Geomecánica Aplicada a Estabilidad de Pozos: Aspectos

Básicos y Tópicos Especiales

2. CONCEPTOS BASICOS

José Gildardo Osorio Gallego, Ph.D.

Departamento de Procesos y Energía – Facultad de Minas
Universidad Nacional de Colombia – Sede Medellín

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 2. CONCEPTOS BASICOS

2.1 Stress definition

2.2 Shear and normal stresses
2.3 The stress tensor
2.4 Principal stresses definition
2.5 Principal stresses in 2D
2.6 Principal stresses in 3D
2.7 Mean stress
2.8 Effective stress
2.9 The Mohr´´s circle
2.10 Equations of equilibrium
2.11 Strain definition

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Stress Definition

Stress:: force per unit area acting at a point:

∆A SI unit:
P ∆F
lim  ∆F  Pa (Pascal=N/m2)
σ=
∆A → 0  ∆A 
Oilfield unit:
psi (pounds per square inch)

Geomechanics convention:
Compression is taken to be
positive

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Shear and Normal Stresses

Arbitrary oriented plane under σ can be decomposed into a

stress σ acting at the point P : normal component σ n and a
shear component τ :

σn σ n : Normal stress
σ σ
τ : Shear stress
τ
P P
θ θ

Notice that an infinite amount of planes can be drawn through a given point,
varying the values of σ n and τ depending on plane orientation
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor
An arbitrary stress on a plane can be resolved into three
components each one parallel to three orthogonal directions

Normal stress
Random stress on
the plane
Shear stress
parallel to x-axis
x

y Shear stress
parallel to y-axis
y
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

Z Perpendicular plane to axis X

P FN
σX
Y

: Normal stress

τ XZ
FXZ τ XY Shear stress on surface normal to axis X and
caused by the force in direction Y.

These three components of stresses can be expressed in vectorial form:

(σ X τ XY τ XZ )
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

Similarly:
Perpendicular plane to axis Y
Z

X FN
Y P

FYZ σY
τ YZ Normal stress

In vectorial form:
Shear stress
τ YX (τ YX σ Y τ YZ )

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

FN
Finally:

Z
σZ : Normal stress
X

τ ZY
Shear stress
τ ZX Perpendicular plane to axis Z

In vectorial form: (τ ZX τ ZY σ Z )
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

z
In summary:
Stress at a single point P represented σ zz
as an infinitesimal cube with surfaces
oriented in three orthogonal directions: σ zx
σ zy
x , y and z. σ xz
σ yz
σ x τ xy τ xz  σ xy σ xx
  σ yx
 τ yx σy τ yz  σ yy
x
τ τ zy σz 
 zx 
y

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

r r r
σ Tθ = σ ⋅ rθ Z

σ TZ
σT
 σ Tx  σ x τ xy τ xz   r1 
      σ TY σ TX
X

 σ Ty  =  τ yx σy τ yz   r2 
σ  τ τ zy σz  r 
 Tz   zx   3 θ Y

Or :
σ Tx = σ x r1 + τ xy r2 + τ xz r3 1

σ Ty = τ yx r1 + σ y r2 + τ yz r3 2

σ Tz = τ zx r1 + τ zy r2 + σ z r3 3
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

Let us take equation (1):

σ Tx = σ x r1 + τ xy r2 + τ xz r3

σ Tx Has three components:

Component 1: σ x
with a weight factor r1.

Component 2: τ xy with a weight factor r2.

Component 3: τ xz with a weight factor r3.

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

In polar coordinates:
σz

Fs

τ zθ τ zr

σr τ θr
Fs Fs
τ rθ τ rz τ θz σθ

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The stress tensor (cont.)

Accordingly and analogously to Cartesian coordinates, the stress tensor, in polar

coordinates, associated to a point P is : σz

 σ rr τ rθ τ rz 
  σr
σ=  τ θr σ θθ τ θz  σθ
τ τ zθ σ zz 
 zr 
y
σθ pw
Normal Shear σr
τθ r
σr τ rθ τ rθ
σθ τ rz
σz θ
τθ z x
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Equations of Equilibrium

Consider the parallelepiped shown in the Figure:

∂ τ xz
τ xy τ + ∆x
∂x
xz

σx ∂σ x
σx + ∆x
∂x
τ xz
x
∂ τ xy
τ + ∆ x
∂ x
xy
y

The forces acting on this body in the x-direction

direction are:
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Equations of Equilibrium

Normal forces:
 ∂σ x 
σ
 x + ∆ x  ∆ y∆ z − σ x ∆ y∆ z
 ∂x 

Shear forces:
 ∂ τ zx 
τ
 zx + ∆ z  ∆ x ∆ y − τ zy ∆ x ∆ y
 ∂z 
 ∂ τ yx 
 τ yx + ∆ y  ∆ x ∆ z − τ yx ∆ x ∆ z
 ∂y 

Body forces:
ρ g x ∆ x∆ y∆ z
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Equations of Equilibrium

Adding up the above equations and dividing by ∆x∆y∆z, the requirement for the
forces to cancel (for the body to be in equilibrium) is equivalent to:
to

∂ σ x ∂ τ xy ∂ τ xz
+ + + ρg x = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

Similarly, for the forces in the y- and z-directions

directions we find:
∂ τ yx ∂σ y ∂ τ yz
+ + + ρg y = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ τ xz ∂ τ yz ∂ σ z
+ + + ρg z = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal stresses Definition

Let’s assume that the red arrow labeled “random

“ stress on a plane”
is larger than any of the normal or shear stresses
z

Normal stress
Random stress on
the plane
Shear stress
parallel to x-axis
x

y Shear stress
parallel to y-axis
y
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal stresses Definition (cont.)

If the orientation of the plane is changed so that it is perpendicular to the red

arrow,, then all the shear stresses on the plane go to zero and the only arrow
left is the red one which is now equal to the normal stress on the plane

Since the shear stresses

acting on the “rotated” plane
are zero, then the red arrow
Shear stresses is a principal stress.
equal to zero

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses Definition (cont.)

The idea can be extended to the

σ zz
stress at a single point P represented
as an infinitesimal cube with surfaces
σ zx
σ zy oriented in three orthogonal directions:
σ xz
σ yz x , y and z.

σ xy σ xx
σ yx
x
σ yy

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses Definition (cont.)

There is one orientation of the

Shear stresses on block where all the shear
surface Y’ = 0 σ1
Shear stresses on stresses on all of the faces go to
surface Z’ = 0
σ3 zero and each of the three faces
has only a normal stress on it.

The stress tensor is reduced to:

σ2 σ 1 0 0 
Shear stresses on
 
surface X’ = 0 σ ij =  0 σ 2 0 
0 0 σ 
 3

σ1, σ 2 and σ 3 are known as the principal stresses σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ 3

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses Definition (cont.)

The three principal axes of stress can be thought of as the major,

minor and intermediate axes of an ellipsoid: The stress ellipsoid
σ3

σ1

σ2

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses Definition (cont.)

In oilfield applications, one of the three principal stresses is assumed

to be vertical.
SS v
V

Thus the convention for notation

of the earth in-situ principal
stresses is: Sv , S H and Sh , for SS h
h

the total vertical, maximum

horizontal and minimum SSH
H

horizontal stresses, respectively.

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses in 2D
The 3D stress tensor can be simplified to 2D:

3D 2D

 σ xx τ xy τ xz 
coordinates
Cartesian

   σ xx τ xy   σ xx τ xz   σ yy τ yz 
 τ yx σ yy τ yz       
 τ yx σ yy   τ zx σ zz   τ zy σ zz 
τ τ zy σ zz   
 zx

 σ rr τ rθ τ rz 
coordinates

   σ rr τ rθ   σ rr τ rz   σ θθ τ θz 
Polar

 τ θr σ θθ τ θz       
τ  τ θr σ θθ   τ zr σ zz   τ zθ σ zz 
 zr τ zθ σ zz 
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses in 2D (cont.)

Principal directions in 2D: σ1 0 

 
 0 σ2

Appendix 2.A shows that the principal stresses in 2D can be written

in terms of the 2D stress tensor as, for example:
σ yy
1

σ 1 = (σ x + σ y ) + τ xy + (σ x − σ y )2 
1  2 1  2

2  4 
σxx σxx
1

σ 2 = (σ x + σ y ) − τ xy + (σ x − σ y )2 
1  2 1  2

2  4 
σ yy
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses in 2D (cont.)
In the above example, the direction of the principal stresses are
given by:
2τ xy
tan 2θ = θ is the angle with respect σ 1
σ x −σ y

In polar coordinates, the 2D principal stresses, for example in the θ-z

plane, are given by:
ω (σ θ )min
(σθ )min =
(σθ + σ z ) (σθ − σ z )
−
2
+ τθ2z
2 4
σr
(σθ )max =
(σθ + σ z )
+
(σθ − σ z ) 2
+ τθ2z
2 4
θ (σ θ )max
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses in 3D

The principal stresses in 3D can be written in terms of the

stress invariants (stress combinations that are independent
of the coordinate axes) given by:

Stress invariants in Cartesian coordinates:

I1 = σ x + σ y + σ z

I 2 = σ xσ y + σ yσ z + σ zσ x − τ xy2 − τ yz2 − τ zx2

I 3 = σ xσ yσ z − σ xτ yz2 − σ yτ zx2 − σ zτ xy2 + 2τ xyτ yzτ zx

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses in 3D (cont.)

Stress invariants in polar coordinates:

coordinates
I1 = σ rr + σ θθ + σ zz

I 2 = σ rrσ θθ + σ θθ σ zz + σ zzσ rr − τ r2θ − τ θ2z − τ zr2

I 3 = σ rσ θ σ z − σ rτ θ2z − σ θτ zr2 − σ zτ r2θ + 2τ rθτ θzτ zr

The following (characteristic)) equation can be solved to estimate

the principal stresses (eigenvalues
eigenvalues) in 3D:

σ 3 − I1σ 2 + I 2σ − I 3 = 0

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses in 3D (cont.)

The orientation of the principal stresses orientations

(eigenvectors) can be obtained by following rules:

To obtain the orientation of σ1, solve the following equation for

n11, n12 and n13 :

σ rr − σ 1 τ rθ τ rz   n11  0
    
 θrτ σ θθ − σ 1 τ θz  n12  = 0
 τ zr τ zθ σ zz − σ 1  n13  0


José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Principal Stresses in 3D (cont.)
To obtain the orientation of σ 2, solve the following equation for
n21, n22 and n23 :
σ rr − σ 2 τ rθ τ rz   n21  0
    
 θrτ σ θθ − σ 2 τ θz  n22  = 0
 σ zz − σ 2  n23  0
 τ zr τ zθ

To obtain the orientation of σ 3 , solve the following equation for

n31, n32 and n33 :
σ rr − σ 3 τ rθ τ rz   n31  0
    
 θr τ σ θθ − σ 3 τ θz  n32  = 0
 τ zr τ zθ σ zz − σ 3  n33  0
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Mean Stress

From the definition of the first invariant (written in a previous

slide):

I1 = σ rr + σ θθ + σ zz = σ xx + σ yy + σ zz = σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 1

Since this value is independent of the coordinate axes, then it

follows that the mean stress is also an invariant:

σ rr + σ θθ + σ zz σ xx + σ yy + σ zz σ1 + σ 2 + σ1
σm = = =
3 3 3

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Effective Stress

Effective stress: Portion of the external load (total stress) that is carried
by the rock itself.

Terzaghi vertical effective stress or net

S
overburden stress:
S' = S − P
S v′ = Sv − P Sv: Vertical stress or overburden
P
P: Pore pressure

Mean effective stress or net confining stress:

S m′ = S m − P Sm: Vertical stress or overburden

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Effective Stress (cont.)

Orientation of effective stresses: Same as total stresses

SV

Sh
Sv′ = S v − P
SV’ = SV- PP
S H′ = S H − P
PP Sh’ = Sh- PP
S h′ = S h − P SH
PP PP
SH’ = SH- PP

PP

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Effective Stress (cont.)

Strictly speaking, the effective stress definition includes Biot´s poroelastic

parameter (α):

Vertical effective stress or net overburden stress:

S
S v′ = S v − αP
S ' = S − αP
P
Mean effective stress or net confining stress:

S m′ = S m − αP

For most practical applications in wellbore stability, α is close to 1

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Effective Stress (cont.)

The effective stress tensor is given by:

Cartesian coordinates:
 σ ′x τ xy τ xz   σ x τ xy τ xz   p 0 0 
     
σ ij = τ yx σ ′y τ yz  = τ yx σ y τ yz  − α  0 p 0 
τ τ σ ′  τ τ σ   0 0 p
 zx zy z  zx zy z  
Polar coordinates:
σ rr′ τ rθ τ rz  σ rr τ rθ τ rz   P 0 0 
     
′ τ θz  =  τ θr σ θθ
σ ij =  τ θr σ θθ τ θz  − α  0 P 0 
τ   σ zz   0 0 P 
 zr τ zθ σ ′zz   τ zr τ zθ

The shear components of the stress tensor are not affected by changes in pore
pressure. Thus, the effective shear stresses are equal to total shear stresses
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Effective Stress (cont.)

Since the effective stress is what effectively stresses the rock

skeleton, then for the application of rock mechanics principles, the
stress taken into account is the effective stress instead of the
total stress. Examples:
S
• Rock fractures when the effective stress,
not the total stress, reaches a certain S ' = S − αP

criteria failure. P

• Any representation of the stress state in the

Mohr´ss circle is done in terms of the
effective stresses instead of total stresses.
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´s
Mohr Stress Circle

From Appendix 2.B, any stress σθ acting on a infinitesimal surface

with inclination θ can be decomposed into shear, τs, and normal,
σN, stresses given by :
σ1
σ1 +σ2  σ1 −σ2 
σN =   +  cos (2θ )
 2   2 
σθ θ
σ2 σ2
σN τS
P
τS =
(σ1 −σ2 )
sin (2θ )
2

σ1
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´´s Stress Circle (cont.)

The above expressions for shear, τs, and normal, σN, stresses fit
the parametric equation of circle with center “c”
“ and radius “R”:

x = c + R cos( β ) y = R sin( β )

 σ1 + σ2 )   σ1 − σ2 
σN =   +  cos(2θ )  σ1 − σ2 
 2   2  τS =   sin(2θ )
 2 

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´´s Stress Circle (cont.)

 σ1 + σ 2   σ1 − σ 2 
τS σN = +  cos (2θ )
 2   2 

 σ − σ2 
R= 1  (σ1 −σ 2 )
 2 
τ= sin(2θ )
2
2θ
σN
σ2 σ1

 σ + σ2 ) 
c= 1 
 2 
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´´s Stress Circle (cont.)

σ1
Mohr circle change due to an increment in
pore pressure with constant total stresses σ2 P1 σ2

τS
Initial stress
σ1
Final stress
state
state σ1

σ2 P2 σ2
∆P σ'N

σ1
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´´s Stress Circle (cont.)

Shear stress, τs, dependence on normal stress, σN:

σ1
τS
σN P
σ θ Q
σ2 P σ2 σ
σN τS τS
σN

σ1

On what plane is τs at maximum?

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´s
Mohr Stress Circle (cont.)

Shear failure and Mohr circle:

The shear stress, τs, required to displace and fail the rock could be
measured at several normal stresses, σN:

σ'N
τS σ'N τS
τS1 σ'N1 µ = tanϕ
τS τS2 σ'N2
τ S 3 σ'
N3 τ0
τ S4 σ 'N 4
τ S 5 σ 'N 5 σ'N
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´s
Mohr Stress Circle (cont.)

Shear failure and Mohr circle:

Experimental observation: shear stress, τs, required to fail the rock increases
with normal stresses, σN :
Mohr-Coulomb shear
τS fracture criterion
µ = tanϕ Stable region
τ S = τ 0 + µσ N'
Unstable region
τ0 Stability region:
τs : Cohesion
σN'
µ: Internal angle coefficient

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´s
Mohr Stress Circle (cont.)

Shear fracture orientation

In Appendix 2.C, it is shown that the orientation of shear fractures, with

respect the orientation of the maximum horizontal stress, is given by:
σ1
Shear fracture
orientation
ϕ
θ f = ±45m
2
σ3 σ3
ϕ: Angle of internal friction

Shear fracture
orientation
σ1
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Mohr´s
Mohr Stress Circle (cont.)
How do shear fractures look like?

Shear fracture from Shear fractures from Shear fractures from outcrops
a tri-axial test image logs

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 Strain Definition

Strain: deformation that a body experiences when it is subjected

to a stress field.
Original Deformed
y y
Normal strain or elongation:
l lf
l −lf ∆l
ε= = x x
l l
Original Deformed
Shear strain: y y

ψ
γ = tan (ψ ) π 2
x x

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Strain Tensor

In APPENDIX 2.D, it is shown that a point under a stress state describe

by the stress tensor undergoes normal and shear deformations which
are described by a corresponding strain tensor:

Cartesian coordinates Cylindrical coordinates

Stress tensor Strain tensor Stress tensor Strain tensor

σ x τ xy τ xz   εx γ xy γ xz   σ rr τ rθ τ rz   ε rr γ rθ γ rz 
       
 τ yx σy τ yz  ⇒  γ yx εy γ yz   τ θr σ θθ τ θz  ⇒  λθr ε θθ γ θz 
τ  γ τ zy γz  τ τ zθ σ zz   γ zr λ zθ ε zz 
 zx τ zy σz   zx   zr

José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D

gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Strain Tensor
Strains as function of displacements (Cartesian
( coordinate):

FNX P
FNY
P

∆Uz
∆z

∆x ∆Ux

∂u 1  ∂u x ∂u y 
εx = x γ xy = γ yx =  + 
∂x 2  ∂y ∂x 
∂u y 1  ∂u y ∂u z 
εy = γ yz = γ zy =  + 
∂y 2  ∂z ∂y 
∂u z 1  ∂u z ∂u x 
εz = γ zx = γ xz =  + 
∂z 2  ∂x ∂z  José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co
 The Strain Tensor
Strains as function of displacements (Cylindrical
( coordinates):

εz ∂u r
εr =
∂r
1 ∂uθ 
εθ =  ur + 
γ zθ r ∂θ 
γ zr
∂u
εz = z
∂z 1  ∂u r  1 ∂uθ
γ rθ = γ θr =  + uθ  +
εr 2r  ∂θ  2 ∂r
γ rθ 1  ∂u r ∂u z 
γ rz γ θr γ r z = γ zr =  + 
2  ∂z ∂r 
γ θz εθ 1  1 ∂u z ∂uθ 
γ θ z = γ zθ =  + 
2  r ∂θ ∂z 
José Gildardo Osorio G., Ph.D
gosorio@unal.edu.co