Basic Fault Calculations

and Analysis of Balanced Faults

Imagination at work
Power System Fault Analysis

All Protection Engineers should have an understanding

To:-
► Calculate Power System Currents and Voltages during
Fault Conditions
► Check that Breaking Capacity of Switchgear is Not
Exceeded
► Determine the Quantities which can be used by Relays to
Distinguish Between Healthy (i.e. Loaded) and Fault
Conditions
► Appreciate the Effect of the Method of Earthing on the
Detection of Earth Faults
► Select the Best Relay Characteristics for Fault Detection
Power System Fault Analysis

► Ensure that Load and Short Ratings of Plant are Not

Exceeded
► Select Relay Settings for Fault Detection and
Descrimination
► Understand Principles of Relay Operation
► Conduct Post Fault Analysis
Power System Fault Analysis Also Used To:-

►Consider Stability Conditions

• Required Fault Clearance Times
• Need for 1 Phase or 3 Phase Auto-Reclose
Computer Fault Calculation Programmes

► Widely available, particularly in large power utilities

► Powerful for large power systems
► Sometimes over-complex for simple circuits
► Not always user friendly
► Sometimes operated by other departments and not
directly available to protection engineers
► Programme calculation methods:- understanding is
important
► Need for ‘by hand’ spot checks of calculations
Pocket Calculator Methods

► Adequate for the majority of simple applications

► Useful when no access is available to computers and
programmes e.g. on site
► Useful for ‘spot checks’ on computer results
Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure
Underground Cables
Diggers
Overloading
Oil Leakage
Ageing

Overhead Lines
Lightning
Kites
Trees
Moisture
Salt
Birds
Broken Conductors
Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation
Failure
Machines

Mechanical Damage
Unbalanced Load
Types Of Fault

a a a
b b b
Ø/E
c c c

e e e

a a a
b b b
Ø/Ø/E
c c c
e e e

a a a
b b b
Ø / Øc c c

a
a b
b 3Ø/E c
3Ø
c
e
Types Of Fault

OPEN a
CIRCUITS b
c

a a'
CROSS
COUNTRY b b'
FAULT c c'
e e

a
OPEN FAULT
CIRCUIT b
BETWEEN
+ c ADJACENT
Ø/E PARALLEL
e LINES
Types Of Fault

a
CHANGING
FAULT IN
CABLE
b c
Voltage Convention

► In power system analysis it is important to maintain a

consistent approach when relating currents and voltages

► This is achieved by maintaining a VOLTAGE

CONVENTION:

I A
+

EAB ~ Z VAB

-
B

VAB = Voltage of ‘A’ above ‘B’ = + I Z

Vectors

Rotating Vectors can be used to represent

Sinusoidal Electrical Quantities

+V

t
V = Vsint

-V
Vectors

Vector notation can be used to represent phase

relationship between electrical quantities
Z

V I

V = Vsint = V 0


I = I - = Isin(t-)
Vector Multiplication And Division
A

B
A

B
Vector Multiplication

A.B
A.B = A A . B B

= A.B ( A + B)

A + B
Vector Multiplication And Division
Vector Division

A
= A  A / B A A
B B
= A  (A - B)
 A – B
B

Example:

V V0 0
V
Z   θ  Zθ
I I  θ 0
I
j Operator
Rotates vectors by 90° anti-clockwise :

j = 1 90

90 90

j2 = 1 180 1
= -1
90 90

j3 = 1 270
= -j

Used to express vectors in terms of “real” and

“imaginary” parts.
a = 1 120 °
Rotates vectors by 120° anticlockwise
Used extensively in “Symmetrical Component
Analysis”

1 3
a  1120  -  j
2 2

120

120 1

120

1 3
a 2  1240    j
2 2
a = 1 120 °

Balanced 3Ø voltages :-

VC = aVA

a2 + a + 1 = 0 VA

VB = a2VA
Balanced (3Ø) Faults
 RARE :- Majority of Faults are Unbalanced
 CAUSES :-
1. System Energisation with Maintenance Earthing
Clamps still connected.
2. 1Ø Faults developing into 3Ø Faults
 3Ø FAULTS MAY BE REPRESENTED BY 1Ø CIRCUIT
Valid because system is maintained in a BALANCED state during the
fault
Voltages equal and 120° apart
Currents equal and 120° apart
Power System Plant Symmetrical
Phase Impedances Equal
Mutual Impedances Equal
Shunt Admittances Equal
Balanced (3Ø) Faults

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
LINE ‘X’ LINE ‘Y’

LOADS

3Ø FAULT

Ea ZG ZT ZLX IaF ZLY

Eb IbF

Ec IcF

ZLOAD
Balanced (3Ø) Faults
IcF
Ea

IaF

Ec Eb

IbF

Positive Sequence (Single Phase) Circuit :-

Ea
ZG1 ZT1 ZLX1 F1 ZLY2

Ia1 = IaF ZLOAD

N1
Maximum Fault Level
Three Phase Fault Level:
IF(max) = VA Fault level / (√3 x Line voltage)
= (MVA x 1000) / (√3 x kV)
Typical Maximum Fault Levels:

System Voltage kV MVA Fault Level Max. Fault Current

(kA)
400 35 000 50
132 5 000 22
33 1 000 17.5
11 250 13.1
400V 25 55
Single Phase Fault Level:
► Can be higher than 3Ф fault level on solidly-earthed systems;
► Check that switchgear breaking capacity > maximum fault level for
all types
Generator Short Circuit Current
The AC Symmetrical component of the short circuit current varies with time due to effect
of armature reaction.

i
TIME

Ιac  ( Ι" - Ι' )e-t/Td"  ( Ι' - Ι )e-t/Td'  Ι

Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit :
where :
I" = Initial Symmetrical S/C Current or Subtransient Current
= E/Xd"
I' = Symmetrical Current a Few Cycles Later or
Transient Current = E/Xd'
I = Symmetrical Steady State Current = E/Xd
Simple Generator Models
Generator model to calculate the initial symmetrical S/C current or
subtransient current
jXd”

Generator model to obtain the S/C current a few cycles later,

IE; the transient current
jXd’

Generator model to obtain the steady state current

jXd

E
Variation Of Generator Fault Current After Fault
Instant – No Voltage Regulation
CURRENT
0.368 [Id” – Id’]

T” 0.368 [Id’ – Id]

Id” T’
Id’

Id

TIME
Iac = (Id”– Id’)e-t/T” + (Id’- Id)e-t/T’ + Id
Effect of Automatic Voltage Regulation On
Short Circuit Current Of Generators

Multiples
Of Rated 6
Current

With AVR
2
Without AVR

1 2 3 4 TIME IN SECS
Parallel Generators
11kV 11kV

11kV
XG=0.2pu
j0.05 j0.1

20MVA

XG=0.2pu

20MVA

If both generator EMF’s are equal  they can

be thought of as resulting from the same ideal
source - thus the circuit can be simplified.
P.U. Diagram

j0.05 j0.1 j0.05 j0.1

j0.2 j0.2 j0.2 j0.2

IF
 IF

1.0 1.0 1.0

Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
2. Winding Transformers

P S ZP = Primary Leakage Reactance

ZS = Secondary Leakage
Reactance
ZM = Magnetising impedance
P1 ZP ZS S1 = Large compared with ZP
and ZS

ZM ZM  Infinity  Represented by
an Open Circuit

N1 ZT1 = ZP + ZS = Positive
Sequence Impedance

P1 ZT1 = ZP + ZS S1
ZP and ZS
both expressed
on same voltage
N1 base.
Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
3. Winding Transformers
P ZP ZS S
P S

ZM ZT
T
T
N1
ZP, ZS, ZT = Leakage reactances of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Windings
T
ZM = Magnetising Impedance = Large  Ignored

ZP-S = ZP + ZS = Impedance
P ZP ZS S between Primary (P) and
Secondary (S) where ZP & ZS are
both expressed on same voltage
ZT base
T
Similarly ZP-T = ZP + ZT and ZS-T
= ZS + Z T
N1
Auto-Transformers
H L

T
Equivalent circuit is similar to that of a 3 winding transformer

H ZH1 ZL1 L

ZM1 ZT1
T

N1
ZM = Magnetising Impedance = Large  Ignored

H ZH1 ZL1 L ZHL1 = ZH1 + ZL1 (both referred

to same voltage base)
ZHT1 = ZH1 + ZT1 (both referred
ZT1 to same voltage base)
T ZLT1 = ZL1 + ZT1 (both referred
to same voltage base)
N1
Motors

Fault current contribution decays with time

Decay rate of the current depends on the system.
From tests, typical decay rate is 100 - 150ms.
Typically modelled as a voltage behind an
impedance

Xd"

M 1.0
Induction Motors – IEEE Recommendations
Small Motors
Motor load <35kW neglect
Motor load >35kW SCM = 4 x sum of FLCM

Large Motors
SCM  motor full load amps
Xd"

Approximation : SCM = locked rotor amps

SCM = 5 x FLCM  assumes motor
impedance 20%
Synchronous Motors – IEEE Recommendations

Large Synchronous Motors

SCM  6.7 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 15%
1200 rpm

 5 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 20%

514 - 900 rpm

 3.6 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 28%

450 rpm or less
Overhead Line Impedances
R L
SERIES

C G SHUNT

R = AC RESISTANCE
L = SERIES INDUCTABLE
C = SHUNT CAPACITANCE
G = SHUNT CONDUCTANCE (NEGLIGABLE)

 Series elements are of greatest interest to protection

engineers
Symmetrical Circuit
A

►Carsons Equations
D D Self Impedance  ZP 
 
  R  0.00159f  j 0.00466flog10
De
 / mile
 G 
 
MutualImpedance ZM 
 
  0.00159f  j0.00466flog10
De
 / mile 
C B  D 
D
Z1  Z 2  Zp - ZM  R  j 0.00466f log10
D
 / mile
G
Z o  Zp  2Zm  R  0.00477f j 0.01398f.log10 3
De
Ω/mile
 G .D 2

Where: -
R = Conductor a.c. resistance
 = Geometric mean radius of a single conductor
G
D = Spacing between parallel conductors
De = Equivalent spacing of the earth return path (ft)
= 2160 √e/f
e = Earth resistivity (ohm – metres)
Overhead Line Impedances

Positive Sequence

Zp
Ia1
Ea
Ib1 Zp Zm

Eb
Zm
Ic1 Zp Zm
Ec

Ea = Ia1 Zp + Ib1 Zm + Ic1 Zm

= Ia1 {Zp – Zm}

Ea
Z1 = I = Zp – Zm
a1
Overhead Line Impedances

Zero Sequence
Zp
I

Zp Zm
I
E
Zm
Zp Zm
I

E = I Zp + 2 I Zm
Single
Circuit
= I { Zp + 2 Zm }
Ea
Z0 = = Zp + 2Zm
I
Double
ZO = Zp + 2 Zm + ZOM Circuit Line (Single Circuit)
Non – Symmetrical Circuits
DAB B
A

DCA DBC

Transposed Line:-

A C B
B A C

C B A
Non – Symmetrical Circuits

D
Z1  Z 2  R  j 0.00466f.log10 (/mile)
G
D
 R  j 0.0029f.log10 ( / Km)
G
De
Z O  R  0.00477f j 0.01398f.log10 3
( / mile)
 G .D 2
De
 R  0.00296f  j 0.00869f.log10 3
( / Km)
 G .D2
where :

D  Geometricmean distance between conductors

3
 DAB.DBC.DCA
Typical GMD Values For 3Ø Overhead Lines

GMD
(Metres)
16
14
12
10

8
6
4
2

100 200 300 400 500

System Operating Voltage (kV Ø-Ø)

Positive Sequence Induction Of Overhead
Transmission Lines – Typical Values

1.5
D
x  log10
mH G
km

‘D’ Increasing 
‘ G’ Increasing Faster Than ‘D’

‘ G’ ~ Constant

0 100 200 300 400

System Voltage kV
Different Voltages – How Do We Analyse?

11kV 11/132kV 132/33kV

20MVA 50MVA 50MVA
O/H Line Feeder

ZG=0.3pu ZL=40 ZL=8

ZT=10% ZT=10%
Referring Impedances
X1 R2 X2
R1
N : 1

Ideal
Transformer

Consider the equivalent CCT referred to :-

Primary Secondary
N2R2 X1 + N2X2 X1/N2 + X2
R1 + R1/N2 + R2
Per Unit System

Used to simplify calculations on systems with more than 2 voltages.

Definition:

P.U. Value Actual Value

=
of a Quantity Base Value in the Same Units
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values

11 kV 11/132 kV 132/33 kV
20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA
O/H LINE FEEDER

ZG = 0.3 p.u. ZL = 40 ZL = 8

ZT = 10% ZT = 10%

 Particularly useful when analysing large systems with several

voltage levels
 All system parameters referred to common base quantities
 Base quantities fixed in one part of system
 Base quantities at other parts at different voltage levels depend on
ratio of intervening transformers
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
Base Quantities Normally Used :-

BASE MVA = MVAb = 3 MVA

BASE VOLTAGE = KVb =
Constant at all voltage levels
Value ~ MVA rating of largest item
of plant or 100MVA
/ voltage in kV
Fixed in one part of system
This value is referred through
transformers to obtain base
voltages on other parts of system
Base voltages on each side of
transformer are in same ratio as
voltage ratio
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
Other Base Quantities :-

(kV b )2
Base Impedance  Z b  in Ohms
MVAb

MVAb
Base Current  b  in kA
3 . kV b
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
Per Unit Values = Actual Value
Base Value

MVA a
Per Unit MVA  MVAp.u. 
MVAb
KVa
Per Unit Voltage  kVp.u. 
KVb
Za MVAb
Per Unit Impedance  Zp.u.   Za .
Zb (kVb )2
Ιa
Per Unit Current  Ιp.u. 
Ιb
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values

Per Unit Values = Actual Value/ Base Value

► The base or reference value is generally related to the

equipment rating

► E.g. Current rating = 600A

600A = 1.0 pu

► Sometimes specified in percentage, where 1 pu = 100%

Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
For Impedances

Per unit value = Ohmic value / Base value

Base Value = (kV2) / MVA

 If a 11kV / 440V transformer is rated at 500kVA, with an

impedance 0.1 pu (10%) :

Ohmic value = Per unit value x Base value

= 0.10 x (0.4402 / 0.500)
= 0.10 x 0.387
= 0.039 Ω Viewed from the LV side
= 24.2 Ω Viewed from the HV side
Transformer Percentage Impedance
 If ZT = 5%
with Secondary S/C
5% V (RATED) produces I (RATED) in Secondary.
 V (RATED) produces 100 x I (RATED)
5
= 20 x I (RATED)

 If Source Impedance ZS = 0
Fault current = 20 x I (RATED)
Fault Power = 20 x kVA (RATED)

 ZT is based on I (RATED) & V (RATED)

i.e. Based on MVA (RATED) & kV (RATED)
 is same value viewed from either side of transformer
Transformer Percentage Impedance
Example (1)

Per unit impedance of transformer is same on each side of

the transformer.

Consider transformer of ratio kV1 / kV2

1 2
MVA
kVb = kV1 kVb = kV2

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 1 = Za1

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 2 = Za2

Transformer Percentage Impedance
Example (2)

Base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the same ratio

as voltage ratio of transformer
11.8kV 11.8/141kV 132/11kV
OHL Distribution
System

Incorrect selection
of kVb 11.8kV 132kV 11kV

Correct selection 132x11.8 132kV 11kV

of kVb 141
= 11.05kV

Alternative correct 11.8kV 141kV 141x11 = 11.75kV

selection of kVb 132
Conversion of Per Unit Values from One Set of
Quantities to Another
Z p.u.1 Z p.u.2

Zb1 Zb2
MVAb1 MVAb2
kVb1 kVb2

Actual Z = Za
Za
Z p.u.1 
Z b1
Za Z b1
Z p.u.2   Z p.u.1 x
Z b2 Z b2
(kVb1 )2 MVA b2
 Z p.u.1 x x
MVA b1 (kVb2 )2
MVA b2 (kVb1 )2
 Z p.u.1 x x
MVA b1 (kVb2 )2
Conversion of Per Unit Values from One Set of
Quantities to
11/132 kV
Another
132/33 kV
11 kV
20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA

0.3p.u. 10% 40 10% 8

3
11 FAULT
kVb 132 33
MVAb 50 50 50
Zb 2.42 349 21.8 
=kVb2
MVAb
Ib 2625 A 219 A 874 A
=MVA b
3kV b
Zp.u. 0.3 x 50 40 = 0.115 8 = 0.367
20 0.1p.u. 349 p.u. 0.1p.u.
21.8
p.u.

= 0.75p.u.
 I11 kV = 0.698 x Ib =
1.432p.u.
0.698 x 2625 = 1833A
V 1p.u. IF = 1 = 0.698p.u. I132 kV = 0.698 x 219 = 153A
1.432
I33 kV = 0.698 x 874 = 610A
Circuit Laws
Three laws from which all circuit theorems have been derived: -

Ohms Laws Z
I
V = IZ
V
Kirchoff’s Junction Law

I1
I2
ΣI = 0
I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
I3

Kirchoff’s Mesh Law Z1 Z2

E1 Z3 E2
1 2
i1 i2

Round Any Mesh ΣE = ΣIZ

e.g. E1 = i1Z1 + i1Z3 – i2Z3 etc.
Thevenin’s Theorem (1)
Useful for replacing part of a system which is not of particular interest by
a single equivalent voltage and series impedance
For Example: -
Replacement of power system supplying an industrial network

Z1 Z2

E1 ~ Z3 ~ E2

Z1

E1 ~ Z3 E1’ = Open Circuit Voltage

= Z3 . E1
Z1 + Z3
Thevenin’s Theorem (2)

Z1

Z’ = Impedance with E1
Z3 S/C
= Z1 Z3
Z1 + Z3

Thevenin equivalent circuit :-

Z’ Z2

E1’ ~ ~ E2
Star/Delta & Delta/Star Transform Theorem (1)

Useful when reducing overall system equivalent impedance to a

single value
~

~ ~

ZEQUIV
~

~
Star/Delta & Delta/Star Transform Theorem (2)

1
1

Z10
Z31 Z12

Z30
Z20
Z23

3 2
3 Z12 . Z 31 2
Z10  Z10 . Z 20
Z12  Z 23  Z 31 Z12  Z10  Z 20 
Z 30

Z12 . Z 23 Z 20 . Z 30
Z 20  Z 23  Z 20  Z 30 
Z12  Z 23  Z 31 Z10

Z 23 . Z 31 Z 30 . Z10
Z 30  Z 31  Z 30  Z10 
Z12  Z 23  Z 31 Z 20
Superposition Theorem
Z1 Z2

I3
E1 ~
Z3
~ E2 I3 = I31 + I32

Z1 Z2

I31
E1 ~
Z3

Z1 + Z2

I32
Z3 ~ E2
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex = EY)

Healthy Loaded System

F1
~ EX ~ EY
N1

Faulted System (3Ø Fault):-

F1
~ EX IF ~ EY
N1
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex = EY)
If EX = EY = E

F1
E ~ IF
N1

Ignore Load:-

F1
E ~ IF
N1
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex ≠ EY)
Healthy Loaded System:-

F1
EX ~ VPF = E ~ EY
N1

Thevenise between F1 and N1:-

F1

~ E
N1
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex ≠ EY)
Fault Between F1 and N1:-
F1

IF

~ E
N1
Ignore Load:-
F1

IF

~ E

N1
Pre-Fault Load Conditions (1)

Z1 Z2 Z4 Z6
I6L
IIL I3L I4L
P1
Ex VPF EY
~ Z2 Z5 ~
N1
I2L I5(L)

Pre-Fault Load Conditions: -

►For a fault at P
Pre-fault voltage = VPF
Pre-fault Load Currents = I. (L)
Pre-Fault Load Conditions (2)

P1 IF
Z1 Z3 Z4 Z6 I6(F)
II(F) I3(F) I4(F)

EX ~ Z2 Z5 ~ EY
I2(F) I5(F)

N1

Three Phase Fault At P: -

Using exact values of EX and EY
Total current in each branch = I(F)
Three Phase Fault At P
IT = IF
P1

Z1 Z3 Z4 Z6 I6(T)
I3(T) I4(T)
Z2 Z5
I1(T)
I2(T) I5(T)

~ VPF
N1

Thevenised Circuit Used To Calculate Fault Current IF

Current in each branch of system is not necessarily the total current in
the branch
Current in branches = I-(T)
I-(T) ≠ I-(F)
Pre – Fault Load Circuit

Z1 I3(L) Z3 I4(L) Z4 Z6
II(L) I6(L)
P1
EX ~ Z2 VPF Z5 ~ EY

I2(L) N1 I5(L)

This can be represented by:-

Z1 Z3 Z4 Z6
I3(L) I4(L) I6(L)
II(L) P1
EX ~ Z2 Z5 ~ EY
~ VPF
I2(L) N1 I5(L)

Theoretical generator VPF does not affect the current distribution

Calculate load current followed by pre-fault voltage using superposition

Example Calculation
Power System
A B

~ ~

O
3Ø FAULT
LOAD

A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.45Ω

0.75Ω 0.45Ω
O
E’ ~ ~ E’’
18.85Ω
VPF

N1
Example Calculation
A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.45Ω

0.75Ω 0.45Ω
O
E’
~ ~ E’’
18.85Ω
VPF

N1

Convert impedances A0, B0 + N10 to equivalent  impedances

ZAN1 = ZA0 + ZN10 + Z A0 .Z N10
Z B0
0.75 x 18.85
= 0.75 + 18.85 + = 51Ω
0.45

This gives :-
Example Calculation
Circuit with equivalent  impedances:
A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.4Ω

ZAB = 1.22Ω

E’
~ ZAN1 = 51Ω ~ E’’

VPF ZBN1 =
30.6Ω
N1
By Thevenins Theorem the network can be represented by:-
A 2.5Ω B
1.6Ω 0.4Ω

1.22Ω
N1

VPF 51Ω 30.6Ω

Example Calculation

Reducing the network to a single voltage and impedance

A 0.82Ω

N1
1.55Ω 0.345Ω
VPF ~

A
N1

VPF 1.55Ω 1.215Ω

~
A

N1
0.682Ω
VPF ~
Example Calculation
Assuming IF = 1
A
IF=1.0

N1
0.682Ω
VPF ~
1.0
N
1

VPF 1.55Ω 1.215Ω

~ 1.215

2.765 0.44 0.56
A

A 0.82Ω
1.0
N1
VPF 1.55Ω 0.345Ω This gives :-
~
0.44 0.56
Example Calculation
A 0.82Ω
1.0
N1
1.55Ω 0.345Ω
VPF ~
0.44 0.56

A 2.5Ω
B
1.6Ω 0.56-0.376 0.4Ω
=0.184
1.22Ω
0.44 x 51 1.0
52.6 0.56 x 30.6
0.56 x 2.5
 0.376 31
51Ω 3.72 30.6Ω
 0.427 VPF  0.553
0.44-0.427 0.56-0.553
=0.013 =0.007
N1

Now convert  impedances AN1, BN1, and AB

back to equivalent impedances:
Example Calculation

Positive Sequence
Distribution Factors
A 2.5Ω B
0.184
1.6Ω 0.4Ω

0.427 0.75Ω 0.45Ω 0.553

O
0.553 - 0.184
E’
~ 1.0 – (0.427+0.184)
= 1.0 – 0.611 =0.369 ~ E’’
= 0.389 18.85Ω
1.0
VPF 0.389 – 0.369
=0.02
N1
D.C. Transients & Offsets
Fault Applied
ZØ
iF
R + jL
~ id.c.
VM sin (t + α)
iF
ia.c.
iF = Id.c. + I a.c.
- VM VM
= Z sin (α - φ) e -Rt/L
 sin (wt  α - φ)
Z

D.C. Transient Symmetrical A.C.

Component Component

 3
Max. value when (α – Ø) = -
2 or 2

If Ø = 90°, this occurs when α = 0 or 180°, i.r. when the fault occurs at
voltage zero.