CHAPTER I – Introduction to Human Behavior

Segment1: Overview on Human Behavior

What is Behavior?

Behavior refers to the action of an organism or system, usually relation to its environment,
which include the other the other organism or system around as well as the physical environment. It is
the response of the organism or systems to various stimuli or inputs, whether external or internal,
conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.

Kinds of Behavior

Kinds Nature Examples

Overt Behaviors that are directly observable. Smiling, Pouting, Crying
(Observable)
Covert Behaviors that are hidden or not visible to Hatred, Cursing, Jealousy,
the naked eye. etc.
Conscious Acts which are within the level of Walking, Clapping, etc.
awareness.
Unconscious Acts that are embedded in one’s Mannerisms
subconscious.
Simple Acts categorized according to the number Smiling, Winking of the eye,
of neurons involved in the process of etc.
behaving.
Complex Acts involving the use of a greater number Dancing, Laughing, Running,
(Activity that requires of neurons which are combination of simple Crying
many behaviors.
decisions/actions in
rapid
order/simultaneously)
Rational Behaviors that are manifested with sanity Logical Reasoning
(decision-making or reason.
process that is based
on making choices)
Irrational Behaviors with no apparent reason or Laughing out loud at nobody
(Lacking reason or explanation. or nothing in particular.
understanding)
Voluntary (behavior Act done with full volition of will. Making decisions
that is intentional in
nature)
 Involuntary Bodily processes that goes on even when Respiration, Circulation,
we are awake or asleep. Digestion, Somnambulism
(sleepwalking), etc.

Aspects of Behavior

Aspects Nature
Intellectual Behaviors which pertain to our way of thinking, reasoning, solving problem,
processing information and coping with environment.
Emotional Behaviors which pertain to our feelings, moods, temper, and strong
motivation force.
Social Behavior which pertain to how we interact or relate with other people.
Moral It pertains to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
Psychosexual It pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of love.
Political It pertains to our ideology towards society or government.
Values or Attitude It pertains to our interest towards something, our likes and dislikes.

What is Human Behavior?

Human Behavior refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person in order to fit the society’s
idea of right or wrong, partly determined by heredity and environment, and modified through learning.
It is the way also how human beings act. Many people use the word behavior to mean conduct. But in
psychology and other behavioral science, human behavior is regarded as any activity of a person.

Classification of Human Behavior

1. Habitual – refers to demeanors which are resorted to in a regular basis it be further

characterized as: emotional and language.

2. Instinctive (natural/innate) – are human conduct, which is unlearned and inherent, said to be
present at birth of a person, and significantly influenced by heredity. (e.g. crying, self-
preservation)

3. Symbolic – Are human conduct in response to stimuli undertaken by means of substitution.

4. Complex – refers to two or more habitual behavior which occurs in one situation.

Theories of Child (Human) Development

 A. Personality Theory
I. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

The structure of personality/tripartite personality

The structure of personality is made up of three major systems: The Id, the ego and the super ego.
Behavior is always the product of an inter action among these three systems; rarely does one system
operate to the exclusion of the other two.

a. Id – id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on the pleasure
principle i.e. it wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation.
Id refers to the selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to
delay gratification. Freud called the id the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner
world of subjective experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.

b. Ego – as the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego’s job is to meet
the needs of the id, whilst considering the constraints of reality. The ego acknowledges that being
impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us, so the id must be constrained (reality principle). Ego is
the moderator between the id and the super ego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be
viewed as our “sense of time and place”.
Note: Ego acts as a check-and-balances system. Moderator between id and superego Largely
connected to reality (social reality, norms, laws, culture), the ego makes sure we behave in ways that are
socially acceptable. It uses secondary process thinking to avoid negative consequences from society
(work to have money)

c. Superego (conscience of man) – (it is our morals, principles, and ethics, it is the social standard that
guides us what is right and wrong). The superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of the
moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed that a strong superego serves
to inhibit the biological instinct of the id (resulting in a high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego
allows the id more expression-resulting in a low level of guilt. Superego internalized societal and
parental standards of “good” and “bad”, “right and “wrong” behaviour (Burger, 2000).
Note: Criminality largely was explained as a failure of the superego, a consequence of a failure to form
healthy and loving attachments to parents.

Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

Freud’s model of personality development is the following:

*Bonus tip: Use the acronym OAPhaLaGe

*Why Psychosexual? During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through
different parts of the body.

1. Oral stage (0-18 months)

This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of id gratification is the mouth. Infant
gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infant enjoys the aggressive
pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated as this stage may develop an adult personality
that is characterized by pessimism, envy and suspicion. The overindulged child may develop to be
optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others.

2. Anal stage (18 months-3 years)

When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn how much control
they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can have the immediate pleasure of
expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to punish them.
This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily wastes,
and the super-ego which represent external pressure to control bodily functions. If the parents are too
lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is
disorganized, reckless and defiant (rebellious, non-compliant/uncooperative). Conversely, a child may
opt to retain feces thereby spiting his parents and may develop an anal-retentive character which is
neat, stingy (unwilling to give/spend) and obstinate.

3. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

Genitals become primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on masturbation that is,
on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex;
boys develop unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection.
The reminiscent with Little Hans’ case study. So the boys develop a fear that their father will punish
them for these feelings (castration anxiety) so decide to identify with him rather than for fight him. As a
result, the boy develops masculine characteristics and represses his sexual feeling towards his mother.
This is known as:
a. Oedipus complex – this refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and loving
relationship with mothers (mommy’s boy).

b. Electra complex – this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense emotional
attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl).
Note: the Oedipus complex is named for the king of Thebes who killed his father and married his mother.

4. Latency stage (6-11 years)

Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the process of
sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles playing house and sports.

5. Genitals stage (Adolescence)

This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining sexual
pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and lead to orgasm for the first.
Sexual and romantic interests in others also become a central motive.
Note: Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage.
II. Trait Theory
Trait approach – trait approach identifies where a person might lie along continuum of various
personality characteristics. Trait theories attempt to learn and explain the traits that make up
personality, the differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics and how they
relate to actual behavior.
Trait (ugali) refers to the characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking,
and feeling (Wade,et. Al, 2003).
Personality traits are characteristic behaviors and feelings that are consistent and long lasting.
Trait vs behavior
Personality traits are “persisting” characteristics that are consistently demonstrated in spite of changing
circumstances or environment. Because they define habitual patterns of behavior, thought and emotion,
they provide a foundation for predicting behavior. Behaviors, on the other hand, are about the way we
conduct ourselves – What we say and do, and How we say and do it. Personality traits don’t change over
time but we can alter behavior traits to a degree.

Hans Eysenk’s Personality Trait

Eysenk believed that many personalities are classified as introvert or extrovert, and emotionally stable
or unstable.
a. Extrovert – it refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active.
Ex:
Extroverts are often described as the life of the party. Their outgoing, vibrant nature draws people to
them, and they have a hard time turning away the attention. They thrive off the interaction.
b. Introvert – it refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet, and introspective.
Ex:
When you hear the word introvert, you might think of someone who's shy or quiet and prefers to be
alone.

c. Emotionally Unstable – it is a trait that is being anxious, excitable, and easily disturbed.
(Unstable emotions mean that your moods can be extreme and change very quickly.)
Ex:
Emotional instability presents with a changeable mood. You could be feeling happy and energetic one
minute, but then small things like a comment made by someone or something not going as planned can
result in a sudden, and sometimes quite catastrophic, drop in mood.
Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency
 1. Aichorn in his book entitled Wayward Youth, 1925 said the cause of crime and delinquency is
the fault development of child during the first few years of his life (faulty ego-development)

2. Cyrill Burt (Young Delinquent, 1925) gave the theory of General emotionality. Excess or a
deficiency of a particular instinct account for the tendency of many criminals to be weak willed
or easily led. Callous type of offenders may be due to the deficiency in the primitive emotion of
love and an excuse of the instinct of hate. (Usually with weak emotion, example broken
hearted or greedy type easily fooled)

3. Healy (individual Delinquency) claimed that crime is an expression of the mental content of the
individual. Frustration of the individual causes emotional discomfort; personality demands
removal of pain and pain is eliminated by substitute behavior, that is, crime delinquency of the
individual.

4. Bromberg (Crime and the mind, 1946) claimed that criminality is the result of emotional
immaturity. (If the person cannot control his temper, etc…Childhood) (END OF PART I)

Segment 2: Abnormal Behavior

What is Abnormal Behavior?

Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive or maladjusted behavior) – A group of behaviors that is
deviant from social expectations because they go against the norms or standard behavior of society.

"Any behavior that pertains to accepted societal patterns is called normal behaviour whereas that is
against social norms is called abnormal behaviour."

Abnormal behavior may be defined as behavior that is disturbing (socially unacceptable), distressing,
maladaptive (or self‐defeating), and often the result of distorted thoughts (cognitions).
What is Psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including efforts to understand their genetic,
biological, psychological, and social causes.
Just like pathology is the study of the nature of disease (including causes, development, and outcomes),
psychopathology is the study of the same concepts within the realm of mental health (or illness).

This study of mental illness can include a long list of elements: symptoms, behaviors, causes (genetics,
biology, social, psychological), course, development, categorization, treatments, strategies, and more.

In this way, psychopathology is all about exploring problems related to mental health: how to
understand them, how to classify them, and how to fix them.

The 4Ds
A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality;
 1. Deviance – this term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and emotions are
considered deviant because they are unacceptable or not common in society.
2. Distress (negative stress) – this term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the
disorder.

We mentioned it earlier and it bears repeating: stress is not always a bad thing. Stress is simply the
body's response to changes that create taxing demands. The previously mentioned Dr. Lazarus (building
on Dr. Selye's work) suggested that there is a difference between eustress, which is a term for positive
stress, and distress, which refers to negative stress.

In daily life, we often use the term "stress" to describe negative situations. This leads many people to
believe that all stress is bad for you, which is not true.

Eustress, or positive stress, has the following characteristics:

Motivates, focuses energy.

Is short-term.
Is perceived as within our coping abilities.
Feels exciting.
Improves performance.

In contrast, Distress, or negative stress, has the following characteristics:

Causes anxiety or concern.

Can be short- or long-term.
Is perceived as outside of our coping abilities.
Feels unpleasant.
Decreases performance.
Can lead to mental and physical problems. (https://centerpointcounseling.com/f/types-of-stressors-
eustress-vs-distress)

Positive stress, otherwise known as good stress or eustress, is the type of stress response that we feel
when we get excited. Positive stress can also refer to the times you respond well to a challenge that you
experience from a stressor.
3. Dysfunction – this term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual’s ability to
perform normal daily functions, such as getting for work in the morning or driving a car.

So, what makes a dysfunctional personality?

First, let’s consider what we mean by the word “functional." An individual is functional when they are
able to effectively work toward realizing valued goal states, given the stressors and affordances they
face.
The term dysfunctional is defined as "abnormal or impaired functioning" on the part of an individual
person, between people in any sort of relationship, or amongst members of a family.

What are the types of sexual dysfunction?

Sexual dysfunction generally is classified into four categories:

Desire disorders: lack of sexual desire or interest in sex.

Arousal disorders: inability to become physically aroused or excited during sexual activity.
Orgasm disorders: delay or absence of orgasm (climax).
Pain disorders: pain during intercourse.

4. Danger – this term involves dangerous and violent behavior directed at the individual, or others
in the environment.
Maladaptive — that is, the extent to which it causes distress (e.g., pain and suffering) and dysfunction
(impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) to the individual (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013). An intense fear of spiders, for example, would not be considered a psychological
disorder unless it has a significant negative impact on the sufferer’s life, for instance by causing him or
her to be unable to step outside the house. The focus on distress and dysfunction means that
behaviours that are simply unusual (such as some political, religious, or sexual practices) are not
classified as disorders.
What is Abnormal?
Abnormal behavior is defined as behavior that is deviant,
maladaptive, and/or personally distressful.
• Distress: The individual reports of great personal
distress.
o The distressed created by obsessive behavior
drives a person wash her hands 4 times an hour,
take 7 showers a day, and cleans her apartment
twice.
• Dysfunctional: Maladaptive behavior interferes with
a person’s ability to function effectively in the world.
o Believing that you are the leader of the free world
and everyone is subservient to you would
interfere with your ability to get along with others.
• Deviant: Behavior that is a serious deviation from
social norms of that culture.
o for example, washing your hands 4 times an
hour, taking 7 showers a day, and cleaning your
apartment twice a day is considered deviant.

Identification of Abnormal Behavior

Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following:
 1. Deviation from Statistical Norm – The word abnormal means` away from the norm’. Many
population facts are measured such as height, weight and intelligence. Most of the people fall
within the middle range of intelligence, but a few are abnormally stupid. But according to this
definition, a person who is extremely intelligent would be classified as abnormal. (But…can
include behaviours such as high IQ, & not substance abuse….)
Examples are:

• Intelligence – it is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on an IQ test or to
get a score below 55, but only the lower score is considered abnormal (Wakefield, 1992).
• Anxiety – A person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and someone who
almost never feels anxiety are all considered to be abnormal.

2. Deviation from Social Norm – Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behavior;
behavior that deviates from the standard is considered to be abnormal behavior. But those
standards can change with time and vary from one society to another.

Behaviour that society does not approve of.

(But..cultural differences…)
3. Maladaptive Behavior – This third criterion is how the behavior affects the well – being of the
individual and/or social group. A man who attempts suicide or a paranoid individual who tries to
assassinate national leaders are illustrations under this criterion. The two aspects of
Maladaptive Behavior are:
• Maladaptive to One’s Self – It refers to the inability of a person to reach goals or to adapt
the demands of life.
• Maladaptive to Society – It refers to a person’s obstruction or disruption to social group
functioning.

4. Personal Distress – The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the individual’s
subjective feelings, personal distress, rather than his behavior. Most people commonly
diagnosed as `mentally ill’’ feel miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer from insomnia
(Whitford, et. al., 2006)

5. Failure to Function Adequately

Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of
everyday life. They may be unable to perform the behaviors necessary for day – to – day living e.g., self –
care, hold down a job, interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc.
The following characteristics that define failure to function adequately:
a. Suffering;
b. Maladaptiveness (danger to self);
c. Vividness and unconventionality (stands out);
d. Unpredictably and loss of control;
e. Irrationality/incomprehensibility;
f. Causes observer discomfort, and
g. Violates moral/social standards.
Failure to Function Adequately: when a person is
unable to function independently in society. EG:
- Dysfunctional behaviours (eg; OCD)
- Distressing behaviours (agoraphobia)
- Unpredictable behaviour (eg; mood swings)
- Irrational behaviour (eg; paranoia)
6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what normal/ideal is and
anything that deviates from this is regarded as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the
characteristics we consider necessary to mental health. The six criteria by which mental health could be
measured are as follows:
a. Positive view to the self;
b. Capability for growth and development;
c. Autonomy and independence;
d. Accurate perception and reality;
e. Positive friendships and relationships, and;
f. Environmental mastery (able to meet the varying demands of day – to – day situations).

Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior

The following are the signs of abnormal behavior:

• Long Periods of Discomfort – This could be anything as simple as worrying about a calculus test
or grieving the death of a loved one. When such distressing feelings, however, persist for an
extended period of time and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding the person, they
would be considered abnormal and could suggest a psychological disorder.

• Impaired Functioning – Here, a distinction must be made between simply a passing period of
inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems unexplainable.

Functional impairments (FI) manifest themselves as difficulties in taking care of yourself or performing
everyday actions. For example, these could be vision, hearing or movement limitations or growth,
behavioural, language development or physical or spiritual development disorders.

• Bizzare Behavior – Bizzare Behavior that has no rational basis seems to indicate that the
individual is confused. The psychoses frequently results to hallucinations (baseless sensory
perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are patently false yet held as true by the individual).
Behavior that is odd, strange, or unexpected, particularly if it is out of the ordinary for a given person. It
may be a symptom of brain damage or a mental disorder, especially a psychotic disorder, such as
schizophrenia. APA Psychology
Disorganized behavior can manifest in a variety of ways. It can include odd, bizarre behavior such as
smiling, laughing, or talking to oneself or being preoccupied/responding to internal stimuli. It can
include purposeless, ambivalent behavior or movements.

Hallucination- false perception

Delusion- false belief
Hallucinations and delusions are often grouped together when talking about various illnesses or
conditions, but they’re not the same. While both of them are part of a false reality, a hallucination is
a sensory perception and a delusion is a false belief.
For instance, hallucinations can involve seeing someone who isn’t there or hearing people talking when
there is no one around. Delusions, on the other hand, can involve someone thinking they are a celebrity
when they’re not, for example.

• Disruptive Behavior – Disruptive Behavior means impulsive, apparently uncontrollable behavior

that disrupts the lives of others or deprives them of their human rights on a regular basis. This
type of behavior is characteristic of a severe psychological disorder.
Disruptive behavior disorders are among the easiest to identify of all coexisting conditions because they
involve behaviors that are readily seen such as temper tantrums, physical aggression such as attacking
other children, excessive argumentativeness, stealing, and other forms of defiance or resistance to
authority.
Children with oppositional defiant disorder often lose their temper. They are quick to argue with adults
over rules or requests. They are likely to:

Be uncooperative
Argue, even about small and unimportant things
Refuse to follow rules
Deliberately annoy others, and become easily annoyed by other people
Blame others for their mistakes or misbehavior
Behave in angry, resentful, spiteful, and vindictive ways
Segment 3: Mental Disorder

What is Mental Disorder?

- Mental disorder from sociological viewpoint is the persistent inability to adapt oneself to the
ordinary environment. It is the individual’s loss of power to regulate his actions and conduct
according to the rules of society.
What is Mental Retardation?
- It is defined as an intellectual functioning level (as measured by standard tests for intelligence
quotient) well below average and significant limitations in daily living skills (adaptive
functioning).

- It refers to a mental disorder characterized by sub – average general functioning existing

concurrency with deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental disorder before the age of
eighteen (18). The person suffering from low IQ., difficulty focusing attention and deficiency in
fast learning.

Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation

1. Mild mental retardation (I.Q. 50 – 70) – educable
Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ
score ranges from 50-70 and they can often acquire academic skills up to about the sixth-grade level.
2. Moderate mental retardation (I.Q. 35– 55) – trainable
About 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately
retarded persons have IQ Scores ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with
moderate supervision.
3. Severe mental retardation (I.Q. 20 – 40) – dependent retarded
About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded persons have IQ
Scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills.
4. Profound mental retardation (I.Q. under 20-25) – life support retarded
Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded
individuals have IQ Scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and communication
skills with appropriate support and training.

Symptoms of Mental Retardation

• Failure to meet developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, walking, or talking, in a
timely manner
• Persistence of childlike behavior, possibly demonstrated in speaking style, or by a failure to
understand social rules or consequences of behavior
• Lack of curiosity and difficulty solving problems
• Decreased learning ability and ability to think logically
• Trouble remembering things
• An inability to meet educational demands required by school.

Segment 4: Criminal Behavior

What is Criminal Behavior

Criminal Behavior refers to the behavior which is criminal in nature; a behavior which violates a law. It is
also referring to conduct of an offender that leads to and including the commission of an unlawful act.

Origins of Criminal Behavior

1. Biological Factor
Heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable consequences of the bad seed
or bad blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition toward antisocial and criminal conduct. The following
are some studies and theories related to biological causes of crime:
a. Born Criminal (Cesare Lombroso)
b. Physique and Somatotype (Ernst Kretchmer & William Sheldon)
c. Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard)
2. Personality Disorder Factor
Personality disorder factor refers to an act that exhibits a pervasive pattern of disregard for and
violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into
childhood such as Anti-Social Personality Disorder (Psychoanalytic Theory-Sigmund Freud)
3. Learning Factor
Learning factor explains that criminal behavior is learned primarily by observing or listening to people
around us. The following are related learning theories are;
a. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)
 b. Imitation Theory (Gabriel Tarde)
c. Strain theory

The terrible triad for serial killers

The three characteristics of almost serial killers during their childhood are: bed-wetting, fire-starting
and animal torture.
1. Bed-wetting- bed wetting is the most intimate of these, “triad” symptoms, and is less likely to
be wilfully divulged. By some estimates, 60% of multiple murderers wet their beds past
adolescence. Kenneth Bianchi apparently spent many a night marinating in urine-soaked sheets.
2. Fire-starting (fascination of fire) – Otis Toole and Carl Panzram were two serial killers who
started fire during their childhood. Carl Panzram burned down the reformatory he was sent to.
Toole set fire to a neighbours’ house. Fire fascination was an early manifestation of their
obsession with destruction.
3. Animal Torture (Cruelty to Animals) – Most serial killers, before moving to human victims, start
with animals. Ed Kemper killed neighborhood cats. A dog’s severed head was found on a stick in
the wood near Jeffrey Dahmer’s childhood home.
Note: There is no guarantee that if the three aforesaid conditions are present, the child will grow as
serial killer. They are only early signs to beware of.
Childhood characteristics of serial killer
a. Majority of serial killers have a history of sexual and physical abuse during their childhood.
b. Half of the serial killers’ families, the biological father had left before the child were 12 years old.
In cases where the father didn’t leave, he was domineering and abusive.
c. Delinquent acts such as pyromania, theft, and cruelty to animals were present during the
childhood of the most killers.
What is Human Intelligence?
Human Intelligence generally points to at least three characteristics. First, Intelligence is best
understood as a compilation of brain-based cognitive abilities. According to 52 eminent researches,
intelligence reflects`` a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to
reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from
experience’’.

Binet Scale of Human Intelligence

IQ SCORE Original Name Modern Name

Below 20 Idiot Profound
20 to 49 Imbecile Severe
50 to 69 Moron/Feebleminded Moderate
70 to 79 Borderline Deficiency Mild
80 to 89 Dull Dull Normal
90 to 109 Normal or Average
110 to 119 Superior
120 to 139 Very Superior
Over 140 Genius or Near Genius
CHAPTER II – Human Behavior and Coping/Defense Mechanism

Segment 1: Emotion

What is Emotion?

Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts and beliefs,
subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized by facial expressions, gestures,
postures and subjective feelings.

Theories of emotion are:

1. James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange – James Lange theory states that emotion
results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment: emotion occurs after
physiological reactions. This theory and its derivatives states that a change situation leads to
changed bodily stat. as James says” the perception of bodily changes as they occur is the
emotion.”

James further claims that ‘we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we
tremble, and neither have we cried, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, or fearful, as the case may
be,” the James Lange theory has now been all but abandoned by most scholars.

2. Cannon-bard Theory by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard- this suggest that people feel emotions
first and then act upon them. This is a theory that emotion and physiological reactions occur
simultaneously. These actions include changes in muscular tension, perspiration, etc. The theory
was formulated following the introduction of the Jame-lange theory of emotion in the late
1800s, which alternately suggested that emotion is the result of one’s perception of their
reaction or bodily change.

Example: I see a man outside my window. I am afraid. I begin to perspire.

Segment 2. Conflict

Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between incompatible or
contradictory alternatives. It is a negative emotional state caused by an inability to choose between two
or more incompatible goals or impulse (uriarte,2009)

Types of Conflict
The following are the types of conflict:

1. Psychological Conflict (internal conflict) – psychological conflict could be going on inside the
person and no one would know (instinct may be at odds with values) Freud would say
unconscious id battling superego and further claimed that our personalities are always in
conflict.
 2. Social Conflict – the different kinds of social conflict are:
A. Interpersonal Conflict.
B. Two individual me against you
C. Inter-group Struggles – us against them;
D. Individual Opposing a Group – me against them, them against me;
E. Intra-Group Conflict – members of group all against each other on a task.

3. Approach-Avoidance – Conflict can be described as having features of approach and avoidance:

approach-approach ; avoidance-avoidance; approach-avoidance.

Approach speaks to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that we do not want.

Kinds of Approach-Avoidance

a. Approach-Approach Conflict – In Approach-Approach Conflict, the individual must choose

between two positive goals of approximately equal value. In these two pleasing things are
wanted but only one option should be chosen.

Examples: Choice between two colleges, two roommates, or two ways of spending the summer.

b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – avoidance-avoidance conflict involves more obvious sources of

stress. The individual must choose between two or more negative outcomes.

Examples: Study or do the dishes. I don’t want this, and I don’t want that. A woman with an unwanted
pregnancy may be morally opposed by abortion.

c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – approach-avoidance conflict exists when there is an attractive

and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal necessity, a negative
outcome as well.

Examples: Gina is beautiful, but she is lazy. “I want this, but I don’t want what this entails”

Another is the dilemma of the student who is offered a stolen copy of an important final exam.
Cheating will bring guilt and reduced self-esteem, but also a good grade.

d. Multiple-Approach-avoidance Conflict – this refers to conflict with complex combinations of

approach and avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to choose between alternatives that
contain both positive and negative consequences (Lahey, 2001)

Segment 3. Depression
Depression is an illness that cause a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. It is different
from normal feelings or sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can have depression. If often runs in
families. But if can also happen to someone who does not have a family history of depression. You can
have depression one time or many times.

Causes of depression

The causes of depression are not entirely understood. Things that may trigger depression include:

A. major event that create stress, such as childbirth or a death in the family

B. illnesses, such as arthritis, heart disease, or cancer

C. certain medicine, such as steroid or narcotics for pain relief

D. drinking alcohol or using illegal

SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION

People who are depressed may:

A. Think and speak more slowly than normal

B. have trouble concentrating, remembering, and making decisions

C. have changes in their eating and sleeping habits

D. lose interest in thing they enjoyed before they were depressed

E. think a lot about death or suicide

F. complain about problem that don’t have a physical cause, such headache and stomachache (
Zemla 2012)

What are the different forms of depression?

There are several forms of depressive disorder the most common are

Major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder.

1. Major depressive disorder – this is also called major depression. It is characterized by a

combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat and
enjoyed once – pleasurable activities. Major depression disabling and prevent a person from
functioning normally. An episode of major depression may occur only once in a person lifetime,
but more often, it recurs throughout a person’s life.
 2. Dysthymic Disorder- (or also referred to as Dysthymia) – The symptoms do not occurs for more
than two months at a time. Generally, this type of depression is described as having persistent
but less severe depressive symptoms than major Depression. Manifest nearly constant
depressed mood for at least 2 years accompanied by at least two (or more) of the following:

A. Decrease or increase in eating;

B. Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping;
C. Low energy of fatigue;
D. Low self-esteem;
E. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and
F. Feeling hopeless.

3. Psychotic Depression- This occurs when a severe depressive illness is accompanied by some
form of psychosis, such as a break with reality, hallucinations, and delusions.

4. Postpartum Depression – This is a major depressive episode that occurs after having a baby. A
new mother develops a major depressive episode within one month after delivery. It is
estimated that 10 to 15 percent of women experience postpartum depression after giving birth.
In rare cases, a woman has a severe form of depression called postpartum psychosis. She may
act strangely, see or hear things that aren’t there, and be danger to herself and her baby.

5. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)- This is characterized by the onset of a depressive illness
during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight. The depression generally lifts
during spring and summer. SAD may be effectively treated with light therapy but nearly half of
those with SAD do not respond to light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and
psychotherapy can reduce SAD symptoms, either alone or combination with light therapy.

6. Bipolar Disorder- This is also called manic-depressive illness, is not as common as major
depression or dysthymia. Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood changes-form
extreme highs (e.g., mania) to extreme lows (e.g., depression).

7. Endogenous Depression - Endogenous means from within the body. This type of depression is
defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason.

8. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression (also known as adjustment disorder with

depressed mood) – depressive symptoms develop in response to a specific stressful situation or
event (e.g. job loss, relationship ending). These symptoms occur within 3 months of the stressor
and lasts no longer than 6 months after the stressor (or its consequences) has ended.
Depression symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g. relationship,
work, school) and do not meet the criteria for major depressive disorder.

How to battle depression?

The following are means of resolving depression:

 A. socializing – eating out, movies ballgames with family or friends.

B. helping others in need- volunteer work, feeding the homeless, etc.

C. praying – works for all moods, especially depression (kahayon&aquini, 1999)

Segment 4. Stress

Stress- refers to the consequence of the failure of an organism – human or animal – to respond
appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress is a form of the
middle English destresse, derived via old French from the Latin STRINGERE, to draw tight. The term
stress was first employed in biological context by the endocrinologist HANS SELYE in the 1930s. Stress
can through as any event that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope Lazarus 1999).

What is stressor?

Stress or is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive) for example,
getting a promotion is a positive event, but may also produce a great deal of stress with all the new
responsibilities, work load, etc.

Two types of stress

1. Eustress (positive)- eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix derives from the Greek
EU meaning either “well” or “good’. When attached to the word “stress”’ it literally means
“Good Stress”

It is a stress that is healthy or gives one of feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings. Eustress is a
process of exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances function (physical or mental, such as
through strength training or challenging work) is considered eustress.

2. Distress (Negative) - distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress that is not
resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal
(depression) behavior (lazarus 1974).

Three stages of stress

1. Alarm- alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realize the body’s
stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage adrenalin will be produce in order to bring
about the fight –or-flight response.

2. Resistance – resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to
attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the
 strains or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its
resources are gradually depleted.

3. Exhaustion- exhaustion is the third and final stage in the general arousal syndrome (GAS) model.
At this point, all of the body’s resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to
maintain normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear
sweating, raised heart rate etc.
The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as ulcers, depression, diabetes, trouble
with the digestive system or even cardiovascular problem, along with other mental illnesses.

TYPES OF SHORT-TERM STRESS

1. Acute Time- acute time refers to limited stress that come on suddenly (acute) and are over
relatively quickly. Situations like public speaking and doing math in your head fall in this
category. This thing may come on without warning but are short in duration.

2. Brief Naturalistic Stress- brief naturalistic stress is relatively short in duration. Think of a
classroom test or a final exam. These are stresses that rise out of other things (like a course of
study) and are over quickly.

Types of long-term stress

1. Stressful Event Sequences – stressful event sequences stress is a single event that start from a
chain of challenging situations. For example, losing a job or surviving a natural disaster.

2. Chronic Stress – chronic stress lacks a clear end point. Often, they force people two assume
new roles or change their self-perception think of a refugee living their native country or an
injury leading to permanent disability. This are life-changing events- your rarely get to go back to
the way things were.

3. Distant Stress - Distant stress may have been initiated in the past (like childhood abuse or
trauma resulting from combat experiences) but continue to affect the immune system distant
stressors have long-lasting effects on emotional and mental health (scott,20011

Segment 5. Frustration
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching a goal.
Frustration is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic activity resulting from a
blocked goal. It is associated with motivation since we won’t be frustrated if we were not motivated to
achieve the goal frustration may be external or persona

What is External Frustration?

External frustration is a distress caused by outwardly perceivable conditions that impedes
progress toward a goal.
What is Personal Frustration?
Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual's inner characteristic that impedes
progress toward a goal (Uriate, 2009)

Sources of Frustration

1. Physical Obstacles such as: drought typhoons flat tire, etc. that prevents a person from doing his
plans or fulfilling his wishes.

2. Social circumstances such as: obstacles through the restriction imposed by other people and
customs and laws social being

3. Personal Shortcomings such as: handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness or paralysis

4. Conflicts between Motives such as: wanting to leave college for a year to try painting but also
wanting to please one parent by remaining in school.

The following are common responses to frustration:

1. Aggression - it refers to any response made with the intent of harming some person or objects.
the intentional infliction may be a physical or psychological harm.

2. Displaced Aggression - it refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other than the actual
source of one's frustration

3. Scapegoating - it refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for conditions not of
their making

4. Escape - it is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by psychologically

withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending not to care) or illegal drug use.