GUNSHOT WOUNDS 333
Chapter 13 Unlawful manufacture, dealing in acquisition, disposition, or
GUNSHOT WOUNDS
DEATH OR PHYSICAL INJURIES BROUGHT ABOUT BY
POWDERED PROPELLED SUBSTANCES
Death or physical injuries brought about by the p owder propelled
substances may be due to the following:
1: Firearm Shot — The injury is caused by the missile propelled by the
explosion of the gunpowder located in the cartridge shell and at the rear
of the missile. The direction of the movement of the missile is influenced
by the desire of the person firing the firearm. The missile may be single as
in the case of a pistol or revolver or may be of multiple shots or pellets as
in the case of a shotgun. The cartridge shell is physically preserved after the
fire.
2. Detonation of high explosives, as in grenades, bombs and mine explosion.
Explosion of the gunpowder inside the metallic con tainer will cause
fragmentation of the container. Each fragment or shrapnel is moving with
certain velocity without any predeter mined direction.
FIREARM WOUND
Definition of Firearm:
1. Technical Definition:
A firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by the
expansive force of gases coming from the burning of gunpowder.
2. Legal Definition:
- or both.
Section 877 Revised Administrative Code — "Firearm" defined:
"Firearm" or "arm", as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, shotguns,
revolvers, pistols, and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball,
shot, shell, or other missile may be discharged b y m ean s o f g u n p o wd er o r
o th er ex p lo s iv e s. Th e te r m a lso includes air rifles except such as being
of small caliber and limited range are used as toys. The barrel of any
firearm shall be con sidered as a complete firearm for all purposes thereof.
Penal Provisions of Laws Relative to Firearm:
Section 2692, Revised Administrative Code:
332
possession of firearms, or ammunitions there for, or instrument used or
intended to be used in the manufacture of firearms or ammunition:
Any person who manufactures, deals in, acquires, disposes, or
possesses any firearm, parts of firearms, or ammunition therefor, or
instrument or implement used or intended to be used in the manufacture
of ammunition in violation of any provision of sections eight hundred
seventy-seven to nine hundred and six, inclusive, of the code, as
amended, shall, upon conviction, be punished by imprisonm ent for a
period of not less than one year and one day nor more than five years,
or both such imprisonment and a fine of not less than one thousand
pesos nor more than five thousand pesos, in the discretion of the court. If
the article illegally possessed is a rifle, carbine, grease gun, bazooka,
machine gun, submachine gun, hand grenade, bomb, artillery of any kind
or ammunition exclusively intended for such weapons, such period of
imprisonment shall be not less than five years nor more than ten years. A
conviction under this section shall carry with it the forfeiture of the
prohibited article or articles by the Philippine Government.
Section 2690, Revised Administrative Code:
Selling of firearms to unlicensed purchaser:
It shall be unlawful for any dealer in firearms or ammunition to sell
or deliver any firearms or ammunition or any part of a firearm to a
purchaser or other person until such purchaser or other person shall have
obtained the necessary license therefor. Any person violating the
provisions of this section, upon conviction in a court of competent
jurisdiction, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand
pesos, or by imprisonment not exceeding two years,
Section 2691, Revised Administrative Code:
Failure of personal representative of deceased licensee to surrender
firearm:
When a holder of any firearm license shall die or become subject to
legal disability and any of his relatives, or his legal represenative, or any
other person shall knowingly come into possession of any firearm or
ammunition covered by such license, such person, upon failure to deliver
the same to the Chief of Constabulary in Manila or to the senior officers
of Constabulary in the province, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding
five hundred pesos or by imprisonment not exceeding six months, or both.
 334 LEGAL MEDICINE GUNSHOT WOUNDS 335

b. Rifle — Firearm which may be fired from the shoulder. Example: Shotgun.
Art. 155, Revised Penal Code:
Alarms and Scandals: 4. As to the Nature of the Magazine:
a. Cylindrical Revolving Magazine Firearm — The cartridge is located in a
The penalty of arresto menor or fine not exceeding 200 pesos shall be cylindrical magazine which rotates at the rear portion of the barrel.
imposed upon:
1. Any person who within any town or public place, shall discharge any Example: Revolver.
firearm, rocket, firecracker, or other explosive calculated to cause alarm b. Vertical or Horizontal Magazine — The cartridge is held one after another
or danger; vertically or horizontally and also held in place by a spring side to side or
end to end.
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: Automatic Pistol.
Art. 254, Revised Penal Code:
Discharge of firearms: Types of Small Firearms which are of Medico-legal Interest:
Any person who shall shoot at another with any firearm shall suffer the 1. Revolver — A revolver is a firearm which has a. cylindrical magazine situated
penalty of prision correctional in its minimum and medium periods, unless the at the rear of the barrel, capable or revolving motion and which can
facts of the case are such that the act can be held to constitute frustrated or accommodate five or six cartridges; each of which is housed in a separate
attempted parricide, murder, homicide or any other crime for which a chamber. After a shot, the circular magazine rotates by the cocking of the
higher penalty is prescribed by any of the articles of the code: hammer in a way that the next cartridge is brought in the proper position for
firing. The usual muzzle velocity of a revolver is 600 feet per second.
Classification of Small Firearms: Kinds of Revolver as to Construction or Mechanism:
Small firearms are those which propel projectile of less than on e inch a. Revolver with the barrel firmly fixed to the frame and the revolving
in diameter. cylinder may swing out to the side for the purpose of loading or extraction
1. As to Wounding Power: of the spent shell.
a. Low Velocity Firearm — These are firearms with muzzle velocity of b . Revolver with the barrel hinged to the frame and the revolver cylinder may
not more than 1,400 feet per second. be broken to load by releasing the barrel latch.
Example: Revolver. c. Revolver with barrel firmly fixed to the frame and the revolving cylinder
b. High Power Firearm — These are firearms with muzzle velocity of more may be removed by taking out the cylinder pin on which it rotates.
than 1,400 feet per second. The usual muzzle velocity is 2,200 to 2,500 2. Automatic Pistol — This is a firing weapon in which the empty shell is ejected
feet per second or more. when the cartridge is fired and a new cartridge is slipped into the breech
Example: Military Rifle. automatically as a result of the recoil. The cartridge is contained in a vertical
magazine which holds six to seven cartridges. It is not automatic in action in
2. As to the Nature of the Bore:
the sense that a continuous pressure on the trigger will not make the firearm
a. Smooth Bore Weapon — This firearm has the inside portion of the barrel fire continuously. It is more correct to call it a "self-loading firearm." It has a
that is perfectly smooth from the firing chamber to the muzzle. usual muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet or more per second.
Example: Shotgun,
3. Rifle — A rifle is a firearm with a long barrel and butt. It may be a military
b. Rifled Bore Firearm — This is a firearm with the bore of the barrel rifle or a miniature rifle. A military rifle has a magazine and volt action of
with a number of spiral lands and grooves which run p arallel with various types. The miniature rifle is a single self-loading weapon. A military
o n e an o ther, b u t twisted sp ir ally fr o m b reech to muzzle. rifle usually has a muzzle velocity
Example: Military Rifle.
3. As to the Manner of Firing:
a. Pistol - Firearm which may be fired only by a single hand. Example:
Revolver
 336 LEGAL MEDICINE
of 2,500 feet per second and a range of 3,000 feet. Unlike a revolver or
automatic pistol which can be fired by a single hand, a rifle is fired from a shoulder.
4. Shotgun — A shotgun is a firearm whose projectile is a collection of lead pellets
which varies in sizes with the type of the cartridge applied.
A Weapon, In Order to Cause Injury must have Two Principal Component Parts,
Namely:
1. The Cartridge or Ammunition — a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet,
primer, cartridge case and powder charge.
2. The Firearm — the instrument for the propulsion of a projectile by the expansive
force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
CARTRIDGES OR AMMUNITION
The Principal Parts of a Cartridge or Ammunition are:
1. The cartridge case or shell.
2. Primer.
3. Powder or propellant.
4. Bullet or projectile.
1. Cartridge Case or Shell:
The cartridge case or shell is a cylindrical structure with a base which houses
the powder, the primer at the base and with the bullet attached at the tip. In
ordinary hand guns the cylindrical structure is made of brass while in shotguns it
is usually made of cardboard. The base is always made of metal. Inscription at
the base may show the manufacturer, the caliber and even the date it was
manufactured.
Depending upon the relationship of the diameter of the base with that of the
cylindrical portion, a cartridge may be classified as:
a. Cartridge With a Rim — The base of the cartridge has a diameter more than
the cylindrical portion. The rim is used to prevent cartridge from going
through the barrel. This is common among revolvers.
b. Rimless Cartridge — The base or head of the cartridge has the same diameter
as that of the cylindrical body. There is a groove cut between the base and the
cylindrical body for the extractor to hook into. This is usually found in self-
loading firearms.
c. Semi-rimless Cartridge — This looks like a rimless at first glance but actually
the rim does project very slightly above the line of the cylindrical part.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 337
d. Belted Cartridge — The cartridges are attached in a series in a canvass
belt for successive fires.
2. Primer:
The primer compound is located and sealed at the cartridge base covered
by a small disc of soft metal, which is usually a lead-tin alloy known as
percussion cap or primer cap. The main function of the primer is the
transformation of mechanical energy by the hit of the firing pin on the
percussion cap to chemical energy by its rapid combustion. As the firing
pin hits the primer cap (percussion cap), the primer compound hits the anvil
which causes the generation of a flash which in turn ignites the powder. The
time of the primer activation is approximately 0.00001 second.
Although, there are variations in the chemical constituents of the primer
in the past, it is composed of a mixture of mercury fulminate, stibnite
(antimony sulfide), potassium chlorate and powdered glass. Later, mercury
fulminate is partially or completely replaced by lead azide and lead stypnate
together with potassium chlorate which are replaced by barium nitrate to
reduce the development of rust. Lead stypnate is utilized as base, tetracene
is sometimes added to control sensitivity and barium nitrate acts as
moderator and oxidizer. The most common constituents of primer are lead,
antimony and barium.
As to the location of the percussion cap at the base, cartridge may be:
a. Cartridge with Center Fire — The percussion cap is located at the center
of the base of the cartridge. This is the most common.
b. Cartridge with Rim Fire -- The primer is placed inside the rim of the
shell. This is common in 0.22 caliber firearms.
c. Firearm with Pin — The firing pin strikes a needle which is placed at
the rim of the shell. The needle will then press on the percussion cap
which is inside the cartridge. This type is obsolete and now rarely found.
3. Gunpowder or Propellant:
The propellant is the primary propulsive force in a cartridge which when
exploded will cause the bullet to be driven forward towards the gun muzzle.
There are Different Types of Powder Propellant Used:
a,--Black Powder — A, mixture of potassium nitrate (75%), sulfur (15%)
and charcoal (10%).
338 LEGAL MEDICINE

Explosion of one grain of black powder (one grain= 0.065 gm.) will
produce 200 to 300 cc. of gas composed of carbon dioxide (50%), carbon
monoxide (10%), nitrogen (35%), Hydrogen sulphide (3%) and traces of
methane and oxygen. The solid residues following its combustion are
potassium sulphide, potassium carbonate together with its original
components.
b. Smokeless Powder – It may be:
(1) Single base – When it contains either cellulose nitrate or nitroglycerine.
(2) Double base- When the powder is composed of both cellulose nitrate and
nitroglycerine.
Explosion of one grain (one grain = 0.065 gm.) of smokeless powder will
cause the development of 800 to 900 cc. of gas consisting of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen with some unburnt powder in the form of nitrate
and cellulose nitrate which can be detected chemically.
c. Semi-smokeless Powder — This is a mixture of 80% of black and 20% of the
smokeless powder.
Smokeless powder causes development of less flame and less powder Bullets lodged and extracted from a victim
residue as compared with black powder.
There is more complete burning of gunpowder in smokeless as compared of rubber, plastic, or even paraffin, but their uses are primarily confined
with the black powder. to target practice.
Inasmuch as the gas produced by combustion of smokeless powder is three Classification:
times more than the black powder, the muzzle velocity of bullets with a. Shape of the free end:
smokeless powder is also approximately three times greater than the bullets (1) Conical — The free end of the bullet is tapering and pointed.
using black-powder. The purpose is to minimize the resistance offered by the Atmosphere, to
Smokeless powder granules are usually coated with graphite and increasing its penetrating power and to minimize deflection upon
consequently form different shapes. They may appear as a ball, square, hitting the target.
cylinder, disc or flakes. Consequently when discharged from the firearm (2) Hemispherical — The free end is dome-like and commonly
after explosion they will cause individual shapes of tattooing. The flake or observed in short firearms.
disc shape powder may cause varying shapes of the tattoos depending upon (3) Wad-cutter (Square Nose) — The free end is flattened
how the grain struck the skin. Ball powder may cause small, hemorrhagic commonly used in target practices.
punctate marks. The cylindrical shape powder grains may cause heavy (4) Hollow-point — There is a depression at the tip to expand or
tattooing with deposition of soot at 6 inches range. "mushroom" at impact on hard object, to slow its speed in the
4. Bullet (Slug, Missile, Projectile): body so that more kinetic energy will be released thereby increasing
its shocking effect.
It is the metallic object attached to the free end of the cy lindrical tip of
b. As to presence or absence of jacket:
the cartridge case, propelled by the expansive force of the propellant, and
responsible in the production of damages in the target. In some instances (1) Naked Lead Bullet — Bullet without outer coating.
bullets are not metallic but made (2) Jacketed Bullet — Bullet with external coating usually copper,
nickel, steel or zinc. The purpose of the coating are to:
(a) To prevent fouling of the barrel;

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GUNSHOTWOUNDS 339
 (b) To withstand deformity in automatic loading process and
(c) To prevent deformity when carried and exposed to rough GUNSHOT WOUNDS 341
handling.
A jacketed bullet may be:
i. Full Jacketed Bullet — the whole bullet up to the base is
enveloped with a metallic jacket.
ii. Semi-jacketed Bullet — The nose or free end is partly or fully
exposed while there is relatively thin but tough coating of
the base and the cylindrical portion. This is made to permit
expansion of the bullet when it hits hard objects. Semi-
jacketed bullets may be hollow-point.
The general rule is that soft-metal, round nose bullets
are fired from a revolver; full-jacketed bullets are fired from
a rifle and self-loading firearm; semi-jacketed bullets are
fired from an automatic (self-loading) firearm or rifle.
Special Bullets:
a. Armour Piercing Bullet — made of steel with copper coating (jacket).
b. Phosphorus Flare or Tracer Bullet — This consists of an aluminum tip
and is packed with incendiary (phosphorus) which burns during flight.
It is used to determine the direction of the fire. The speed of sound in
air is 1,087 feet per second or 331.3 meters per second.
c. Plastic Bullet — used for target practice.
d. Bullet with Plastic Sabot — The bullet together with the sabot travel
up to the bore. The bullet never comes in contact with the barrel and
therefore there will be no rifling marks imparted in the bullet • but on
the sabot. The front half of the sabot has six slits. As the sabot leaves
the barrel it offers resistance and the slit part of the sabot will fold
backward, causing resistance and falls away.
At three feet, the sabot and bullet are still in line. At 6
to 7 feet, they strike the target separately. The sabot
itself travels approximately 50 feet.
e. Bullet with Secondary Explosion — The bullet may leave the barrel
and upon reaching a certain distance it produces secondary explosion
and shrapnel splinters.
f. Soft Point Bullet — A bullet which is easily flatt ened upon hitting
the target to increase the wounding effect.
 For purposes of medico-legal investigation, the following parts of a firearm
are LEGAL MEDICINE 343
important:
342 LEGAL MEDICINE 1. The trigger with the firing pin.
2. The barrel.

Other parts o! a Firearm:

1. Handle or ButtL portion of the firearm used for handling it. it may house
the magazine.
2. Firing Chamber: the place where the cartridge is held in position
before the fire mechanism starts.
3. Breechblock: the steel which closes the rear of the bore
against the force of the charge. The face of this block which comes
in contact with base the cartridge is known as the breech,
4. Guard
Front and Rear Sight.
Safety Device like safety lock.
Self-loading Firearm. the are the

Additional parts:
Extractor mechanism by which the SiWnt shell or
rution is withdrawn from the firing chamber.
2, Ejector — The mechanism "y which the empty shell or ammu-
nitwn is thrown from the firearm.
This is a part Of the firearm which firing mechanism.
Except in a single action firearm, pressure on the is the
commencement of the whole firearm mechanism. To avoid aco
firing, the trigger is *arrounded by a trigger guard.
C Zassi/ü•ot ion o/ Firearm Bused on Trigger :
a , Re!atton Cocking Trigger presure.
(l) — The firearm is first manually
cockcy-l theo followed by presure on the trigger to
hammer.
Example: Ilome-made "Paltik'•.
Double Action A pressure the
Will cock and fire the firearm by of the hammer.
Example: Standard Revolver.

b. Number of on on the TrigÅWE

 GUNSHOT WOUNDS 345

(2) Twist or Rate — This is the expression for one complete

(1)Single Shot Firearm — A pull or pressure on the trigger w cause only one
shot.
Example: Revolver.
(2)Automatic Firearm — A continuous pressure on the trigger will cause a
series of shots until the trigger pressure released.
Example: Machine gun.
Trigger pressure is the amount of force (pressure) on the trigger necessary
to fire a gun. Its determination is necessary in th e assessment of whether
the firing can possibly be accidental.
"Hair trigger" is a vague term used when the firearm trigg er pressure is
1.0 lb. (pound) or less. It is intrinsically unsafe and should only be used
under rigorously controlled situations because of the possibility of unintended
or accidental fire.
In general, the single action firearm varies from 3 -1/2 to 10 pounds and
in double action, it varies from 6 pounds to as much as 18 pounds. The
following are the approximate trigger pressures of certain types of firearms.
a . S h o tg u n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 lbs.
b . Self-loading pistol ...... 3 to 4 lbs.
c . Revolver ................... 3 to 5 lbs.
d . Service rifle ................. 6 to 7 lbs.
turn of the rifling on a certain length of the barrel. We say the twist
rate is 1:12 when there is one complete spiral groove in 12 inch
of the barrel. Spiral groove twist or rate may be:
(a) Fast Twist — When the number of inches of the barrel
required for a complete turn is small, like 1:8.
(b) Slow Twist — When a greater number of inches in the barrel
is necessary to have one complete turn, like 1:14.
(3) Direction — The direction of rifling may either be rig4
(clockwise) or left (counterclockwise).
(4) Width of the Groove and Land — The width of the groove v arie s
wit h th e m an u fac tu rer a n d ca lib er . So m e h av e the width of
the groove different with that of the land while others are the same
or equidistant.
Example:
Colt 0.32 has 6 lands and grooves, twist to the left, the width
of the land and groove are 0.048 and 0.108 respectively.
Smith and Wesson 0.32 has 5 lands and grooves, twist to the
right and are equidistant at 0.095 inch.
Table of Number of Grooves and the Direction of Riflings

2. Barrel:
a. Riflings:
The inner surface of a shotgun and that of a home -made gun is smooth
while single shot standard firearms are with riflings.
The inner surface of the barrel has a series of parallel spiral grooves on the
whole length called riflings. The space between the two grooves is the land.
The riflings are made to have a strong barrel grip on the bullet, to stabilize
its movement and to impart a rotational movement on the bullet. \
Incidentally, the rifling reflected on the bullet becomes an important factor
in the identification of firearms.
Gun manufacturers vary the way the riflings are imprinted in the inner
surface of the barrel on the following aspects:
(1) Number — The number of lands and grooves varies from 2 to 12.
Most high velocity firearms have 4 to 6 grooves. Some firearms
have multiple shallow grooves and this is known as microgrooves rifling.
346 LEGAL MEDICINE
minable only after the manufacture. They have characteristics whose existence is
beyond the control of men and which have distribution. Their existence in a firearm
are brought about through the failure of a tool in its normal operation, through wear,
abuse, mutilation, corrosion, erosion, or other fortuitous causes. Those Marks may
be imprinted in the bullet or shell and may identification purpose.
When the bullet or the shell or both has been recovered and the suspected firearm
has been found n the possession of a person, procedure is to fire the suspected
firearm at a recovery box and compare the shell and bullet in the comparison
microscope with the one
in question.
out by the ejector. The backward movement is called recoil of the
firearm.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 347
portion of the barrel. The hit by the firing pin on the percussion
cap will cause generation of a sufficient heat capable of igniting the
primer. The primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant
which will cause evolution of gases under pressure and temperature.
The marked expansion of the gases will force the projectile forward
with certain velocity. Owing to the presence of the r ifling at the
inner wall of the bore, the barrel offers some degree of resistance
to ,the projectile. Inasmuch as the rifling marks are arranged in a
viral manner, the projectile will produce a spinning movement as
it comes out of the muzzle.
Together with) the bullet passing out of the barrel are the high -
pressured heated gases, unburnt p owder grains with flame and
smoke.
During explosion, there is a backward kick of the firearm which
in an automatic firearm causes the cocking and the empty shell thrown

Things Coming Out of the Gun Muzzle After the Fire:

I . Bullet.
2. Flame.
3. Heated, compressed and expanded gas.
4. Residues coming from:
a. Bullet:.
(1) Fragment (jacket, lead).
(2) Lubricant.
b. Powder particles:
(1) Powder grains (unburned, burning).
(2) Soot.
(3) Graphite.
c. Primer:
(1) Lead, barium, antimony, etc.
To convert millimeter calibration to inches, multiply the caliber in d. Barrel:
millimeters by 0.03937 or divide by 25.4. (1) Lubricant.
To convert inches calibration to millimeters, multiply by 25.4 or divide by (2) Rust, dust, etc.
0.03937. (3) Scraping from bullet by previous fire.
MECHANISM OF FIREARM ACTION: e. Cartridge case: (1) Copper, zinc.
Generally, the principles involved in all firearm actions are the same. When
the firearm is cocked and ready to fire, a pull on trigger will cause the Bullet's Kinetic Energy:
firing pin of the hammer to hit the percussion cap of the cartridge in the Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion. In the English
firing chamber which is aligned with rear system it is express in foot pound or the work of a force resulting
when a weight of one pound is brought to a height of one foot.
 GUNSHOT WOUNDS 349
348 LEGAL MEDICINE
In ballistics, the wounding power of the bullet due to the mass The larger the coefficient, the more efficient id the bullet or projectile . The
(weight) and its velocity, with the velocity playing a very important better the ballistic coefficient of a bullet, the less velocity loss it will suffer
role. over a given resistance.
Movements of the Bullet as it Moves Out of the Muzzle:
1. Forward Movement — The velocity depends upon the propulsion /-
created by the ignition of the propellant.
2. Spinning Movement — This is due to the passage of the bullet at the spiral
Tissue damage of a bullet of a very high velocity is very much greater than landings and groovings of the barrel. The ratio depends on the twist and
those with much less velocity. length of the barrel.
The damage cause by a bullet with impact velocity similar to muzzle velocity 3. Tumbling Movement (End-over-end Rotation)— The bullet may be
is greater than when the impact occurred at a reduced speed after the bullet has rotating on the long axis of its flight while the nose and the base are
travelled a distance. alternating ahead in its flight. This accounts why in some instances, the
bullet hits the skin with its base.
Bullet Efficiency:
4. Wabbling Movement (Tailwag) — The rear end of the bullet aside from
The cartridge powder charge can be burned in approximately 0.00001 spinning may also vibrate vertically or sidewise in its flight. Like tumbling
second. The conversion rate by combustion of the gunpowder to bullet movement, it may cause hitting the target sidewise.
energy is about 30 to 32 percent. The loss some energies from the gunpowder 5. Pull of Gravity — As the bullet is moving forward, it gradually goes
explosion may be due to: downward on account of the pull of the force of gravity. As the bullet
a. Loss of energy to force the bullet out of the cartridge c rifling and looses its kinetic energy, the pull of the force of gravity becomes dominant
friction in the barrel. until it falls on the ground.
b. Heating of the barrel and chamber. Flame:
c. Escape of some of the compressed gasses at the breech an barrel.
d. Not all gunpowder are ignited. Ignition of the propellant will cause the production of flame. It is
conical in shape with the vertex located at the gun muzzle. The flame
Obturation:
does not usually go beyond a distance of_6 inches and in pistols or
This is the sealing or prevention of gunpowder gas after explosion from revolvers the flame is often less than 3 inches.
escaping so as to maintain high pressure in the firing chamber thereby -The flame causes scorching or burning of the skin and searing of the hair
increasing the propulsive power on the bullet. This is maintained: at the target in a very near shot. In contact fire, the edges of the wound of
a. By insuring that the bullet tightly fits the bore throughout its entire length; entry may be burned.
b. By sealing the cartridge case to the chamber wall; and
c. By preventing leakage between the primer cap and its retaining wall in the Heated, Compressed and Expanded Gas:
cartridge. Ignition of the gunpowder will cause production of heat and gas.
Considering the limited space of the firing chamber and barrel, the
Ballistics Coefficient; compressed gas propels the bullet to move forward. The volume of the
This describes the ability of a bullet to maintain its velocity against air. gas generated is dependent on the nature and quantity of the propellant. Thus
resistance. It may be expressed in the following formula: a 50 grain gunpowder in a cartridge with black powder (one grain
producing 200 t4:5 300 cc. of gas) will cause the production of 10 to 15
C — ballistic coefficient liters of gas while the same amount of cartridge with smokeless powder
C= M m— mass (one grain producing 800 to 900 cc. of gas) will cause production of 40 to
id2 i — form factor 45 liters of gas confined in a wiry limited space. This is on the
d — diameter presumption that all of the gunpowder were ignited.

350 LEGAL MEDICINE
The sudden release of the expanded gas from the muzzle follow ing the
bullet is known as a muzzle blast.
Smoke (Soot, Smudging, Fouling, Smoke Blackening):
Th is is on e o f th e by p ro du cts of co m p lete co m bu stio n o f th e
g u n p o wd e r an d o th er e le m en t s w i t h th e p ro p e l la n t . I t i s l i g h t, almost
black, and lack sufficient force to penetrate the skin. It is merely deposited
on the target and readily wiped off. It may be seen with a distance of up to
12 inches.
The presence of smudging at the wound of entrance infers a
near shot. The shape may also be useful in determining the tra jectory . A
circu lar shape dep osition may be typ ical of a perpen dicular approach of
the bullet while in case of an acute angle the deposition may appear to be
elliptical.
Powder Grains:
This consists of the unburned, burning and partially burned
p o wd er,, to g eth er with g r aph ite wh ich com e o u t of th e m u zzle.
Inasmuch as it is relatively heavier than smoke, it leaves the barrel with
appreciab le velo city and in near sho t, is respo n sible to th e production
of tattooing (stippling, peppering) around the gunshot wound of entrance.;
In close range, the powder grains penetrate the dermal and epider mal
layers of the skin and may cause hemorrhage in deeper tissue which
cannot be removed by ordinary wiping. Microcontusion may be observed
around the punctured area and the shape of the puncture may denote the
shape of the penetrating grain. As the distance of the gun muzzle to the
target increases, the area of destruction in creases, but the density of
tattooing decreases.
In case of b lack powder, the r esidue is compo sed of n itrates.
thiocyanates, thiosulphates, potassium carbonates, potassium sulphate and
potassium sulphide, while in smokeless powder, the residue is composed of
granules with nitrites and cellulose nitrates with graphite.
The presence of tattooing or stippling may be seen around the wound
of entrance up to a distance of 24 inches, although there may be
considerable variation from gun to gin - T.
Powder Burns:
Powder burns is a term commonly used by physicians whenever there
is blackening of the margin of the gunshot wound of entrance. The
blackening is due to smoke smudging, gunpowder tattooing and to a certain
extent burning of the wound margin 3 It is the combined effects of these
elements that are considered to be powder burns. Actually, such
blackening is primarily due to smoke smudging and
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 351
gu npo wder tattoo ing so that th e term so iling o f th e ta rg et rather
tha n powder burns is more appropriate to describe the condition.
Factors Responsible for the Injurious Effects of Missile:
I . Factors Inherent on the Missile:
a. Speed of the Bullet- The greater the muzzle velocity, the
g r ea t e r i s th e d e s tr u c t i o n in a s m u ch a s m o r e k in e t i c
e n er g y can be liberated.
h. Size and Shape of the Bullet - The bigger the diameter or the
more deformed the bullet is, the greater are the injuries in the
body tissues.
c. Character of the Missile's Movement in Fligh t- Spinning move-
ment will increase the wounding power; "Yawing" and stumbling
movement may cause sidewise penetration and entry and cause
more destruction; and ricoche t may alter tissue involvement
in its course.
2. Nature of the Target:
a. Density of Target- The greater the density of the tissue struck, the
greater will be the damage. More energy will be spent by the
bullet in its course in penetrating skin, bones and clothes.
Heavy thick clothes may prevent penetration of missile; fragile
bone may fragment when h it and each fragment may act as a
secondary splinter to cause further injuries.
I). Length of Tissue Involvement in its Course - The longer the
distance of travel of the missile in the body, the more kinetic
energy it lib erates, and th e mo re destru ction it will prod uce.
c. Nature of the Media Traversed- Bullet passing air spaces is less
destructive inasmuch as air is relatively compressible ho wever,
bullet travelling in a liquid or solid media may accelerate trans -
mission of force to the surrounding tissue thus, causing more
destruction.
d. Vitality of the Part Involved - There is more likelihood for a
fatal consequence when vital organs are involved than those in
other parts of the body.
Abrasion Collar (Contuso-abradded Collar, Marginal Abrasion):
The pressure of the bullet on the skin will cause the skin to be
depressed and as the bullet lacerates the skin, the depressed portion
will be rubbed with the rough surface of the bullet / A perpendicular
approach will produce an even width of the collar. An acute angle
of approach will cause an abrasion collar wider at the acute angle o f
approach.
352 LEGAL MEDICINE
Destructive Mechanism of Gunshot: ___
The following physical phenomena are responsible for the causation of injury
in the body of the victim:
1. Laceration and Permanent Cavity in the Bullet Trajectory:
The pressure of the speeding bullet produces severe pressure on the tissues
and organs causing laceration and mechanically creates a permanent cavity.
High velocity bullets can cause bigger damage
d wider cavity formation.
2. Temporary Cavity:
This is the instantaneous radial displacement of the soft tissues during the
passage of the bullet due to the liberation of kinetic energy. The size of the
cavity is dependent on the velocity of the bullet and elasticity of the tissues.
The greater the velocity, the larger the temporary cavity formed. The
diameter and volume of the temporary cavity are many times greater than the
diameter and volume of the projectile that produces it. Although the
development is transient during the passage of the missile, it causes loss of
function to the part involved and further act as a secondary missile to involve
other areas.
3.Hydrostatic Force:
When the bullet traverses organs filled with fluid, like a full stomach,
cerebral ventricle, heart chambers, the liquid contents within the lumen of
these organs are displaced radially away from the bullet path producing
extensive laceration. The displaced fluid carries with it the kinetic
energy which in turn acts as a secondary projectile causing destruction of
tissues not on the path -
the bullet.
4. Shock Wave:
This is the dissipation of kinetic energy in a radial direction
perpendicular to the path of the bullet when the bullet velocity is more
than the speed of sound (tile speed of sound is 1,087 feet per
second). The severe intensity of the wave causes severe -socking
effect on the adjacent tissues and may cause actual destruction or
lessening of function.
5. Fragmentation or Disintegration of the Bullet:
When the bullet hits '‘a hard object (bone), it fragments to several
pieces. When the bullet velocity is more than 2,000 ft/sec. it
disintegrates and each fragment has sufficient kinetic energy to cause
injuries similar to the mother bullet. It may cause laceration, fracture and
shocking effect, thus increasing the destructive effect of gunshot. This
causes more "shocking power" or "knockdown power" of the bullet.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 353
6. Fragmentation of Hard Brittle Object in the Trajectory:
Bone involvement along the trajectory may cause comminuted fracture
and each bone fragment may cause additional damage on the surrounding
tissues and even in the wound of exit.
Passage of the bullet causes a clean-cut hole at the point of initial contact and
beveling at the point of exit. The beveling is due to the absence of a hard
support as the bullet leaves the bone.
In the skull a through and through wound will produce a round or oval hole
at the outer table with leveling of the inner table and at the point when a
bullet makes the exit, the clean cut hole will at the inner table and beveling
will be at the outer table.
7. Muzzle Blast in Contact Fire:
When the gun muzzle is pressed on the skin when fired, all of the
products of combustion primarily the muzzle blast will penetrate the tissues
causing severe mechanical destruction on account of pressure. The explosive
effect will cause extensive laceration of soft tissues and fracture of bones.
8. Other Consequential Effects on the Body of the Victim:
Aside from direct involvement of vital structures of the body, pressure to
other organs and tissues, the gunshot wound may be the source of
hemorrhage, infection,. paralysis, shock, loss of functioning etc. which
may cause disability or death on the victim.
Gunshot Wound of Entrance (Entrance Defect, Inshoot):
The appearance of the gunshot wound of entrance depends upon the
following:
1. Caliber of the Wound0gWeallon:
Excluding other factors which may_ influence the size of the wound of
entrance, the higher the caliber of the wounding bullet the greater will be
the size of the wound of entrance. It must not be overlooked that the manner
of approach of the bullet to the skin, the distance of the muzzle of the firearm
to the skin (surface, the deformity or splitting of the bullet and the portion of
the skin surface involves modification of the size and shape of the entrance.
2. Characteristics Inherent to the Wound of Entrance:
The wound of entrance, as general rule, is oval or circular with
inverted edges, except in near shot or in grazing or slap wound. As the
bullet approaches the skin, there is an indentation of the skin surface but
later, on account of the extreme pressure; the skin tissues give way. The
rough surface of the bullet comes in contact with the skin thereby producing
a contusion or abrasion
354 LEGAL MEDICINE
collar. In most cases, the size of the wound of entrance is smaller than the
caliber of the wounding bullet on account of the retraction of the connective
tissues.
The wound of exit is usually larger than the wound of entrance. It may
be stellate, slit-like, cruciform, or markedly lacerated. The deformity of the
bullet in its course inside the body, the lack of support beyond the skin,
and the velocity of the missile are responsible for the increase in size of
the exit wound.
3. Direction of the Fire:
A right angle approach of the bullet will make the wound of
entrance circular in shape, except when the missile is deformed or the
fire is in contact or near. In cases of an acute angle of approach of the bullet,
the wound of entrance is oval in shape with the contusion or abrasion collar
widest on the side of the acute angle of approach. There is more likelihood
for deflection of the bullet course wherever it hits the bony tissue.
4. Shape and Composition of the Missile:
Deformity of the bullet modifies the shape of the wound o entrance.
Some missiles are purposely made to enhance deformity upon hitting hard
objects like hollow-point, dum-dum and soft point bullets. Hard or armor-
piercing bullets are not usually deformed on account or their hard metallic
constituents.
5. Range:
In cl ose range fire, the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to
the pressure of the expanded gases, flame and other solid products of
combustion. Distant fire usually produces the characteristic effect of the
bullet alone.
6. Kind of Weapon:
High power weapon has more destructive effect as compared with low
power one. The shape of the bullet also plays an important role. Conical
shape free end bullets have more piercing power without marked tissue
destruction while missiles with hemispherical free ends are more
destructive.
Contact Fire:
• The nature and extent of the injury is caused not only by the force of
the bullet but also by the gas of the muzzle blast and part of the body involved.
The following factors must be taken into consideration:
1. The Effectiveness of the Sealing Between the Gun Muzzle and the
Skin:
If all the gaseous product of combustion is prevented from
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 355
being spilled out, there will be more destructive effects on the tissues.
2. The Amount of Gas Liberated by the Combustion of the
Propellant:
The volume of gas liberated after explosion of the propellant is
dependent on the amount and nature of the powder, and the extent
of powder combustion. The greater is the amount of gas in a
confined area, the greater will be the tissue destruction.
3. Nature of Bullet:
Bigger caliber bullet is obviously more destructive than smaller
ones. Soft or hollow point bullet has the tendency to flatten and
causes more damage to tissues.
4. Part of the Body Involved:
The nature, character and extent of injury in contact fire is
different (1) when the bone is superficially located under the skin,
and (2) when the bone is deeply located in loose or soft parts of the
body.
Pressed and Firm Contact Fire:
1. On Parts of the Body Where Bone is Superficial:
This is commonly observed on the head where the skull is just
underneath the scalp. The following are the characteristics of the
injuries:
a. The wound of entrance is large, frequently star-shaped due to tear
radiating from the entrance wound caused by the blast effect
which follows the sudden release of gases into a confined area
between the skin and the underlying bone.
b. Edges of the wound may be everted. The creeping of the gases
between the skull and the scalp causes the skin to move towards the
muzzle.
c. Areas in the entrance wound is blackened by burns, tattooing
and smudging. Singeing of the hair is confined only at the site of
wound of entrance.
d. Muzzle imprint, Barrel impression (Profile of the muzzle) on the
skin — The outward movement of the skin caused by the imprisoned
gas will add more pressure to the gun muzzle coupled with the heat
of the explosion and will cause iron-like effect on the pressed skin.
Causes of Muzzle Imprint:
(1) The gun muzzle is pressed on the body at the time of the fire and the
heated muzzle during the blast produced an ironing effect on the skin.
356 LEGAL MEDICINE
(2) The gun muzzle is pressed on the body, pushed momentarily away
and then hit the body again because of continuous inward
pressure.
(3) When the gun is fired on areas of the body where holly tissue is
superficial, like the scalp, the muzzle blast has tendency to creep
in the loose connective tissue between the skull and the skin
thereby pushing the skin outward to press on the gun muzzle.
e. The bullet may cause radiating fracture and the pressure of the gases may
cause fragmentation of the skull and a severe laceration of the brain and
its meninges.
f. Blood and tissue become pink due to carbon monoxide.
g. Fragments of lead and bullet jacket may be found.
Metal Fouling — When the bullet travels the whole length of the tight fitting
barrel, it is rotated by the lands and grooves. Its surface is scraped by the lands
and the scraping is ejected from the barrel and strikes the target. It may lodge on
the clothings or may cause small abrasions or superficial lacerations on the
skin around the main wound.
h. Singeing of hair.
Gunshot wound of entrance with contusion collar, powder burns and tattooing,
2. Parts of the Body Where the Bone is Deeply Located:
a. Wound of entrance is usually large, circular and without radiating
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 357
lac e ra tion . Th e g a s from th e muz z le ca n e asily pe ne tra te ,
deeper structures.
b. Edges are everted due to outward slapping of the skin. In some
instances, soft tissues (blood, fibrous and muscular tissues)
may be found inside the gun barrel. This is due to the negative
pressure created in the barrel after the blast.
c. Singeing of the hair, blackening of the wound due to fouling,
burn, and tattooing.
d. Muzzle imprint due to outward slapping of the skin and heat.
e. Pinkish color of the deeper structures due to carbon monoxide.
Loose Contact or Near Fire:
1. Entrance wound may be large circular or oval depending upon, he
angle of approach of the bullet.
2. Abrasion collar or ring is distinct.
-3. Smudging, burning and tattooing are prominent with singeing . of
the hair.
4. Muzzle imprint may be seen depending upon the degree of slap-
ping of the skin of the gun muzzle.
5. There is blackening of the bullet tract to a certain. depth.
6. Carboxyhemoglobin is present in the wound and surrounding areas.
Short Range Fire (1 to 15 cm. distance)
1. Edges of the entrance wound is inverted.
2. If within the flame reach (about 6 inches in rifle and high powered
firearms and less than 3 inches from an ordinary handgun), there
is an area of burning.
3. Smudging is present due to smoke.
4. Powder tattooing is present (dense and limited dimension
of spread).
5. Abrasion ring or collar is present (contact ring).
Medium Range Fire (more than 15 cm. but less than 60 cm.):
1. Gunshot wound with inverted edges and with abrasion collar is
present.
2. Burning effects (skin burn and hair singeing) is absent,
3. Smudging may be present if less than 30 cm. distance.
4. Gunpowder tattooing is present but of lesser density and has a wider area
of distribution.
5. Contact ring is present.
358 LEGAL MEDICINE
Fired More Than 60 cm. Distance:
1. Gunshot wound is circular or oval depending on the angle of
approach with abrasion collar.
2. Wound of entrance has no burning, smudging or tattooing.
3. Contact ring is present.
Microscopic Examination of Gunshot Wound of Entrance:
1. In Contact or Near Contact Fire:
a. Epithelial damage and powder residue deposit are present.
b. Massive heat may carbonize the epithelial cells.
c. The hot bullet may produce coagulation necrosis.
d. Basilar cells are swollen and vacuolated.
e. The corium may show thermal changes manifested by nuclear shrinkage,
pyknosis and vacuolization.
2. In far Distant Fire:
a. There may be a spotty deposit of powder on skin and subcutaneous tissue.
b. There is cellular destruction along the course of bullet.
Instances When the Size of the Wound of Entrance Do Not Approximate the
Caliber of the Firearm:
In distant fire, the rule is that the diameter of the gunshot wound of entrance is
almost the same as the caliber of the wounding firearm, but in the following instances,
the rule is not followed:
1. Factors which make the wound of entrance bigger than the caliber
a. In contact or near fire- The size of the entrance wound in contact and near fire
is caused by the force of the expanded gases of explosion and by the bullet.
b. Deformity of the bullet which entered- The bullet might have hit a hard object
before it pierces the skin thereby making the wound of entrance bigger than
the caliber of the missile.
c. Bullet might have entered the skin sidewise- Ordinarily, it is the ogival portion
which pierces the skin first, but occasionally it may hit the skin sidewise on
account of the inequality of resistance of the surrounding media in its flight.
The spinning movement and the tail wag (wobble) may cause the bullet to
enter in as vertical axis.
d. Acute angular approach of the bullet- Due to the sliding trajectory of the
bullet, the wound becomes oval in shape with prominence of the contusion
collar at the side of the acute angle of approach.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 359
2. Factors which 'make the wound of entrance smaller than the caliber:
a. Fragmentation of the bullet before penetrating the skin — If in the flight
of the bullet it hits a hard target which causes its fragmentation and only
the fragments pierce the skin, the wound produced will be smaller than
the caliber of the firearm which causes the fire.
b. Contraction of the elastic tissues of the skin — The form of the bullet
may be preserved but the entrance wound may be smaller than the
caliber on account of the contraction of the elastic tissues of the skin.
In shotgun fire, the size of the wound of entrance is dependent upon the
distance of the fire. Near fire causes concentration of entry of the pellets,
and as distance increases the pellets disperse with individual pellets causing
individual wounds of entry. Only in this instance may the wound of entrance
of the same size as the gauge of the shotgun pellets.
Other Evidences or Findings Used to Determine Entrance of Gunshot:
When the course of the bullet is through and through and there is difficulty
in the determination as to which is the entrance because it does not show
characteristic findings, or it has been modified by healing, infection or surgical
intervention, the medical examiner must resort to the following:
1. Examination of the clothings, if involved in the course of the bullet:
a. The fabric of the clothings may show punch in destruction at the site
of the wound of entrance.
b. Examination for particles of gunpowder on the clothings at the site near
the wound in question. -If the clothings give a positive test for
gunpowder, then it must be the wound of entrance. This is only true if
the fire is near.
2. Examination of the internal injuries caused by the bullet:
a. In case where the missile hits a bone, the bone fragments are driven
away from the wound of entrance.
b. Destruction of the bone at the surface facing the wound of entrance is
oval and with sharp edges, while the surface facing the wound of exit
is bigger, irregular and bevelled.
c. Direction of the cartilage and other soft tissues will be driven away
from the gunshot wound of entrance.

360 LEGAL MEDICINE
3. Testimony of witnesses:
The testimony of the witness as to the position of the victim and the
assailant when the firearm was fired may determine which of the wounds is
the entrance wound.
Determination of the Trajectory of the Bullet Inside the Body of the
Victim:
The following must be taken into consideration to determine the course of
the bullet inside the body of the victim:
1. External Examination:
a. Shape of the Wound of Entrance — When the bullet is fired at right
angle with the skin the wound of entrance is circular except in cases of
near fire. If fired at another angle, the wound of entrance is usually oval in
shape. When the bullet is deformed, no such characteristic findings will
be observed.
b. Shape and Distribution of the Contusion or Abrasion Collar —As
a general rule, the contusion (abrasion) collar is widest at the side of
the acute angle of approach of the bullet. If the bullet hits the skin
perpendicularly, then the collar will have a uniform width around the
gunshot wound, except when the bullet is deformed or in near fire.
c. Difference in Level Between the Entrance and Exit Wounds —The
difference in height between the gunshot wound of entrance and exit may
be determined by measuring those wounds from the fixed references in the
body, e.g. sole of the foot, or by drawing a horizontal line across the
body and using it as a reference point.
d. By Probing the Wound of Entrance — The probe must be applied
without too much force so as not to create a new course in the soft
tissues. Care must be observed in cases of deflection of the course due
to some hard objects that might have been involved.
2. Internal Examination:
a. Actual Dissection and Tracing the Course of the Wound at
Autopsy:
The tissues involved are hemorrhagic and bone spicules and lead
particles may be seen or felt.
b. Fracture of Bones and Course in Visceral Organs:
Occasionally, the nature of the bone fracture may show the direction,
especially when the bullet is not deformed before causing the fracture.
Injuries in solid visceral organs may clearly - manifest the course because
of the absence of contractility.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 361
c. Location of Bone Fragments and Lead Particles:
The bone spicules and lead fragments go with the flight of -the bullet
and may be utilized in the determination of the trajectory.
d. X-ray Examination:
Bone spicules and lead fragments may be observed and their exact
location determined in relation with the wound of entrance.
3. Other Evidences to Show Trajectory:
a. Relative difference in the vertical location of the entrance from the exit
in the clothings.
b. Relative position and distance of the assailant from the victim in the
reconstruction or reenactment of the crime.
c. Testimony of witnesses.
Exit (Outshoot) Wound:
An exit wound does not show characteristic shape unlike the wound of
entrance. It may be slit-like, stellate, irregular or even similar to the wound of
entrance. This is due to the absence of external support beyond the skin so the
bullet tends to tear or shatter the skin while sufficient amount of kinetic energy
is still in the bullet during the process of piercing the skin.
The edges of the wound are everted and occasionally portions of the inner
tissues are protruding. Aside from the bone, the skin is one of the most
resistant to penetrate in the course of the bullet so that most often the bullet is
lodged just underneath the skin. It may only be noticed by the presence of
contusion over the area wherein it is lodged or its presence may be noticed by
palpitation. The bullet may have lost its momentum after piercing the skin and
just fall without perforation of the clothing.
Bones may be involved in the trajectory and its spicules may create
additional injury to the wound of exit.
Variation on the shape of the wound of exit may be attributable to the
deformity of the bullet in its passage in the body and to the wabbling and
stumbling movement of the bullet during its course and fragmentation of the
missiles.
Shored Gunshot Wound of Exit — If the place where the gunshot wound
of exit is pressed on a hard Abject as when the victim is lying on his back on a
hard object or in small caliber shots (like 0.22) the wound of exit tends to be
circular or nearly circular with abrasion at its border. It is also observed that
tight-fitting clothings, waist band, belt collar, brassiere may also support the
skin to enhance formation
 GUNSHOT WOUNDS 363
362 LEGAL MEDICINE tact ring" is present, due to
invagination of the skin and
of a circular wound of exit. This is known as a shored gunshot wound of exit. spinning of the missile.
Shored gunshot wound of exit is produced when the outstretched skin is 5. Tattooing or smudging may be 5. Always absent.
impaled, sandwiched and crushed between the outgoing bullet and the unyielding present when firing is near.
object is over the exit site, thus making the wound to be circular with abrasion 6. Underlying tissues are not 6. Underlying tissues may be
collar at its margin. Proper coaptation of the wound margin is impossible because protruding. seen protruding from
of the loss of skin just like those observed in entrance wound. In contrast with the wound.
the entrance wound, the supported exit wound shows a scalloped or punched-out 7. Always present after fire. 7. May be absent, if is
abrasion collar and sharply contoured skin in between the radiating skin lacerations lodged in the body.
marginating the abrasion (Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, Vol. 4, 8. Paraffin test may be positive. 8. Paraffin test always negative.
Sept. 1983, p. 99).
The "Odd and Even Rule" in Gunshot Wounds:
If the number of gunshot wounds of entrance and exit found in the body of
the victim is even, the presumption is that no bullet is lodged in the body, but
if he number of the gunshot wounds of entrance and exit is odd, the
presumption is that one or more bullets might have been lodged in the body.
The rule is merely presumptive and actual inspection and autopsy will verify
the truth of the presumption. It may be possible that all of those wounds or a
majority of them are entrance wounds with some bullets lodged, yet the number
may still be even.
Sometimes it is difficult to locate the lodged bullet but with the help of a
portable X-ray, its location and extraction can be facilitated.
How to Determine the Number of Fires Made by the Offender:
1. Determination of the Number of Spent Shells:
Search must be made at the scene of the crime or at the place where the
offender made the fire, for spent shells, if the weapon used is an automatic
pistol or rifle. In case of revolver fire, the empty shells may be found still
Gunshot wound of exit of the skull with punch out edges
inside the cylindrical magazine. In machine gun fire, the spent shells may
Distinction between Gunshot wound of entrance and wound of still be attached to the cartridge belt.
exit 2. Determination of Entrance Wounds in the Body of the Victim:
Although most often erroneous, the investigator may be given an idea as
Entrance Wound Exit Wound
to the minimum number of shots made. The number of wounds of entrance
1. Appears to be similar than 1. Always bigger than the
may not show the exact number ' of fire because:
the missile owing to the elasticity missile a. Not all the fire made may hit the body of the victim.
of the tissue. b. The bullet may in the course of its flight hit a hard object thereby splitting
2. Edges are inverted 2. Edges are everted. it and each fragment may produce separate wounds of entrance.
3. Usually oval or round depending 3. It does not manifest c. The bullet may have perforated a part of the body and then
upon the angle of approach of the bullet . any definite shape.
4. “Contusion collar” or “Con 4. “Contusion Collar”
is is absent

364 LEGAL MEDICINE
made another wound of entrance in some other parts of the
body; thus a single shot may produce two wounds of entrance.
3. Number of Shots Heard by Witnesses:
The witnesses might be able to count the number of shots heard
especially if the shots were made at sufficient intervals of succession.
However in cases of machine gun fire, there is difficulty in ascertaining
the number heard and the testimony of witness as to the number
of shots heard must be admitted with caution.
Mutilating gunshot wound of exit
Instances when the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Entrance is Less than
the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Exit in the Body of the Victim:
1. A bullet might have entered the body but split into several fragments,
each of which made a separate exit.
2. One of the bullets might have entered a natural orifice of the body, e.g.
mouth, nostrils, thereby making it not visible and then producing a wound
of exit.
3. There might be two or more bullets which entered the body through a
common entrance and later making individual exit wounds.
4. In near shot with a shotgun, the pellets might have entered in a common
wound and later dispersed while inside the body and making separate
wounds of exit.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 365
Instances when the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Entrance is More
than the Number of Gunshot Wounds of Exit in the Body of the
Victim:
I. When one or more bullets are not through and through and the bullet is
lodged in the body.
2. When all of the bullets produce through and through wounds but one
or more made an exit in the natural orifices of the body, e.g. eyes,
mouth, nostrils.
3. When different shots produced different wounds of entrance but two
or more shots produced a common exit wound.
Instances when there is No Gunshot Wound of Exit but the Bullet is
Not Found in the Body of the Victim:
1. When the bullet is lodged in the gastro-intestinal tract and expelled
through the bowel, or lodged in the pharynx and expelled through the
mouth by coughing.
2. Near fire with a blank cartridge produced a wound of entrance but no
slug may be recovered.
3. The bullet may enter the wound of entrance and upon hitting
the bone the course is deflected to have the wound of entrance as
the wound of exit (cited by Modi, A Textbook of Medical Juris-
prudence & Toxicology, 10th ed.).
Trajectory of a gunshot wound in the head
366 LEGAL MEDICINE
Determining Whether the Wound is Ante-mortem or Post-mortem:
If the wound indicates that there has been profuse hemorrhage, or there are
signs of vital reactions in the tissue, then the gunshot wound is ante-mortem.
The presence and degree of vital reactions depends upon the period of survival
of the victim. It may be manifested in the form of swelling, effusion of lymph
or other evidences of repair. Microscopically, there is congestion and
leucocytic infiltration.
Wounds inflicted after death show no evidence of profuse hemorrhage, no
retraction of the edges, and there are no vital reactions.
Problems Confronting Forensic Physician in the Identification of Gunshot
Wounds:
1. Alteration of the Lesion Due to Natural Process:
The drying of the margins of the wound opening may modify
measurements. The size and shape is considerably altered by
decomposition. Healing process and infection may modify its appearance
and it may be mistaken for some other types of injuries.
2. Medical and Surgical Intervention:
The wound may be scrubbed, medication applied, or surgically debridded,
extended, excised or sutured. This problem is properly solved by having access
to the clinical record of the patient.
3. Embalming:
Embalming trocar may be introduced on the gunshot wound itself or the
trocar mark itself may be mistaken for a gunshot wound.
The gunshot wound may be extended to reach the principal artery for the
embalming fluid to enter. The passage of the embalming fluid may wash out
the product of the gunpowder combustion, The trajectory of the bullet may
be modified by the trocar thrust. The suturing of the gunshot wound and the
application of "makeup" may modify the actual appearance of the wound.
4. Problem Inherent to the Injury Itself:
The gunshot wound may be covered with clotted blood or with scab to
make it not visible. Grazing injury caused by glancing of the bullet on the
skin may appear like abrasions or lacerations. Wound brought about by
screw drivers, icepicks or other sharp pointed' instruments might be
considered to be gunshot wounds. Bullet might have entered or made its exit
in the natural openings, like mouth, nostril, ear, etc. making its
identification difficult. The wound may be located in thick haired scalp,
skin fold and make visibility difficult.
GUNSHOTWOUNDS 367
6. X-ray Examination:
The use of an X-ray is almost indispensable in the examination of gunshot
injuries. The use of the apparatus will facilitate recovery of the lodged bullet
together with the location of its fragments.
The body might have been X-rayed with unspent and spent ammunition
clinging on the clothings and may be mistaken to be inside the body; teeth
fillings or crown may resemble bullet on X-ray examination of the skull.
"Migratory" bullets may be found in some parts of the body away from the
bullet tract. Victim may have "bullet souvenir" on account of a previous
gunshot injury and may confuse the examiner as to be an effect of recent
shot.
Clothings:
The effects of the garments on the movement of the bullet depend upon:
1. The number of layers of fabric between the muzzle and subjacent skin;
2. Nature of the fabric which, may be closely woven or loose mesh, light or
heavy, cotton or synthetic fibers.
3. Muzzle-clothings distance.
Examination of the External Wearing Apparel of the Victim of Gunshot
maybe Significant in Investigation because:
1. It may establish the possible range of the fire:
a. Contact Fire:
(1 ) There is a tear of the clothings covering the skin at the site of the
gunshot wound with fusion of its fibers in case of artificial fabric.
Fibers are turned outward away from the body.
(2) Soot deposit and gunpowder tattooing around the torn fabric.
Burning of the fibers are visible.
(3) Muzzle imprint (profile of the muzzle) especially in artificial fabric
may be present.
(4) Dirt and greasy deposit is carried by the bullet and may be, wiped
out and be visible on the torn clothing.
b. Not Contact but Near Shot:
The same findings as in contact shot except when it is beyond the
flame range and absence of muzzle imprint.
c. Far Fire:
There is a hole tear with inward direction of the thread.
 368 LEGAL MEDICINE
2. It may be useful in the determination as to which is the point of entry and
of exit of the bullet:
The direction of the fibers will be inward or inverted at the point of
entry, while it is outward or everted at the point of exit. Care must be
exercised in making the inference inasmuch as improper handling may
change the direction of the fibers.
3. It may be useful in locating the bullet:
The clothings, like skin and bone are not easily perforated. It is frequently
observed that the bullet is recovered just underneath the clothings of a dead
victim at the crime scene.
Special Consideration on Bullets:
1. Souvenir Bullet:
Bullet has been lodged and has remained in the body. Its long presence causes
the development of a dense fibrous tissue capsule around the bullet causing no
untoward effect. It may be located just underneath the skin to be easily
palpated and may cause inconvenience and irritation. Deep seated location
may nor cause any problem to warrant its immediate removal.
2. Bullet Migration:
Bullet that is not lodged in a place where it was previously located. A
bullet which strikes the neck may enter the air passage, and it may be coughed
out or swallowed and recovered in the stomach or intestine.
Bullets Embolism — a special form of bullet migration when the bullet
loses its momentum while inside the chamber of the heart or inside the big
blood vessels and carried by the circulating blood to some parts of the body
where it may be lodged. It may cause sudden loss of function of the area
supplied or death if vital organs are involved.
3. Tandem Bullet:
Two or more bullets leaving the barrel one after another. In •
cases of misfire or a defect in the cartridge, the bullet may be
lodged in the barrel and a succeeding shot may cause the initial and the
succeeding bullet to travel in tandem. There is a stron g possibility for'
them to enter the target in a common hole. This might create doubt to the
statement made by the firer that he made only a single shot, but ballistic
examination can show as to whether the bullet travelled in tandem.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 369
GUNSHOT WOUNDS MAY BE SUICIDAL,
HOMICIDAL OR ACCIDENTAL
Evidences that tend to show that the Gunshot(s) Wound is Suicidal.
1. The shot was fired in a closed or locked room,, usually in the office or
bedroom. If in the bedroom, the shot was fired while the victim was
lying in bed and the weapon covered with pillow or bedding to muffle
the sound. It may be committed in an open isolated or uninhabited
place.
2. The death weapon is almost always found near the place where the
victim was found, When a light, low caliber hand firearm was used
and the shot was made in parts of the body where death may develop
almost instantaneously, the victim may be seen with the grip of the
firearm firmly held in the palm of the wounding hand (cadaveric
spasm).
3. The shot was fired with the muzzle of the gun in contact with the part
of the body involved or at close range, The wound of entrance may
show signs of muzzle impression, burning, smudging and tattooing.
4. The location of the gunshot wound of entrance is in an accessible part
of the body to the wounding hand,.. It may be at the temple, roof of
the mouth, precordial or epigastric region. A person committing
suicide will do the act in his most convenient way, unless he has the
intention of deceiving the investigator.
5. The shot is usually solitary, If the shot is made on the head involving
the brain, the shocking effect of the injury will not make him capable
of firing another shot. However, shots in some parts of the body which
may not produce immediate death Or sudden loss of consciousness,
the possibility of additional shots is not remote. The victim may be
determined to die and had fired additional shots to insure realization
of his intention.
6. The direction of the fire is compatible with the usual trajectory of the
bullet considering the hand used and the part of the body involved, A
shot on the temple is usually directed towards the opposite temple and
upwards, while a shot in the precordium and epigastrium is usually
backwards and downwards.
7. Personal history may reveal social, economic, business or marital
problem which the victim cannot solve` He may have history of mental
disease, depression, severe frustration or previous attempt of self-
destruction.
8. Examination of the hand of the victim may show presence of
gunpowder,
9. Entrance wound do not usually involve clothing
370 LEGAL MEDICINE
10. Fingerprints of victim on the butt.
11. Search of the place where the shot took place may reveal a suicide
note, which usually mentions among other things the reason why the
victim committed suicide.
12. No disturbance in the place of death.
Russian Roulette:
A group of persons may agree to load a revolver with a single live
cartridge and each member of the group will cock and pull the trigger with the
muzzle pressed or directed to the temple or towards other vital parts of the
body. The person who will pull the trigger with the live cartridge in the
firing chamber will suffer the fatal consequence. Although it may be
considered suicidal because any person who participates to such an
agreement may have the desire to commit it, the unfortunate victim has
no predetermined desire of self-destruction.
Evidences to show that the Gunshot Wound is Homicidal:
1. The site or sites of wound of entrance has no point of election.
2. The fire is made when the victim is usually at some distance from assailant.
3. Signs of struggle (defense wounds) may be present in the victim.
4. There may be a disturbance of the surroundings on account of previous
struggle.
5. Wounding firearm usually is not found at the scene of the crime.
6. Testimony of witnesses.
Evidences to show that the Gunshot Wound is Accidental:
1. Usually there is but one shot.
2. There is no special area of the body involved.
3. Consideration of the testimony of the assailant, and determination as to
whether it is possible to be accidental by knowing the relative position of
the victim and the assailant.
4. Testimony of witnesses.
Points to be Considered and Included in the Report by the Physician:
1. Complete description of the wound of entrance and exit.
2. Location of the wound:
a. Part of the body involved.
b. Distance of the wound from the mid-line.
c. Distance of the wound from the heel or buttock.
3. Direction and length of the bullet tract.
4. Organs or tissues involved in its course.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 371
5. Location of the missile, if lodged in the body.
6. Diagram, photograph, sketch, or drawing showing the location and
number of wounds.
Questions that a Physician is Expected to Answer in Court:
1. Could the wound or wounds be inflicted by the weapon presented to
him?
2. At what range was it fired?
3. What was the direction of the fire?
4. May it be possible that those gunshot wounds are self-inflicted?
5. Are there signs of struggle in the victim?
6. May it be possible for the victim to fire or resist the attack after the
injury was sustained by him?
7. Did the victim die instantaneously?
8. Where was the relative position of the assailant and the victim when
the shot was fired?
Can the Caliber of the Wounding Firearm be Determined from the
Size of the Gunshot Wound of Entrance?
Although the size of the gunshot wound of entrance is influenced by
several factors, the caliber may be inferred from the diameter of the
gunshot wound. In most cases, especially when the 'wound is circular,
the caliber is almost the same as the diameter of the wound of entrance.
Determination of the Length of Survival of the Victim,:
The length of survival of the victim may be inferred from the
following:
1. Nature of the gunshot wound.
2. Organs involved.
3. Presence or absence of infection or other complications.
4. Amount of blood loss.
5. Physical condition of the victim.
Capacity of the Victim to Perform Volitional Acts:
The power of the victim to perform voluntary acts depends upon the
area of the body involved, involvement of vital organs, and the resistance
of the victim. Injuries which will cause incapacity to do voluntary acts as
those involving the brain and the spinal cord definitely inhibits
volitional acts.
374
372 LEGAL MEDICINE
LEGAL MEDICINE
Determination as to the Length of Time a Firearm had been Fired:
Physical and chemical examinations of the residue inside t barrel does
not give a conclusive evidence as to how long t firearm has been
discharged. Most often the examiner does n know whether the barrel
was cleaned immediately after the d charge. Smokeless powder which is
now commonly used does n leave much residue for such determination.
However, inference may be drawn from the following: ,
1. Odor of the Gas Inside the Barrel:
Explosion of the gunpowder produces considerable evolution o gases
consisting of nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxid e carbon
monoxide and methane. This mixture of gases has peculiar
characteristic odor which may be noticed several hour after the discharge.
Later, it will disappear as gases usually evaporate or chemically
transformed to other odorless compounds.
2. Chemical Changes Inside the Barrel:
Black powder is a mixture of charcoal, sulfur and nitrates of sodium
or potassium. One of the products of combustion is hydrogen sulfide.
Hydrogen sulfide is rapidly converted to thiosulfate, thiocyanate and
finally to sulfates of potassium or sodium. The absence of the peculiar
characteristic odor and the presence of thiosulfate and thiocyanate
which is increasing in amount shows that the discharge occurred in a
matter of few days. Later the thiosulfate and thiocyanate of sodium or
potassium will be chemically transformed to sulfates and its presence
shows that firing occurred for sometime,
The iron salts in the ferrous state are found during the early stage and
may be transformed to ferric salt after a lapse of a certain period.
The residue produced by smokeless powder explosion as nit rates are
not liable to undergo changes even after a lapse of time, hence
approximation of the time of the discharge is much more difficult.
The main difficulty in the determination is that the length of such
physical and chemical transformation of the residue of combustion
from one compound to another, cannot be definitely ascertained. It is
dependent upon several factors.
3. Evidences that may be Deduced from the Wound:
Approximation of the age of the wound also infers the time of
discharge. The degree of healing in the absence of subsequent infection
must be considered. If an infection is present, then the degree of infection
may be utilized in the approximation.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 373
Determining Whether the Wounding Weapon is an Automatic Pistol or a
Revolver:
The following must be taken into consideration to determine whether the
wounding weapon is an automatic pistol or a revolver:
1. Location of the Empty Shells:
In a revolver, the empty shells are found in the cylindrical magazine
chamber after the fire, but in cases of automatic pistol the empty shells are
driven out of the weapon after the shot, to give way to live cartridge to be in
the firing chamber. Thus, in cases of automatic pistol, the empty shells are
found a few yards away from the place of the firing.
2. Nature of the Spent Bullet:
As a general rule, in automatic firearm, the bullet is copper jacketed or
cupro-nickel jacketed, while in cases of revolver, no such coating is observed.
This is not true in all cases.
3. Nature of the Base of the Cartridge or Spent Shell:
The base of a revolver has a wider diameter than that of the cylindrical
body to keep the cartridge stay in the magazine chamber. There is no such
difference in the diameter in case of shells of automatic pistol.
Can the Direction of the Shot be Determined from the Direction from
which the Sound Came From?
Not possible, unless the flash or the person firing the shot is seen at the time
e shot was fired. T e ear is usually at a loss as to where the shot was fired.
Can the Firearm be Identified by the Sound of the Discharge?
It is impossible to distinguish and memorize the report from two firearms of
the same caliber. It may be possible for a person who is accustomed to the
sounds of firearms of different calibers to identify the firearm by the sound
produced.
Example: The sound of a shotgun may be distinguished from the sound of a
caliber 0.22 pistol.
Gunshot Wound may Not be a Near Fire or may Not Appear to be a
Near Fire:
1. When a device is set up to hold the firearm and to enable it to be
discharged at a long range by the victim.
2. When the gunshot wound of entrance does not show characteristics of a
near shot because the clothings are interposed between the victim and the
firearm.
 GUNSHOT WOUNDS 375
3. When the examining physician failed to distinguish between a near or far shot
wound.
4. When the product of a near shot has been washed out of the wound. 2. Expression of the Bore Diameter in Inches — The 0.410 bore shotgun is
the only shotgun at present to be so designated.
X-ray: 3. Metric System — The bore is expressed in millimeters.
The use of the x-ray must not be overlooked in a gunshot wound investigation.
Several exposures at different' angles must be made t determine the precise Length of the Barrel:
location of the bullet, trajectory, position o the slug, and other injuries. There is no standard length of the barrel but modern barrels measure 26,
28, and 30 inches in length.
X-ray Examinations may:
a. Facilitate location and extraction of the bullet lodged. Grade of Choke:
b. It will reveal fragmentation and their location. A shotgun is choked when the muzzle end of the barrel is a diameter smaller
c. It will show bone involvement like fracture. than the rest of the barrel. The main purpose of the constriction is to minimize
d. It will reveal trajectory of the bullet. the dispersal of the pellet or buckshots after the shot. It is based on the presence
e. It will show the effects of the bullet wound, like hemorrhage escape of or absence of choke and the degree of choking, that shotguns are classified as:
air, laceration and other injuries. 1. Unchoke — The diameter of the barrel from the rear end up to the muzzle
is the same.
2. Choke — The diameter of the barrel at the muzzle end is smaller than the
SHOTGUNWOUNDS
rest of the barrel.
A shotgun is a shoulder-fired firearm having a barrel that is smooth-bored and is a. "Improved Cylinder" — The narrowing of the barrel by 3 to 5
intended for the firing of a charged compound of one or more round balls or thousands of an inch.
pellets. b. Half Choke — narrowing by 15 to 20 thousands of an inch.
c. Full Choke — narrowing from-35 to 40 thousands of an inch.
Classes of Shot in a Shotgun Shell: The lethal range is normally in an area of 30 inches in diameter at 30 to 40
1. Birdshot — The shot are small ranging in sizes from 0.05 inch to 0.15 yards according to the degree of choking.
diameter and loaded from 200 to 400 shots in the shell. Birdshots are
small and are commonly used for hunting fowls and other small animals. Types of Shotgun:
1. As to the Number of Barrel:
2. Buckshot — The shot ranges from 0.24"to 0.33 inch in diameter and
obviously fewer in number in a shot. A standard 12-gauge shotgun contains a. Single Barrel Shotgun:
only nine shots. There is only one barrel and basically the original type.
3. Single Projectile (Rifled Slug) — There is only a single shot or slug in a shell. b. Double Barrel Shotgun:
(1) Side-to-side barrel.
Systems Employed in the Determination of the Diameter of the Barrel (2) Over-and-under barrel.
of a Shotgun: 2. As to the Manner of Firing and Reloading:
1. Gauge System — Determination of the number of lead balls, each fitting of a. Bolt Action:
the bore totals to one pound in weight. The smaller the gauge The action of the bolt ejects the fired shell and loads the next one.
designation, the larger is the bore. If twelve balls can be made from one b. Lever Action:
pound of lead, each fitting the inside of the barrel of a shotgun, the gun is When the lever is swing down it ejects the fired shell and loads the
called 12-gauge or 12-bore shotgun. 12-gauge shotgun is the most next shot.
commonly used. c. Pump Action:
There is a cylindrical magazine which can accommodate up to six
shells, end to end, beneath the barrel.

376 LEGAL MEDICINE
d. Autoloading:
A pull of the trigger not only fires and ejects the shell but also
reloads the next shot and locks it for firing.
Shotgun Cartridge:
A shotgun cartridge is usually 2-3/4 or 3 inches long and the diameter
depends on the gauge of the firearm. The base and t lower portion of the
cylindrical portion is made of brass with t primer cap at the center of the
base. Attached to the free end
its cylindrical portion is the cylindrical laminated paper tube t complete the
shell casing.
When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin activates the primer which in turn
ignites the powder charge. Explosion of the gun. powder will cause
propulsion of the wad and pellets (shot) in front
The muzzle velocity of the pellet is relatively smaller as compare from those
discharged from rifled firearms.
Except for the presence and nature of the slug, the component of the
shotgun blast is almost the same as that of a rif led firearm. It also consists of
gunpowder, flame, smoke, pellets and wad.
Shotgun Wound of Entrance:
1. Contact or Near Contact Shot (not more than 6 inches):
On account of the greater quantity of gunpowder in the shotgun
cartridge, there is relatively more damage due to muzzle
blast, flame and gunpowder at the site of the wound of entrance as
compared with rifled fire.
a. If the shot is made perpendicular to the skin surface, the wound of
entrance is round but if the shot is made with an acute angle
with the skin the wound is oval. In both instances, the wound border may
be smooth or slightly rugged.
b. The entrance wound is burned, the width of which increases
as the muzzle-skin distance increases but does not exceed 6 inches.
c. There is blackening due to smoke.
d. Gunpowder tattooing is densely located in a limited area. The
area of spread is directly proportional to the muzzle sk in distance.
e. There is contusion of the tissue that has been blackened by gunpowder.
f. There is singeing of the hair (less than 6 inches).
g. Subcutaneous and deeper tissues are severely disrupted.
h. Blood and other tissues along the bullet tract shows presence of carbon
monoxide.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 377
i.. Wad or its fragments together with shot (pellets) may be re -
covered from the bullet tract.
2. Long Range Shot (more than 6 inches skin-muzzle distance):
a. At 2 to 3 feet muzzle-skin distance, there is still a single wound
of entry although there may be isolated shots causing indepen-
dent entry.
b. At 3 to 4 feet distance the wound of entry is usually serrated
or scalloped circumference and often referred to as a "rat
hole".
c. At about 5 to 6 feet distance, the wad tends to produce an
independent injury usually an abrasion at the vicinity of entry
of the shots. The wounding capacity of the wad is very much
less as compared with the shot on account of its lightness and
size.
d. At 6 feet, the shots begins to separate from the conglomerate
shot and at 10 feet each shot already produces independent
wounds of entry.
As the shot begin to separate from one another, there is
the tendency for one shot to strike another causing changes
of the shot course. This phenomena is called "billiard ball
ricochette effect".
e. Smudging due to smoke may be observed up to 15 inches.
f. Gunpowder tattooing may be detected up to 24 inches.
g. In an unchoked shotgun, to estimate the muzzle-target distance,
the following rule must be applied.
Measure the distance between the two farthest shot (pellets)
in inches and subtract one, the number thus obtained will give
the muzzle-target distance in yards.
The character of the wound and the degree of dispersal is in -
fluenced by the muzzle-target distance, gauge of the shotgun, degree
of choke and the type of ammunition. However, it is highly recom -
mended to have an experimental shot with the firearm using similar
cartridge and under the same environmental conditions.
A close shot produces more serious injuries because the shots
are concentrated on a specific target and because of greater kinetic
energy of the pellets.
 376 LEGAL MEDICINE
DETERMINATION OF THE PRESENCE OF
GUNPOWDER AND PRIMER COMPONENTS
The Importance of Determining the Gunpowder on the Skin of the Victim:
1. Determination of the distance of the gun muzzle from the victim's
body when fired:
As discussed previously, the explosion of the powder in the cartridge
expels particles which may be embedded in the skin or just clinging on the
surface at a distance of not more than 24 inches. The distribution of the
gunpowder is more at the upper portion of the wound of entrance, due to
the upward position of the muzzle of the gun when fired. The presence of
gunpowder at or near the wound of entrance shows that the gun muzzle
when fired is not more than 24 inches but its absence will not preclude
near fire because other factors might have intervened. Less powder
particles at the wound of entrance is observed in smokeless powder as
compared with black powder.
2. Determining whether a person has fired a firearm:
The dorsum of the hands are the ones examined to determine the
presence of gunpowder. When a person fires a gun, the powder particles
which escape may cling on the dorsum of the hand. The presence of
gunpowder at the dorsum of the hand may infer that a person has fired a
gun.
Basis of the Tests:
When a gun is discharged two types of residues are liberated namely, the
metallic residues from the primer which is not only blown forward towards
the target from the muzzle but also backward in the direction of the
shooter, and also the particles of burned, burning and unburned gunpowder
(propellant) moving also in the same direction; as the metallic residue of
the primer. All of these residues are deposited on the back of the firing
hand of the shooter.
Detection of metallic residue of the primer on the palm of the hand may
also indicate that the individual was making a defensive movement, such as
trying to ward off or grab the weapon at the tittle of the discharge. In
suicide, residue may be deposited on the palm of the hand used to steady
the barrel at the time of the discharge.
Procedures in Determining the Presence of Gunpowder:
1. Gross Examination or Examination with the Use of Hand Lens:
Fine black powder particles of varying sizes may be seen at the
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 379
region of the gunshot wound of entrance, on the dorsum of the hands or at
the outer surface of the wearing apparel of the victim. This examination is
not conclusive because other foreign particles may be mistaken for
gunpowder or primer components.
2. Microscopic Examination:
Fine particles may be magnified but there are no characteristic shape,
color or consistency of gunpowder.
3 Chemical Tests:
a. Laboratory Test to Determine Firearm Residues:
There is inference of contact or near distance of the gun muzzle to the
skin when there is burning, tattooing and smudging visible through the
naked eye. The burning and then the tattooing will gradually disappears
as the muzzle distance increases. The powder tattooing will gradually
spread out to a greater area until it is no longer detectible. Minute
particles of burning and unburned residues and the primer constituents
can be detected in the laboratory.
The same tests may also be applied on the dorsum of the hand of the
persons suspected to have fired the gun. Although the test is not
conclusive, it may be a corroborative evidence in the determination as to
whether a person has fired a gun.
The tests may involve the determination of the presence of
gunpowder residues of primer components.
Tests for the Presence of Powder Residues:
1. On the Skin (Dorsum of the Hand or Site of the Wound of
Entrance):
- Dermal nitrate test (Paraffin test, Diphenylamine test, Lung's test or
Gonzales' tests) — The back of the fingers and of the hand up to the region
of the wrist is coated with melted paraffin, heated at a temperature of 150
degrees Fahrenheit. To avoid heat injury to the skin, a low melting point
paraffin is used. The melted paraffin penetrates the minute crevices of the
skin and when hardened and cooled off, some of the powder particles will
be extracted and embedded in the paraffin cast. After the cast is built with
layers of cotton and paraffin to a thickness of about 1/8 inch and solidified,
it is then removed from the hand or from the site of the wound of entrance
and the inner aspect of the cast is treated by means of a dropper with
Lung's reagent.
The presence of small particles containing either nitrate or nitrite will
be indicated by a blue reaction of the particles upon contact with Lung's
reagent.
 380 LEGAL MEDICINE
The test is not conclusive as to the presence of gunpowder because
fertilizers, cosmetics, cigarettes, urine and other nitrogenous compounds
with nitrites and _nitrates will give a positive reaction. A negative result is
not also conclusive that the person did not fire a gun for a well constructed_
hand gun will not d' charge any residue on the hand or the hand might
have bee subjected to extensive washing.
The test usually gives a positive result even. after a large lap of three
days or even though the hand has been subjected t ordinary washing.
Subjection of a suspect to the test is not self-incriminatory the act is
purely mechanical and does not require the use o mental faculties.
2. On Clothings (Especially Colored Ones):
Walker's test (C-acid test, H-acid test) — A glossy photographic paper is
fixed thoroughly in hyposolution for 20 minutes to remove all the silver
salts and then washed for 45 ,minutes an dried.
The dried photographic paper may be treated with any of the following:
a. Warm 5% solution of "C" acid (2 naphthalamine 4-8 disulfonic acid) for 10
minutes and dry.
b. Warm 5% solution of "H" acid (1-amino-8-naphthol-3,6 disul fonic acid)
for 10 minutes and dry.
c. Warm 0.5% solution of sulfanilic acid for 10 minute ,dry and then swab
with a 0.5% solution of alpha naphthalamine in methyl alcohol and dry.
The sheet of the prepared paper of sufficient size is placed face up on a towel
or pad of. cotton and the material to be tested is placed on top, face down on
the paper.
The preparation is then covered with a thin dry cloth or towel slightly
moistened with 20% solution of acetic acid, and another layer of dry cloth.
The entire pack is pressed with a hot iron for two minutes.
The paper is removed, . washed with hot water and methyl alcohol to
remove excess reagent and dried.
If unburned powder grains are present, it will result to the production
of dark red or orange-brown spots on the prepared paper.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 381
Tests for the Presence of Primer Components:
When an individual fixes a weapon, the metallic primer residue
(barium, antimony and lead) may be deposited on the back of the hand
with the residue most likely deposited on the skin web, the hand
between the thumb and index finger. The test for the presence of the
metallic constituent of the primer may be done through any of the
following:
1. Harrison and Gilroy Test:
A cotton swab moistened with 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid is used
to gather antimony, barium and lead.
The cloth is then treated with various reagents to detect the
presence of a primer component. The reagent sodium rhodi sonate
yields a red color in the presence of lead and barium. Addition
of 1.5 hydrochloric acid to the red area that yields a blue -
violet color in the presence of lead while a bright pink color is
developed in the presence of barium.
The test is simply applied but does not enjoy substantial uti -
lization in forensic laboratory because:
a. It lacks specificity of the color reaction for the trace of the
element.
b. It is inadequately sensitive.
c. There is interference of the color reaction among the three
elements themselves.
d. There is instability of the color that developed.
2. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA):
A sample is obtained from the hands by the use of paraffin or by
washing the hand with dilute acid. It is then exposed to
radiation from a nuclear reactor emitting neutrons. Secondary
radioactivity is induced in the materials removed from the hand. By
making an appropriate counts at different energy levels, the
elemental composition of the residues can be determined with
precision and accuracy.
The technique is extremely sensitive and a very small quantity can
be detected, but only few laboratories can affo rd to undertake the
procedure because it is very expensive and the test is unable to
detect the presence of lead. The test requires access to a nuclear
reactor.
Principle: Barium and antimony are converted into isotopes by means
of neutron bombardment, afterwards their quantity is
measured.
382 LEGAL MEDICINE
3. Flameless Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS):
The sample of handwashing is subjected to a high temperature to vaporize the
metallic elements of the primer residue. This in turn is detected and quantitated
by absorption spectrophotometry.
This method is quick, sensitive and employs equipment within the economic
means of a modern-size crime laboratory. It can detect the presence of barium,
antimony and lead.
4. Use of Scanning Electron Microscope with a Linked X-ray Analyzer:
Adhesive material is used to remove any residue particles from the hand. The
material is then examined under the scanning electron microscope with a linked
X-ray analyzer. Particles of the primer residue have the characteristic size and
shape which can easily be distinguished from other materials. Analysis of the
particles with X-ray analyzer will confirm their identification.
While this method appears to be more specific than the previously mentioned
methods, it is seldom used because the initial equipment is expensive and it
requires a longer period of time to analyze a case.
FIREARM IDENTIFICARION
The following factors must be utilized in the identification of the firearm used
in the commission of crime:
1. Caliber of the Weapon:
A firearm may be identified by its caliber and it may be determined from the
firearm itself, from the shell, bullet, cartridge or from the character of the wound
of entrance.
2. Fingerprints:
Fingerprint marks may be found in the butt of the firearm or at the trigger, and
its guard. Care must be observed by the investigator in handling the firearm at the
scene of the crime. The fingerprints found at the butt may distinguish homicidal
or suicidal nature of death.
3. Fouling of the Barrel:
The firearm which is recently fired may have a characteristic odor of the smoke
inside the barrel. Chemical analysis of the washing from the interior of the barrel
will show whether the weapon was recently fired.
4. Serial Number:
All firearms bear serial numbers for purposes of identification.
The of fender may er ase t he num ber or may tr y to change it .
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 383
Procedure of Restoring Serial Number if Tampered:
The procedure of restoring the obliterated numbers involve three steps,
namely:
a. Cleaning — The site of the number should be carefully cleaned; all oil, dirt,
grease, and paint should be removed with gasoline, xylol and acetone.
b. Polishing — This operation is by far the most important. The whole surface
should be smoothly polished, using a fine file followed by a medium to fine
grade carborondum cloth. When the area is large or the scratches are deep, a
mechanical polisher may be used to save time. The time of polishing depends
on the hardness and granularity of the metal. However, the area should
always have the mirror-like surface.
c. Etching — For all iron or steel materials, the following etching solution
may be used:
Hydrochloric acid ................................... 80 cc.
Distilled water ......................................... 60 cc.
Ethyl alcohol ........................................... 50 cc.
Copper chloride ....................................... 10 grams
The solution is swabbed on continuously until the numbers appear. • This
may take several hours (Modern Criminal Investigation by Harry
Soderman, p. 229).
5. Ballistics Examination:
Ballistics is the study of physical forces reacting on projectiles or missiles.
Forensic ballistics is conventionally known as firearm identification. It
deals with the examination of fired bullets and cartridge cases in a particular
gun to the exclusion of all others.
Ballistics May Be Subdivided into Three Separate and Distinct Area of
Study, Namely:
1. Interior Ballistics (Internal Ballistics) — It is a branch of the science of
Ballistics which deals with • what happened to the cartridge and its bullet from
the time the trigger of the gun is pulled until the bullet exits from the barrel. It
deals with the study of what happened in the chamber and gun barrel after the
pull of the trigger.
2 Exterior Ballistics (External Ballistics) — It deals with what happened to the
bullet or projectile from the moment it leaves the gun barrel to the moment of
impact on the target or object. It is concerned with the flight of the bullet and
the influence of all factors in it flight.
384 LEGAL MEDICINE
Ballistic comparison microscope
Terminal Ballistics- This concerns with the effect of the bullet on the target or until it
comes to rest.
Medical Ballistics- A form of terminal ballistics wherein the target is a person. It is
concerned with the penetration, severity and appearance of the wound due to bullet or
missile.
Basic Principles Involved in Firearm Identification:
1. The quality of metal in the manufacture of the firearm is very much harder and resistant
to deformity as compared with the quality of metal used in the manufacture of the
cartridge, so that in the process of contact between the part of the gun involved and the
cartridge, the surface condition of the part of the gun can easily be impressed on the
shell or bullet.
2. For reasons known only to the manufacturer, firearms have
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 385
certain physical characteristics of certain type of caliber which differentiate
it from others. This includes the number of lands and grooves, the direction
of the twist, width of the individual land or groove, style of the cannelure,
etc., which become the basis of class characteristics in firearm
identification.
3. No two firearms can be manufactured with identical surface characteristics.
Each firearm on close examination will show the differences. Marks on the
different bullets or shells fired from one firearm have similar characteristics
when viewed in the comparison microscope. Marks on different bullets or
shells fired from different firearms will show variation in the findings. This
is referred to as individual characteristics.
Instruments Use in Firearm Identification:
1. Comparison Microscope- This is an instrument which consists of two
compound microscopes which allows comparison of two objects by looking
through a single eyepiece. On each of the stages, the compound microscope
is placed on the object to be compared and by manipulation of the
mechanical rack and pinion gear the class characteristics of the object may
be observed. When two objects are being compared, the individual or
accidental characteristics may be compared. There is an attachment for
photographic camera to facilitate the taking of pictures of the findings.
2. Bullet Recovery Box- It is an instrument or device for the purpose of
recovering the test bullet and shell. In the N.B.I., it is a long cylindrical
container filled with cotton and an open shooting end. The suspected firearm
is fired at the open end and the bullet may be recovered in the layers of cotton
and the shell may be found in the area where it is fired, in cases of automatic
firearm or in the cylindrical magazine inside the cases of the revolver. The
test shell and bullet may be used for comparison with the evidence bullet or
shell.
There are other ways of recovering test bullet which are used in other
countries, it may be:
a. Shot may be fired on a box with oil and sawdust.
b. Vertical or horizontal shot on a water tank.
c. Shot-fired on a block of ice.
3. Hand lens.
4. Sharp pointed instrument for scraping ID marks.
5. Caliper
6. Analytical Balance
386 LEGAL MEDICINE
 GUNSHOTS WOUNDS 387

TYPES OF MARKING ON THE EXAMINATION THROUGH THE

COMPARISON MICROSCOPE:

1. Impression Type Mark (Stamp Mark) — This is the forcible application of a

hard surface against a softer one leaving an impression on the softer
surface.
Example:
a. The striking of the firing pin on the percussion cap.
b. The impact of the base of the cartridge on the breach block of the gun.
2. Striation or Serration Mark — These are produced by a harder surface
scraping, dragging, sliding or slipping across a softer one leaving a series of
abrasions, serrations and scrapes.
Example:
a. The bullet surface may show rifling marks on its surface as it passes the spiral
landings and groovings of the inner surface of the barrel.
Evidence and test base of the shells with congruent striation marks. b. The extractor produces striations as it slips over the cartridge groove.
c. The ejector may cause striation markings on the cartridge case in the process
of ejection of the spent shell.
When a cartridge is fired from a firearm, the following marks may be found
in the shell and from the bullet.
a. Marks Found in the Shell:
(1) Marks of the Firing Pin:
The firing pin leaves impressions in the percussion cap. The depth,
location and the size may be the individual characteristic of a firearm, although
the hardness of the metal in the cap may cause certain degree of variation of
the impression.
(2 )Marks from the Extractor:
The extractor mark is found in front of the rim of the shell. The scratch
impressed by the extractor is a characteristic in a particular firearm.
(3) Marks of the Ejector:
This mark is found at the head of the shell. Generally the ejector mark has a
position opposite the extractor mark, although it is not always the case.
(4) Marks from the Breechblock:
The impact of the shell to the breechblock in the recoil impresses the
ridges of the breechblock and often gives identification marks
characteristic of a firearm.
Evidence and test bullets
as seen in a comparison
microscope with
congruent striation marks.

388 LEGAL MEDICINE

 (5) Marks on the Cylindrical Surface of the Shell:
The marks are brought about by the surface of the firing chamber or by the
magazine
b. Marks Found in the Bullet:
(1) Number of Lands and Grooves:
The number of grooves, depth, and width depend upon the manufacturer
of the firearm.
(2) Direction of the Twist of the Rifling Marks:
The direction of the spiral lands and grooves may be a twist to the right
or to the left.
Manufacturers of firearms made certain marks which may distinguish firearms
manufactured by them from that of the other manufacturers. Each manufacturer
makes specific number of spiral grooves and direction of the twist in the barrel of the
firearm. A bullet recovered at the scene of the crime or from the body of the victim
may show those marks in the examination, the examiner may have a presumption to
where the firearm came from. Thus, if in the examination of the recovered bullet, it
was found out that there are 6 grooves and the rifling marks are twisted to the left,
then it is possible that it came from a Colt firearm.
In the firearm identification, the examiner must take into consideration the
following:
1. Gross examination or examination with the use of magnifying lens:
a. Caliber of the bullet — this may be determined by:
(1 ) Simple inspection by an experienced examiner.
(2 ) Weighing of the bullet.
(3 ) Determining the diameter of the Bullet by the use of a caliper.
b. Presence or absence of deformity or loss of part.
c. Presence of foreign elements, like blood, flesh, connective tissues, soil, etc.
d. Identifying marks placed by previous possessor.
2. Examination with the use of comparison micros cope:
This is a comparison between evidence shell or bullet with the test shell or
bullet.
a. Determination of the class characteristics — Physical characteristics of a
certain caliber of firearm used by the manufacturer:
( 1 ) Number of riflings.
( 2 ) Direction and rate of the rifling marks.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 389
(3) Dimension of the lands and grooves.
(4) Depth of the grooves.
(5) Style of the cannelure.
b. Determination of individual or accidental characteristics:
(1) The rifling of the barrel is reflected in the bullet as it passes through it.
Repetition of the fire will cause the same marking, except those where
the rifling of the barrel has been changed.
(2) Firing Pin mark -- When the base of the cartridge is hit by the firing
pin, the pin produces distinct markings which cat be reproduced by
succeeding shots.
(3) Breechblock Mark -- As the bullet is propelled forward by the force
of the expanded gas, the casing is forcibly moved backward against
the breech face or recoil plate. The back, ward force transfers the
marking on the breechblock to the base of the cartridge.
(4) Extractor Mark -- The mark made by the extractor on the cartridge
rim when pulled away from the firing chamber,
(5) Ejector Mark -- Mark produced by the ejector in the process of
throwing away the spent shell.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS IN DIFFERENT
PARTS OF THE BODY
Head and Neck:
1. Cranium:
Close or near contact fire in the head may produce marked laceration of the
skin, burning and tattooing of the surrounding skin. The skull is fractured
without any definite shape with linear extensions to almost all of the bones
comprising the cranial box.
Fire from a distance with the bullet having a right angle of approach to the
skull, the fracture is oval at the outer table. There will be radiating linear
fractures from the point of entrance. The wound of exit will be clean-cut oval
or round opening at the inner table with a bevelled fracture at the outer table.
Grazing approach of the bullet may produce an elongated gutter-like
depressed fracture of the cranium. The tangential impact of the bullet may cause
it to split and it is not uncommon to see a fragment lodging in the brain
substance while the other ricochette outside hitting other objects nearby:
390 LEGAL MEDICINE
2. Brain Substance:
Bullet wound in the brain substance is usually a rugged tunnel with a
diameter larger than that of the caliber of the bullet, with marked
ecchymosis of the surrounding area and filled with fresh and clotted blood.
Fragments of bones may be felt in the tunnelled bullet tract. In most cases,
injury of the brain causes sudden loss of consciousness and incapable of
voluntary movement.

Laceration of the brain en route of a gunshot
Injury of the cerebral hemispheres is as a rule not immediately fatal and the victim
may survive the injury, however, a bullet course which includes the medulla, pons and
other vital centers causes immediate death. Some victims may live for sometime but
may develop epileptiform convulsions as a sequela.
3. Face:
Firearm wound on the face may not cause serious trouble except that it becomes
a potential avenue of infection and may cause marked deformity.
In suicidal shot, the muzzle of the firearm may be placed inside the mouth or
nostrils that no visible wound of entrance is appreciable. The course of the bullet is
usually upwards and in most cases the brain is involved.
GUNSHOT WOUNDS 391
4. Neck:
The bullet may pierce the front portion of the neck and may involve the cervical
portion of the spinal cord; thus causing instantaneous death if the upper portion is
involved. The course of the bullet may involve the carotid or jugular vessels and
death may be due to profused hemorrhage. The anterior wall of the esophagus may
be perforated and the bullet may enter into the gastrointestinal tract and expelled
through the bowel. Injury to the trachea and upper bronchi may cause asphyxia or
aspiration pneumonia
Chest:
1. Chest Wall:
The bullet wound on the chest wall usually has an upward course and may
involve both sides. The bullet may strike the rib, sternum or the body of the
vertebra and may cause deformity or deflection of its course. When the
intercostal or mammary vessels are injured, there will be profused
hemorrhage. Hemothorax of more than a liter is observed in fatal cases.
2. Lungs:
The passage of a bullet in the lungs produces a cylindrical tunnel much
larger than the diameter of the projectile with bloody contents and
ecchymotic borders. When the pulmonary vessels are involved, profused
hemorrhage is observed which produces death before medical or surgical
intervention can be instituted. If only one lung is involved, the profuse
hemorrhage may cause collapse of the lung, displacement of the heart, and
mediastinum towards the uninjured side. Emphysema is present when there
is marked injury to the air sacs. Involvement of the bigger bronchi may cause
asphyxia with the lung partially atelectatic and emphysematous. The victim
may not die immediately but later may develop aspiration pneumonia or
cerebral embolism.
3. Heart:
Bullet wound of the heart may be circular or stellate with subepicardial
hemorrhage in the surrounding tissue. The course may be of any direction
but the right ventricle is often involved because of the large surface area of
exposure in front.
Gunshot wound of the heart as a general rule does not prevent the victim
from running, walking, climbing stairs, or do other forms of volitional acts
for death 'is not usually instantaneous. Wound of the auricle is more rapidly
fatal as compared with the wound of the ventricle on account of the thickness
of the musculature of the latter which produces temporary closure of the
wound. Bullet may lodge in the musculature of the ventricle and
392 LEGAL MEDICINE
becomes encapsulated by fibrous tissue. Death in firearm wound of the heart
may be due to the loss of blood or tamponade.
Abdomen:
Abdominal gunshot wounds are quite frequent but not as serious as
those of the chest and head because of its amenability to surgical operation.
In most case injuries are not only limited to one organ but to several organs.
Injuries to the visceral organs may not be found along the course of the bullet
on account of their mobility and their capacity to change their forms.
Involvement of the vertebral column may cause injury to the spinal cord. The
mesenteric vessels, aorta, vena cava, and other big abdominal blood vessels
may be lacerated and cause severe hemorrhage.
 Bullet wound of the liver and other parenchymatous abdominal organs may
cause stellate perforations which are usually larger than the calibre of the bullets
that cause them. The tunnel which is also wide may contain fragmented tissue, fresh
and clotted blood. On account of the richness of the blood supply of the
parenchymatous organs, profuse hemorrhage is the natural sequela. Loss of function
, especially of the kidneys, pancreas, etc. may lead to fatal results.
Bullet wounds of the stomach and other hollow organs are usually small on
account of the contractility of the walls. The wound of entrance is smaller than the
wound of exit. Injury of the viscus is usually multiple and with less hemorrhage
except when it involves the mesenteric vessels. Timely surgical intervention may
prevent untoward complications. However, death due to peritonitis is not rare on
account of the spilling of its contents into the abdominal cavity.

Spine and Spinal Cord:

Injury of the spine may not involve the spinal cord, but injury of the spinal
cord may be due to:

1. The bullet may directly affect the canal and the spinal cord causing either partial or
complete severance.
2. The bullet may not hit directly the spinal cord but may cause injury in the body or
other parts of the vertebra and contusion, concussion or compression on account of
the impact. Injury of the upper cervical spin al cord may be involved. Lower spinal
cord injury may cause immediate death because vital nerve tracts may be involved.
Lower spinal cord injury may cause motor or sensory paralysis and may later
succumb to hypostatic pneumonia, suppuration or other complications.

GUNSHOT WOUNDS 393

Extremities:
Bullet wounds in the extremities may show the characteristic lesion
of gunshot wounds. Usually the wound is not so serious except when it
involves the principal blood vessels and nerves. The bony tissue may be
involved producing comminuted fracture of the bone and deflection of the
course of the bullet. Septic infection, thrombosis, hemorrhage, deformity are
not unusual after-effects.