Module Number: 2

Module Title: Nuclear Chemistry and Energy

Course Structure:

Module number 2 entitled Nuclear chemistry and energy consists of module

objectives, introduction, discussion, activity, assessment and references.

Module Objectives:
At the end of the module, the student should be able to:
1. define nuclear chemistry;
2. explain what is meant by the half-life of radioactive element;
3. describe what happens in a nuclear bombardment reaction;
4. describe the effects of radiation;
5. discuss several beneficial applications of radioisotopes
6. compare nuclear fission and nuclear fusion; and
7. explain how nuclear reactors are used to produce energy.

Introduction

Were you ever X-rayed?

 The explosion of an atomic bomb is spectacular, and it is terrifying. The
detonation of the first nuclear device in the southwestern United States in 1945 signaled
a huge and abrupt increase in the amounts of energy available to the human race. It
ushered us into a new age that offered the possibilities of large-scale destruction and
the serious effects and nagging worries of exposure to radioactivity. It also offered
incredible possibilities of improved health, inexpensive energy, and a better way of life.

In this module we will explore the applications of nuclear reactions and the
problem and benefits brought about by their application.

As we continue to learn chemistry, we discovered about a wide variety of

chemical reactions. In chemical reactions, atoms interact only through their outer
electrons while their nuclei remain unchanged. But there are other types of reactions,
called nuclear reactions, in which changes do occur in an atom’s nucleus. Nuclear
reactions change the composition of an atom’s nucleus. All three kinds of radiation
—alpha, beta, and gamma—are produced by nuclear reactions. In fact, alpha and beta
radiation consist of particles that are emitted from the nucleus. Radioactivity is the
spontaneous emission of radiation from an atom.
Nuclear chemistry focuses on the atomic nucleus, on nuclear changes, and on
how these affect the properties of elements.

Content:
Lesson 2.1 Nuclear Stability

Almost all the atoms that you encounter have stable nuclei, which is another way
of saying that they are not radioactive. Only a few atoms in nature are radioactive. This
rarity is fortunate because radiation can cause a variety of harmful effects.
Why are some nuclei stable and others unstable? Part of the reason has to do
with the number of protons and neutrons that they contain. Not all combinations of
protons and neutrons make a stable nucleus.
A nucleus consists of protons and neutrons packed together in a very small
space. But as you learned, all protons have a positive charge and similarly charged
particles repel each other. Why do protons in a nucleus not fly apart? Logically, some
force must hold the nucleus together—an attractive that forms that overcomes the
electric repulsion between protons. This force is what we call strong nuclear force.
All stable nuclei follow a distinct pattern. For elements with atomic numbers
between 1 and 20 (from hydrogen to calcium), stable nuclei have almost equal numbers
of protons and neutrons. Beyond 20 protons, nuclei need increasingly more neutrons
than protons to be stable. When the atomic number exceeds 83 (the element bismuth),
no number of neutrons is sufficient to glue the nucleus together indefinitely. All nuclei
with atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioactive. What are some elements that fall
into this category?
Interestingly, nuclei are unstable not only if they contain too few neutrons, but
also if they contain too many. Nuclei that have excess neutrons are likely to emit beta
radiation. As a general rule, isotopes that are much heavier (that contain more
neutrons) or much lighter (that contain fewer neutrons) than the most common isotope
are likely to be radioactive.

Self-Assessment:
What are the factors affecting nuclear stability?

Lesson 2.2 Types of Radioactive Decay

 As you recall, radioactive elements emit different kinds of radiation, three of
which are alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiation. These three kinds of radiation
are distinguished by their charge, mass and penetrating power. Their properties are
summarized in the table given below.

Alpha radiation consists of a stream of high-energy alpha particles. An alpha

particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and is identical to a helium-4 nucleus. An
alpha particle is represented

These particles do not have much penetrating power. Most alpha particles are able to
travel only a few centimeters through air and are easily stopped by paper or clothing. As
a result, they usually do not pose a health hazard unless the source of the radiation
actually enters the body.
 Beta radiation consists of a stream of high-speed electrons. These electrons,
however, are not the ones in motion around an atom’s nucleus. Like all radioactivity,
beta radiation comes from changes inside the nucleus. In the process that produces
beta radiation, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron. The proton remains in
the nucleus, and the electron--or beta particle--is propelled out of the nucleus at high
speed.
Beta radiation is represented by the symbol (written inside the box)

The mass number is zero because an electron has an exceedingly small mass
compared to a proton or a neutron. Beta radiation is about 100 times more penetrating
than alpha radiation and is able to penetrate 1 to 2 millimeters into solid material. It is
able to pass through clothing and damage the skin.
Gamma rays are a very energetic form of light that our eyes cannot see, which
makes them similar to X-rays. A gamma ray does not consist of particles, so it is
symbolized by

Gamma radiation accompanies alpha and beta radiation and is much more penetrating
than either of them. It is able to penetrate deeply into solid material, including body
tissue, and is stopped only by heavy shielding, such as concrete or lead. Gamma rays
are very dangerous, and scientists who work with them follow a strict set of precautions.
When an atom emits one of these kinds of radiation, it is said to be undergoing a
radioactive decay. Specifically, an atom may undergo an alpha, beta, or gamma
decay. The radiation is called decay because the original nucleus decomposes, or
decays, to form a new nucleus, releasing radiation in the process.
The best way to understand a radioactive decay is with a nuclear equation, or an
equation that keeps track of the reaction’s components.
For example, here is the nuclear equation that describes the alpha decay of an isotope
of radium, element number 88:

In a nuclear equation, the arrow is read as “yields” or “produces”, and it points in the
direction of the reaction. The equation above indicates that the nucleus of a radium-226
atom produces a radon-222 nucleus and an alpha particle.

For a nuclear equation that describes the beta decay of iodine-131:

In this reaction, the nucleus of an iodine-131 atom produces a xenon-131 nucleus and a
beta particle.
 As you look at these 2 equations, do you notice anything interesting about their
mass numbers and atomic numbers? In each equation, the sums of the mass numbers
are the same on both sides of the arrow, as are the sums of the atomic numbers.
Gamma ray emission always occurs in conjunction with an alpha- or beta-decay
process; it never occurs independently. Such gamma rays are most often not included
in the nuclear equation, since they do not affect the balancing of the equation nor the
identity of the decay product.

Note:

Mass number varies but atomic number remains the same.

(See to it that you have a periodic table on hand)

Self-Assessment:

A. Write a balanced nuclear equation for the decay of each of the following radioactive
isotopes. The mode of decay is indicated in parentheses.
(a) Au-185 (alpha emission)
(b) Na-24 (beta emission)
(c) Ga- 70 (beta emission)
(d) Nd-144 (alpha emission)
(e) Fm-248 (alpha emission)
(f) Ag-113 (beta emission)
B.

Lesson 2.3 Radioisotopes

 Recall the atomic structure. You have learned that the atoms of most of the
elements that you are familiar with are tremendously stable. You can hold in your hands
a piece of limestone in which the calcium, carbon and oxygen atoms are more than 1.8
x 109 years old- the age of the solid crust of the Earth. In many cases these stable atom
may have been recycled several times. A carbon atom in a starch molecule that is part
of your breakfast cereal may have been exhaled as carbon dioxide by Cleopatra in 50
BC. A nitrogen atom that was in the body of the first amphibian to crawl out of the ocean
onto the land may now be a part of the family cat! As you can see, stable atoms may be
around for a long, long time.
However, some atoms are not stable. Actually, it is their nuclei that are not
stable. An unstable nucleus decays, or emits radiation, to change into a different
nucleus. A sample of the element francium, the last element in Group 1A, will have
almost completely decayed into radium after only one or two hours.
Although most carbon atoms are stable and date back to before the formation of
the Earth’s crust, some carbon atoms are unstable and will decay into nitrogen atoms.
The stable and unstable carbon atoms are isotopes of each other. Recall that isotopes
are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.

Radioisotopes

What kinds of changes take place in the nucleus of an unstable atom when it
decays? All nuclear decay is accompanied by the emission of radiation, which is called
as radioactivity. Radioactivity was first observed in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Becquerel
had stored some photographic film in the same drawer as a sample of uranium ore with
only a piece of black paper separating them. When the film was developed, it showed
signs of exposure even though it had been kept in the dark. Radiation from the uranium
had passed through the black paper and produced an image on the film.
The decay of unstable isotopes is a spontaneous process that takes place all the
time. All elements have one or more isotopes that are unstable and that decay to
produce other elements. These isotopes may be natural or they may be artificial. Many
elements have at least one radioactive isotope, or radioisotope, that occurs naturally.
Several elements, such as fluorine, do not. The only natural isotope of fluorine is
fluorine-19, which is stable. However, unstable isotopes of fluorine can be produced
artificially in a nuclear bombardment reaction. You will learn about this later in this
section.

Half-life
 The element rubidium (Rb) has two naturally occurring isotopes. As it is found
naturally, rubidium consists of 72.15 percent rubidium-85 and 27.85 percent rubidium-
87. The 85Rb isotope is perfectly stable, but 87Rb is radioactive, giving off a beta particle
and decaying to strontium-87.

Tin (Sn) also has a naturally occurring radioactive isotope, tin-124. This isotope
accounts for 6.01 percent of naturally occurring tin and decays to produce beta particles
and antimony-124.
Rubidium-87 and tin-124 are examples of natural radioactive isotopes. The
radioactive fraction of any natural sample of either of these two metals is continuously
decaying into another element and beta particles. Are either of these two metals
dangerous to your health? The answer is that these metals are not dangerous and the
reason involves the half-life of each element. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is
the time it takes for one half of a sample of that isotope to decay.
The half-life of rubidium-87 is 60 billion years. This means that in 60 billion years,
one half of the 87Rb in a particular sample would be gone. Suppose you started with a
sample containing 1.000 gram of 87Rb. In 60 billion years, 0.500 gram would be left.
After another 60 billion years, half of the amount, or 0.250gram, would be left, and in yet
another 60 billion years only 0.125 gram would be left. This process would continue as
the amount of 87Rb remaining slowly got smaller and smaller. Of course, 60 billion years
is older than the current age of the universe, which is estimated to be about 15 billion
years old!
Of course, the more slowly an isotope decays, the more slowly the alpha, beta or
gamma radiation that accompanies radioactive decay is produced. Normally, one
particle is emitted every time the nucleus of an atom decays. If 87Rb is decaying so
slowly that it takes 60 billion years for just half of it to change, the emission of beta
particles must be very slow. And 124Sn with a half-life of 1.7 x 10 17 years is decaying and
producing beta particles even more slowly. As a result, these isotopes are not
dangerous to living things.
Consumer Tip (Isotopes All Around):

There may be more radioisotopes around you than you might think. Starters for
fluorescent lamps and electrical appliances use radioisotopes such as promenthium-
147, krypton-85 and thorium-232 for fast and efficient operation. Some antistatic
devices use polonium-210 to ionize the air and prevent discharges of static electricity.
Most smoke detectors use americium-241, which has a half-life of 475 years although
the useful life of the product is about 10 years. The use of these and other radioisotopes
in consumer products is not a hazard unless the product is broken or not disposed of
properly.

Sample problem:
The half-life of mercury-195 is 31 hours. If you start with a sample of 5.00 g of
mercury-195, how much of it will still be present after 93 hours.
Solution:
93/31 = 3 therefore, the initial mass of 5.00 grams will have been divided in half
three times.
5.00 g/2 = 2.50 g 2.50 g/2 = 1.25 g 1.25 g/2 = 0.625 g
After 93 hours, or half-lives, 0.625 g of mercury-195 will be present in the sample.

Self-Assessment:

1. Gold-191 has a half-life of 12.4 hours. What mass of this isotope would remain after
49.6 hours if you started with a 7.50-mg sample of pure 191Au? (Ans: 0.469 mg)

2. A sample of iodine-126 with an original mass of 15.000 mg loses 13.125 mg of the

original mass of the isotope in 39 days. What is the half-life of iodine-126? (Ans: 13
days)
3. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. If 12 g of iodine-131 is allowed to decay for a
period of 32 days, how many grams of iodine-131 remain? (Ans: 0.75 g)

4. Strontium-90 is an isotope found in radioactive fallout from nuclear weapon

explosions. Its half-life is 28 yr. How long will it take for 93.75% (15/16) of the strontium-
90 atoms in the sample to undergo decay? (Ans: 112 yr)
Lesson 2.4 Harnessing the Nucleus

The energy produced by the decay of radioactive atoms is enormous. As a very

rough approximation, an ordinary chemical reaction will liberate a little less than 50
kilojoules of energy per gram of reactant. In contrast, the decay of a radioactive isotope
will liberate energy in the range of 10 6 kilojoules per gram of isotope! Clearly there is a
huge source of energy here.
For most applications, however, radioactive decay reactions are not good
candidates for power sources. These reactions cannot be controlled and the rate of
energy output is not constant. An isotope with a short half-life gives off a lot of energy,
but only for a short time. An isotope with a long half-life provides energy for a long time,
but its rate of energy output is low. And as half-life after half-life passes, the energy
output of any radioactive isotope becomes less and less.
It seems that a different kind of nuclear reaction is necessary to make an
effective energy source. There are two possibilities. In addition to radioactive decay and
nuclear bombardment reactions, two other categories of nuclear reactions are nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion.

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is the splitting up of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei and
several neutrons. When a uranium-235 nucleus undergoes a fission reaction, it may
form isotopes other than barium-141 and krypton-92. Almost all nuclides with mass
numbers higher than 230 spontaneously fission. For example, the spontaneous nuclear
fission reaction for californium-252 is:
 + a large amount of energy

Nuclear fission can also be induced in nuclear laboratories, nuclear bombs, or

nuclear reactors with the use of slow-moving neutrons as projectiles. Two of the
possible ways that U-235 can split up when struck by neutrons are:

That is, when neutrons bombard fissionable U-235 atoms, the unstable U-236 is
produced. U-236 then spontaneously breaks down leading to two other isotopes,
neutrons and relatively large amount of energy. The neutrons produced in the fission of
a radionuclide (such as U-235) could also bombard other radionuclides. So if the
process is uncontrolled, the nuclear fission of a fissionable sample would be in a chain
reaction manner and becomes a violent nuclear explosion.
But in nature, the spontaneous fission of radioisotopes (such as U-238) does not
lead to a nuclear fission chain reaction and explosion because natural samples are
below critical masses and so the neutrons escape instead of hitting other fissionable
nuclides. A nuclear fission chain reaction can only occur if there is, together, at least a
critical mass of the fissionable radioisotope. The critical mass is the minimum mass of
the fissionable radioisotope needed to be together to maintain the nuclear fission chain
reaction’s constant rate of fission. The critical mass of U-235 is about 1 kg. A fissionable
mass in excess of a critical mass is a super-critical mass; the uncontrolled fission of
this mass is a nuclear explosion.
The first atomic bomb that was dropped in Hiroshima, Japan in WWII in 1945
quite simply contained two subcritical masses of U-235 which slammed together upon
chemical detonation, thereby forming a critical mass that violently exploded due to that
mass’ uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction. That atomic bomb had around 1 kg of
U-235, which released an enormous amount of energy, said to be equivalent to the
explosion of 20,000 tons of TNT.
Plutonium-239, which is an alpha emitter with a half life of 24,400 years is also
an important fuel in bombs and nuclear reactors. The usual “fuel” in a nuclear reactor in
a commercial nuclear power plant is U-235, which is made to undergo fission in a very
highly controlled manner. A 1000-megawatt nuclear power plant is said to consume only
about 150 grams of U-235/hour, while equivalent oil-burning and coal-burning power
plants respectively consume about 79,800 gallons of oil/hour or 430 tons of coal/hour.
But there is much long-term and long-lasting danger in a nuclear power reactor. The
main danger of nuclear fission reactors is not so much the possibility of nuclear
explosion, but the radioactivity. Once started, the nuclear reactor and fuel remain highly
radioactive for billion of years. U-235 has a half-life of 7.1 x 10 8 or 710,000,000 years,
remember?
That is why radioactive waste is the main concern against nuclear fission
reactors, why there is much concern for the release of radioactive substances from the
damaged Fukushima, Japan nuclear power plant and why the 1980s Chernobyl disaster
area is still dangerous as it will remain radioactive for practically infinite number of
years.
Spent fuels (such as trans-uranic wastes) from nuclear power plants and nuclear
related military activities are high-level wastes. The management and storage of these
wastes is a critical issue and problem. Even if these wastes are placed in secured
special containers and deposited deep underground in far flung non-populated areas,
there is still the chance that these wastes would eventually be released from
underground and into the immediate environment, even into underground water
sources. Another possible option is to “melt” (using high amounts of energy) and then
vitrify, or turn, them into glass-like solid mega-cubes that would then either be stored in
special deep underground containers or thrown into outers pace. But aside from the
high cost, there are also other problems even with the vitrifying option.
The operation of nuclear fission power plants in our country, according to the
anti-group, should then be banned due to valid reasons, which include the following:
1. the negative effects of uncontrolled ionizing radiation.
2. the radioactive nuclear wastes from nuclear fission reactors have billion years
lifetime.
3. the threat that the radioactive substances or wastes would fall into the wrong
hands which would use them for wrong purposes.
A fourth reason is that we could use instead alternative energy sources, such as solar
power, water power, wind power and geothermal energy.

Today, fission reactions are used to provide what is commonly called nuclear
power. Where does all this energy come from? The answer involves the “missing” mass
in nuclear fission reactions. Intriguingly, the total mass of the products in a fission
reaction is slightly less than the mass of the starting materials. In other words, the law of
conservation of matter does not apply to fission reactions. So what happens to the
missing mass? The answer is that the missing mass is converted into energy. The
amount of energy released can be calculated from a famous equation derived by Albert
Einstein:
E = mc2
There is another important feature of fission reactions. Nuclear reaction produces
more neutrons than it absorbs. This means that one fission reaction produces enough
neutrons to start three more fission reactions, each of which in turn produces the
neutrons needed to start three more reactions, and so on, in a series of fission reaction.
This continuous series of fission reactions is called a nuclear chain reaction.
Nuclear Reactors

Could a nuclear power plant ever explode like an atomic bomb, you might be
wondering? The answer is no, it cannot. The fuel rods in a nuclear reactor contain too
little uranium-235 to sustain a runaway chain. Reactors are further regulated by control
rods that absorb neutrons and thus regulate the speed of the nuclear chain reaction.

Major Parts of a Typical Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process whereby small nuclei (such as H, He, and Li)
combine to form heavier, more stable nuclei and thereby release enormous amounts of
energy. For example, consider the fusion reaction in which two isotopes of hydrogen
combine to form helium:
Like a fission reaction, a fusion reaction converts some of the mass of the original nuclei
into energy-a great deal of energy. Unfortunately, fusion reactions are difficult to
produce and control. In order for two atoms to fuse, their nuclei must come together.
That goal is strongly resisted, first by the repulsion of the atom’s negatively charged
electron clouds and then by the repulsion between the positively charged nuclei.

Stripping off the electrons at very high temperatures solves the first problem. The
resulting ”sea” of bare nuclei is called plasma. These bare nuclei must then be forced
together to allow a fusion reaction to take place. If two nuclei are to overcome the force
of repulsion so that they can combine in a fusion reaction, they must be moving very
fast. To reach the speeds required, the nuclei must be heated in an extremely high
temperature-about 40 million Kelvin. Because of these high temperatures, nuclear
fusion reactions are often called thermonuclear reactions. Thermonuclear reactions are
responsible for the energy produced by the sun and other stars. Thermonuclear
reactions are also the source of the destructive power of a hydrogen bomb.

The sun is about 73% H and 26% He. Nuclear fusion reactions involving H and
He isotopes are the source of the sun’s energy.

There are continuing researches and attempts to develop a feasible controlled

nuclear fusion technology that could provide for our electrical energy needs. The
controlled nuclear fusion as a commercial source of energy for us is a very appealing
option over controlled nuclear fission since:
a) the potential fuels (H isotopes) are inexpensive and readily available from
seawater,
 b) the other nuclear fusion products are usually not radioactive and can be recycled
back in the fusion process, and
c) the nuclear fusion reaction produces much more energy than nuclear fission or
burning oil or coal.

Despite the advantages of induced controlled nuclear fusion reaction as an

energy source, the development of a practical controlled nuclear fusion reactor
still remains theoretical. This is because of the at least 40,000,000K to
100,000,000K temperature required for the fusion reaction to occur. A logical
solution to this is to create a material that can withstand the nuclear fusion
reaction’s high temperatures and corrosive effects. This material, however, still
remains more theoretical.

Self-Assessment:

1. What is the difference between a nuclear fission reaction and a nuclear fusion
reaction?
2. What is the source of energy in a nuclear reactor?
3. What are some of the problems involved in using fusion as a source of energy?
4. Given the chance, would you vote:
a) for a nuclear fission power plant in our country? Justify your vote.
b) for the use of nuclear bombs in warfare? Justify your vote.
5. Research how electricity is produced in conventional nuclear fission power plants
and prepare a report paper on it. Include the pros and cons, from an
interdisciplinary (chemical, social, economic, political, and other) perspective.
Cite your references.