover of the outer tube were approximated
in the simulation by a cubic polynomial interrelationship with the
circumferential angle. The observed temperature profiles along
the circumferential angle, from cover bottom to top, essentially
support this assumption. Moreover, there was a gradual tempera-
ture increase with increasing distillate productivity until 13:20,
later than the peak value of the solar intensity, after which the
temperature of the cover top decreased. Latent heat on 14:20
contributed to increase the temperature of the top cover.
5.2.3. Natural heat convection by numerical analysis
Fig. 9 shows the simulated results of velocity vectors driven by
natural convection and temperature contours on September 3,
2006 in Japan. The simulation was performed using the experi-
mental temperature data obtained along the outer tube to set the
boundary conditions. The direction and number of the circulation
patterns classify the heat convection into four categories of
circulation patterns. The convection circulation direction at 10:20,
11:20, 14:20 and 16:20 is counterclockwise. The counterclockwise
circulation transports colder air from the bottom into the upper

70
10:20 11:20 12:20 13:20 14:20 15:20
16:20 Tw (10:20) Tw (11:20) Tw (12.20) Tw (13:20) Tw (14:20)
Tw (15:20) Tw (16:20) Tp (10:20) Tp (11:20) Tp (12:20) Tp (13:20)
Tp (14:20) Tp (15:20) Tp (16:20) 10:20 11:20 12:20
13:20 14:20 15:20 16:20 Tw (10:20) Tw (11:20)
Tw (12.20) Tw (13:20) Tw (14:20) Tw (15:20) Tw (16:20) Tp (10:20)
60
Tp (11:20) Tp (12:20) Tp (13:20) Tp (14:20) Tp (15:20) Tp (16:20)
10:20 11:20 12:20 13:20 14:20 15:20
16:20 10:20 11:20 12:20 13:20 14:20
Temperature [C]

15:20 16:20

50

Tp
Tw

40

30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Circumferential angle [rad]

Fig. 8. Temperature distributions and approximated curves along the glass cover at each time on September 3, 2006 in Japan.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

K. Murase et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 1711–1718 1717

1
1 I=765.6 [W/m2]
I=644.7 [W/m2]
d=0.010 [m] d=0.010 [m]

Tc=45.69 [C] Tc=47.29 [C]

Tb=37.62 [C] Tb=40.40 [C]

0.5 0.5
Tw=53.49 [C] Tw=56.74 [C]

Tp=46.21 [C] Tp=49.38 [C]

Y-Coordinate [-]
Y-Coordinate [-]

T T
0 1 0 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
-0.5 0.4 -0.5 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0

-1 -1
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
X-Coordinate [-] X-Coordinate [-]

1 1
I=865.0 [W/m2] I=735.0 [W/m2]
d=0.010 [m] d=0.010 [m]
Tc=45.18 [C] Tc=41.31 [C]
Tb=40.64 [C] Tb=38.25 [C]
0.5 0.5
Tw=56.91 [C] Tw=51.76 [C]
Tp=51.01 [C] Tp=49.88 [C]
Y-Coordinate [-]

Y-Coordinate [-]

T T
0 1 0 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
-0.5 0.4 -0.5 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0

-1 -1
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
X-Coordinate [-] X-Coordinate [-]

1 1
I=492.3 [W/m2] I=76.4 [W/m2]
d=0.010 [m] d=0.010 [m]
Tc=39.70 [C] Tc=38.25 [C]
Tb=38.44 [C] Tb=33.54 [C]
0.5 0.5
Tw=47.44 [C] Tw=36.84 [C]
Tp=47.79 [C] Tp=41.11 [C]
Y-Coordinate [-]

Y-Coordinate [-]

T T
0 1 0 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
-0.5 0.4 -0.5 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0

-1 -1
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
X-Coordinate [-] X-Coordinate [-]

Fig. 9. Temperature contours and velocity vectors at (a) 10:20, (b) 11:20, (c) 12:20, (d) 13:20, (e) 14:20 and (f) 16:20 on September 3, 2006.

part of the still. Two circulations are indicated at 13:20, which be clearly seen, the time lag experimentally observed between
contributes to the peak in distillate productivity because the hot peak times of solar intensity and distillate productivity is
vapor is prevented from flowing down under the basin. Tempera- dependent on the velocity vectors driven by natural convection
ture contours clarify the hot and cool parts within the still. As can and the temperature contour.

1718
3000
without phase change of wax
Distillate productivity per day [g/(m2 d)]
2500 with phase change of wax
linear approximation with phase
change of wax
linear approximation without
2000 phase change of wax
1500
1000
500
0 stepwise change of irradiative intensity, from 200 to 600 W/m2
0 5 10 15
Total solar intensity per day [MJ/(m2 d)]
Fig. 10. Effect of phase change on distillate productivity per day in Japan.
5.2.4. Practical use
Fig. 10 shows the effect of total solar intensity per day on the
total distillate productivity per day. Solid symbols present
measured distillate productivity data with phase change of the
paraffin wax; experimental data of distillate productivity per day
without phase change were plotted with open symbols. The solid
and dotted lines, fitted using the least-squares method, approx-
imate the experimental data with a linear relationship. The
difference in slope of these two lines and, hence in productivity of
the two situations is approximately 15%. As is very apparent, the
phase change of wax clearly contributes to the increase of
distillate productivity.
The minimum water demand for irrigation is reported to be 1 kg/d
for unit arid area. Including the setting area of the solar still the
performance of distillate productivity for a solar still is indispensable
for 2 kg/d. According to Fig. 10, the minimum solar intensity per day
needed to achieve this productivity using the developed still would be
17 MJ/m2 d. In Japan, this level of solar energy is normally obtained
during the summer season but in most arid areas around the world it
would be available during all seasons. Consequently, this makes the
solar still developed here a practical solution for meeting the water
supply demands of irrigation in arid areas. Moreover the tube-type
solar still is easily scaled up for an increased water demand because of
its simple construction, although it is more practical to networked a
number of smaller stills as envisioned in the concept a desert
plantation presented in Fig. 1.
6. Conclusions
Solar energy is renewable and sustainable energy source and
the best solution for alleviating the environment problems of
ARTICLE IN PRESS
K. Murase et al. / Energy 33 (2008) 1711–1718
global warming and desertification caused by increasing energy
consumption. Solar distillation systems, such as the tube-type
solar still described in this paper, therefore, provide a convenient
method of meeting irrigation needs in arid area. Heat accumula-
tion is an effective method of providing stability to the variable
solar energy input. Static and dynamic characteristics of the tube-
type solar still with heat accumulation were experimentally
evaluated in both indoor and outdoor experiments. Natural
convection within the still was numerically simulated for
estimating the heat and mass transfer. In indoor experiments,
the static characteristics of the tube-type solar still resulted in
almost the same productivity whether paraffin wax was included
in the heat accumulator or not.
The dynamic response to the stepwise variation of irradiative
intensity verified the contribution of paraffin wax to an increase of
productivity only when a phase change in the wax was evident.
Both indoor and outdoor experiments at the unsteady state
presented the effectiveness of heat accumulator. The effective
distillate productivity was found to be 294.3 g/m2 during the cyclic
20 25 and back to 200 W/m2.
Velocity vectors driven by natural convection and temperature
contours estimated by numerical simulation verified the effec-
tiveness of a heat accumulator especially after the peak of solar
intensity. The latent heat of paraffin wax contributed to a 15%
increase of total distillate productivity per day.
The minimum water productivity demanded of a solar still for
irrigation requires a total solar intensity per day above 17 MJ/m2 d.
The developed tube-type solar still can meet this demand and is
easily networked as a method of scaling-up for more demanding
practical use.
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