Introduction

Hydraulic fracturing involves the injection of fluids into the

formation at a rate and pressure above the fracture pressure of the
reservoir to create a fracture within the rock.

Fracturing techniques were developed in 1948 and the first

commercial fracturing treatments were conducted in 1949. The
process rapidly gained popularity because of its high success ratio,
and within a very few years thousands of wells per year were being
stimulated by hydraulic fracturing treatments.

Hydraulic fracturing has been and will remain one of the

primary engineering tools for improving well productivity in old and
new wells.

The concept of hydraulic fracturing was quite straight forward

and the mechanism of this technique is related to three phenomena:

1. Pressure parting in water injection wells

2. Lost circulation during drilling
3. The breakdown of formations during squeeze cementing
operations

Fracturing has been used successfully in all formations except

those that are very soft .fracturing have proved successful in sand,
limestone, dolomite limestone, dolomite, and various silicates.

When this technique is applied, it results a fracture with two

wings extending in opposite direction from the well and is oriented
more or less in the vertical plane, other fracture configurations (e.g.
"Horizontal Fractures").

Horizontal fractures are rare and they only occur in very

shallow well, hence most of the discussion in this report will be in
the context of "Vertical Fractures".

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 Figure (1) hydraulic fracture processes

The Benefits of the Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing is associated to the following benefits:

1. Improve productivity.
2. Interconnect formation permeability
3. Improve ultimate recovery
4. Aid in secondary recovery, and
5. Increase ease of injectivity

The primary purpose of hydraulic fracturing is to increase the

effective wellbore area by creating a fracture of a given length
whose conductivity is greater than that of the formation.

Fracture Mechanism

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Fracture Mechanism can be divided into two steps:

1. Fracture Initiation
2. Fracture Extension

 Fracture Initiation: A hydraulic fracture treatment is

accomplished by pumping a suitable fluid into the formation at
a rate faster than the fluid can leak off into the rock. Fluid
pressure (or stress) is built up sufficient to overcome the earth
compressive stress holding the rock material together. The
rock then parts or fractures along a plane.

 Fracture Extension: As injection of fracturing fluid continues,

the fracture tends to grow in width as fluid pressure in the
fracture, exerted on the fracture face, works against the
elasticity of the rock material. After sufficient fracturing fluid
"pad" has been injected to open the fracture wide enough to
accept proppant, sand is added to the fracturing fluid and is
carried into the fracture to hold it open after the job.

In –Situ Stress

Rocks are fractured when the applied forces are greater than
the underground stresses. The stresses that are exerted on a
subsurface formation can be represented by components in three
directions. These forces that act on the rocks are shown in the
Figure (2)

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 Figure (2) In-Situ Stress

Where
 z = Over burden stress, psi
Gob= Overburden gradient, psi/ft
D = Depth, ft

The horizontal stresses x and y , which are induced when

the vertical stress (overburden) is applied try to prevent the lateral
expansion of the rock. The horizontal strain Equals to zero. For
rocks in compression x is essentially zero and since the lateral
stress x equals the lateral stress y.

Where
 h = Horizontal stress, psi
υ = Poisson ratio.

Orientation of the Fracture

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 When fluid pressure above the fracture pressure of the
formation is applied to the formation, a fracture occurs. The
fracture extends perpendicularly to the axis of the least stress as
shown in the Figure (3).

Vertical Fracture
Horizontal Fracture

The fracture extends perpendicularly to the

axis of the least stress

Figure (3) Orientation of the fracture

The above Figure also shows examples of both vertical and

horizontal fractures. In a vertical fracture will be perpendicular to
the earth's surface because the overburden stress is too great to
overcome.

As a rule of thumb, if the fracture gradient is less than 0.8

psi/ft, the fracture will be vertical. If the fracture gradient is greater
than 1.0 psi/ft, the fracture will be horizontal.

Often, horizontal fractures with pancake-like geometry are

associated with shallow wells of less than 3,000 feet in depth, where
overburden stress becomes the less principle stress.

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 Vertical Fracture

Horizontal Fracture

Angel Fracture

Figure (4) Orientation of the fracture

Horizontal fractures are generally most effective where the

following conditions exist:

1. Homogeneous formations are present.

2. The oil reservoir is under laid by an active bottom-water drive,
or is overlaid by a gas cap.
3. Gravity drainage is the major energy source and high capacity
drainage channels are required.
4. Uniform injection of fluid into large areas of the reservoir is
required.

A vertical fracture is generally most effective in the following

situations:

1. Closely spaced horizontal stratification exists in the producing

reservoir.

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 2. Fluid injection is aided by vertical distribution in the
producing interval.
3. Very deeply penetrating fractures are required.

Fracturing Fluids

The fracturing fluid is a critical component of the hydraulic

fracturing treatment. Consequently, the viscous properties of the
fluid are usually considered the most important. However,
successful hydraulic fracturing treatments require that the fluids
have other special properties. In addition to exhibiting the proper
viscosity in the fracture, they should break and clean up rapidly
once the treatment is over, provide good fluid-loss control, exhibit
low friction pressure during pumping and be as economical as is
practical.

Fracturing fluids have the following primary functions:

1. To create and propagate the fracture in the formation, and

2. To transport proppant throughout the length of the fracture to
ensure that the fracture remains open after the fracturing
pressure has been released.

The important fluid characteristics for fracturing fluids include:

1. Viscosity
2. Efficiency
3. Compatibility
4. Stability
5. Friction pressure
6. Controllable break and clean-up
7. Economy
Types of Fracturing Fluids

1. Water based fluids:

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Because of their low cost, high performance and ease of handling,
water-base fluids are the most widely used fracturing fluids.

2. Oil based fluids:

Oil-base fluids are expensive to use and operationally difficult to
handle. Therefore, they are used only in formations that are known
to be extremely water-sensitive because these fluids were perceived
as less damaging to a hydrocarbon-bearing formation than water
base fluids.

3. Multiphase fluids:
There are situations in which the properties of standard water-base,
oil-base or acid-based fluids can be enhanced by incorporating a
second phase into the fluid.

3-1. Foams
Foam is a stable mixture of liquid and gas. Used for very low
permeable zones.

3-2. Emulsions
An emulsion is a dispersion of two immiscible phases such as oil in
water or water in oil stabilized with a surfactant. Emulsion-based
fracturing fluids are highly viscous solutions with good transport
properties.

4. Acid based fluids

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Hydraulic Fracture Modeling

Several introductory and key papers published between the

late 1950s and early 1970s that developed the foundation of

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hydraulic fracture modeling approach the problem by making
different assumptions concerning the importance of different
aspects.

 Carter (1957) neglected both fluid viscosity effects and solid

mechanics and concentrated on leak off. And assumed
constant, uniform fracture width.

 Khristianovich and Zheltov (1955) made some simplifying

assumptions concerning on fluid flow and focused on fracture
mechanics, the tip region plays a much more important role
and the fluid pressure gradients in the fracture can be
approximated.

 Radial model: Both Perkins and kern (1961) and Geertsma

and Deklerk (1969) considered radial fractures, which grow
unconfined from a point source. This model is applicable when
there are no barriers constraining height growth or when a
horizontal fracture is created.

 Perkins and Kern (1961) assumed that fracture mechanics is

relatively unimportant and focused on fluid flow, in this case
fracture mechanics and the effect of the fracture tip arc not
considered; the concentration is on the effect of fluid flow in
the fracture and corresponding pressure gradients. Figure 5,
represents a linear propagating fracture (KGD) model, and
Figure 6, represents a linear propagating fracture (PKN)
model.

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 Figure (5) KGD fracture model

Figure (6) PKN fracture model

KGD Model:

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 The KGD model is used to describe a fracture whose half-
length is less than the height. For this model, the height is constant;
the length and width are calculated. (i.e., L (t) < hf ) where, the L (t)
is half length and, hf is height.

PKN Model:

The PKN model is used to describe a fracture whose half-

length is greater than the height. For this model, the height is
constant; the length and width are calculated. (i.e., L (t) > hf )
where, the L (t) is half length and, hf is height.

We will select KGD model to explain the Design of

Hydraulic Fracture.

The Equations and procedure for the design of

hydraulic fracture are shown below

1. Calculation of fracturing pressure:

Where
α = Biot constant
τ0 = Initiation shear stress, psi
Pp= Formation pressure, psi

2. Calculation of fracturing fluid coefficient CT:-

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∆P (Closure stress) = Pf -Pres , psi

 Viscosity control coefficient, Cν:-

 Calculate total compressibility, Ct :-

 Compressibility control of reservoir fluids, Cc:-

 Wall building coefficient, Cw :-

Where,

Finally,

3. Calculation of fracturing dimension ( L,Wf ):

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Where
α = Biot constant
Sp = Fracturing fluid spurt loss, gal/ft2

Where
L = Fracture length, ft
A = Fracture area,ft2
ww= Fracture width, in
hf =Height of formation fracture, ft

4. Assume ww, Calculate: L, A, AQ.

Where:
E = Young's modules, psi
E' = Plane modules, psi

5. Assume L, Calculate: A, AQ, ww

6. Plot ( ww vs. AQ ) on Log Log Scale. The intercept of two

lines given solution.

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 7. Calculation of fracture volume (Vf ):

8. Calculation of fracture efficiency. (Eff ):

9. Calculation of proppant weight needed (Wp):

10. Calculation of proppant concentration (Cpp):

11. Corrected fracturing fluid density ( ρmix ):

12. Corrected fluid injection rate including proppant ( ):

13. Calculation of wellhead injection pressure:

Pth = Pwh = Pf – ∆Phydrostatic + ∆Pfric + ∆Pperf …………………Eq. (22)

14. Calculation of fracture conductivity (Fc):

By using propped fracture permeability curves.

By using closure stress and mesh size to obtained the propped
fracture permeability kf.

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 15. Calculation of production increase:

Calculate relative conductivity , and L/re

16. Enter the production increase curves with the calculated

values to obtain the productivity ratio:

17. Construct of IPR curves before and after fracturing process

to estimate the increase in production.

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 Hydraulic Fracture Design Problem Example

A fracturing treatment is intended to be conducted in an oil

well completed in a tight limestone formation in order to increase
the oil production rate from the well from 80 BPD to 1000 BPD.
Given the following information:

Depth. 7650 ft
Producing interval 7600-7695 ft
Formation thickness 95 ft
Fracturing gradient 0.7075 psi/ft
Minimum horizontal stress 4185 psi
Over burden pressure gradient 1.0980 psi/ft
Fracturing angle 60 degree
Reservoir oil compressibility 0.845×10-5 psi-1
Reservoir water compressibility 2.30×10-5 psi-1
Reservoir gas compressibility 5.30×10-4 psi-1
Gas saturation 0%
Oil saturation 64 %
Gas gravity 0.890
Oil formation volume factor 1.17 resbbl/STB
Connate water saturation 34 %
Formation porosity 3.14 %
Poisson's ratio 0.158
Fracturing fluid viscosity 40 cp
Fracturing fluid density (versa Gel) 8.36 ppg (35 API)
Frictional pressure gradient inside tubing 0.1501 psi/ft
Original formation permeability 5 md

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Reservoir temperature (BHST) 200 F°
Geothermal gradient 0.015 degF/ft
Average reservoir pressure (BHSP) 3530 psi
Reservoir fluids viscosity 1.190 cp
Area of filter medium 22.8 cm
Slop of fluid loss curve at lab 1.8 cm/min 1/2
Filtration pressure at lab 100 psi
Yong's modulus 1.057×107
Casing outer diameter 9.6250 in
Casing inner diameter 8.6810 in
Well bore diameter 10.75 in
Drainage diameter 1640 ft
Proppant size and type (Z-proppant) 20/40 mesh
Porosity of packed proppant 35 %
Specific gravity of proppant 2.63
Bottom hole flowing pressure before fracturing 1700 psi
Bulk compressibility with porosity 3.8×10-7
Bulk compressibility with zero porosity 1.93 × 10-7
Bulk constant 2.63 × 106
Biot constant 0.492
Initiation shear stress 705 psi
Fracturing fluid spurt loss 0.010 gal/ft2
Tubing outer diameter 3.5 in
Tubing inner diameter 2.9910 in
Tubing depth 7591 ft
Gas liquid ratio 151 scf/bbl
Bubble point pressure 630 psi
Bottom hole temperature 200 F0
Perforation diameter 1/4 in
Perforation discharge coefficient 0.87
Number of perforations 100
Closure stress 4550 psi
Well spacing 70 acres

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Assume that:
Fracture interval equal to thickness of formation, and
Injection rate = qi =15bbl/min
Volume of injection fluid =Vi = 180 bbls

Calculate:

1. The formation fracturing pressure.

2. The effective fracturing fluid coefficient.
3. The fracture volume.
4. The fracture efficiency.
5. The concentration of proppant in the fracturing fluid.
6. Well head injection pressure.
7. The well productivity ratio.
8. The bottom hole flowing pressure after fracturing.
9. The oil flow rate after fracturing.

Solution:

1. Calculation of fracturing pressure:

Calculate overburden pressure Pob (δz):-

Pob = Gob X D
Pob = 1.098 X 7650 = 8400 Psi

From equation (3), fracture pressure=

Pfrac =5412 Psi

2. Calculation of fracturing fluid coefficient:

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∆P (Closure stress) = Pf -Pres = 5412 – 3530 = 1882 Psi

 Viscosity control coefficient, Cν:-

By using equation (4)

 Calculate total compressibility: Ct:-

By using equation (5)

Ct = (0.36 X 23 X 10-6) + (0.64 X 8.45 X 10-6) + (530 X 10-6 X 0.0) =

Ct = 13.688 X 10-6 Psi -1

 Compressibility control of reservoir fluids, Cc:-

By using equation (6)

 Wall building coefficient, Cw:-

By using equation (7)

By using equation (8)

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  Calculation of fracturing dimension ( L,Wf ):

From given data: Assume qi = 15 bbl/min , Vi = 180 bbl

By using equation (9)

Pumping time,

By using equation (10)

By using equation (11)

Th
en,

By using equation (12)

A = 4 X L X hf = 4 X 95 X L = 380 X L

By using equation (13)

 Assume ww, Calculate: L, A, AQ.

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 ww α L A AQ
Assume Cal. Cal. Cal. Cal.
0.05 2.66805 2.20960 137 52,026 309
0.1 1.72849 1.23825 118 45,003 267
0.2 1.01420 0.56821 93 35,195 209
0.3 0.71763 0.32886 76 28,788 171
0.4 0.55527 0.21500 64 24,324 144
0.5 0.45282 0.15169 55 21,044 125
0.6 0.38228 0.11278 49 18,533 110
0.7 0.33076 0.08721 44 16,563 98
0.8 0.29148 0.06945 39 14,968 89
0.9 0.26053 0.05657 36 13,640 81
1.0 0.23553 0.04703 33 12,544 74

 Calculate ww

From equation (14)

By using equation (15)

 Assume L, Calculate: A, AQ, ww

L= L/re x re = L/re x (1640/2) = L/re x820

A = 4 X L X hf = 4 X 95 X L = 380 X L

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 L/re L ww A AQ
Assume Cal. Cal. Cal. Cal.
0.1 82 0.0873 31,160 185
0.2 164 0.1234 62,320 370
0.3 246 0.1511 93,480 555
0.4 328 0.1745 124,640 740
0.5 410 0.1951 155,800 925
0.6 492 0.2138 186,960 1,110
0.7 574 0.2309 218,120 1,295
0.8 656 0.2468 249,280 1,480
0.9 738 0.2618 280,440 1,665
1.0 820 0.2760 311,600 1,850

Plotted ( ww vs. AQ ) on Log-Log scale. The intercept of two lines

given solution

ww= 0.1 in , AQ = 267 min / ft

From AQ equation: → A=AQ x 2 x qi x 5.615

A=267 x 2 x15 x 5.615 =44976 ft2

The fracturing dimension: (L= 118 ft, ww= 0.1 in)

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 10

L Equation
1
ww (in)

w w Equation

w w =0.1
0.1

0.01
10 100 AQ=267 1000 10000
AQ (min/ft)

3. Calculation of fracture volume (Vf ):

By using equation (16)

4. Calculation of fracture efficiency (Eff ):

 Calculation of proppant weight needed (Wp):

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By using equation (18)

5. Calculation of proppant concentration (Cpp):

6. Calculation of wellhead injection pressure:

 Corrected fracturing fluid density ( ρmix ):

A) Pf =5412 Psi.
B) ∆Phyd = 0.052 x ρmix x D = 0.052 x 9.53 x7650 = 379 Psi
C) ∆Pfric= Gfric x D = 0.1501 x 7650 =1148 Psi
D) ∆Pperf = 0.0 Psi → open hole completion.

By using equation (22)

Pth = Pwh = 5412 – 3791 + 1148 + 0 = 2769 Psi

7. Calculation of fracture conductivity (Fc):

By using propped fracture permeability curves.

From curves; by using closure stress = 1882 Psi & 20/40 mesh.
The propped fracture permeability is 200 Darcy =200 x103 md.

Kf = 200 x103 md

Fracture conductivity, Fc = kf x Wf .

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 8. Calculation of production increase:

Relative conductivity

L/re =118 / 820 =0.14

Entering the production increase curves with these values.

Obtained the

Then, =

Productivity ratio = 2.56

 Construct of IPR curve before fracturing.

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 = 0.32 BPD/Psi.

Pwf , assume q , (BPD)

3,530 0
3,000 170
2,000 490
1,000 810
0 1130

Construct tubing intake curve. By using Brown correlation

Q Pth Pwf
800 120 1,390
1,000 160 1,520
2,000 280 2,000

From the intersection of IPR curve with the tubing intake curve
TPC.
qo optimum before fracturing = 750 BPD
Pwf optimum before fracturing = 1300 Psi
Pth wellhead pressure = 200 Psi
Construct of IPR curve after fracturing.

=2.56

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 Pwf' , assume qf , (BPD)
3,530 0
3,000 456
2,000 1,316
1,000 2,176
500 2,606

From IPR curve and tubing intake curve after fracturing:

qf optimum after fracturing = 1,500 BPD

Pwf ' optimum after fracturing = 1,750 Psi

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27
28
Reference

1. M.nasr, “well completion, stimulation and workover “(1998).

2. Craft, Holden, and graves, “well Design: Drilling and
production “(1962).
3. Thomas, Allen and Allan,”well completion, workover, and
stimulation” (1982).
4. Economides and Nolte,”Reservoir stimulation”(1989).
5. Howard and Fast “Hydraulic Fracturing “(1970).
6. Petroluem Engineering Hand Book.
7. Veatch, Moschovidis and Fast “An overview of Hydraulic
Fracturing”.
8. Brady et al.”Cracking Rock: Progress in fracture treatment
design”
9. Anhaouy,”Numerical Solution of a Fluid Driven Fracture
Problem” (2003)

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