Souleymanou Vondou 15tp2175-Final

REPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON
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Paix-Travail-Patrie Peace-Work-Fatherland
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DEPARTEMENT DE GENIE CIVIL DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ARCHITECTURAL
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
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FINITE ELEMENT METHOD ANALYSIS APPLIED TO THE

STUDY OF STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF THE NODES IN THE
STEEL STRUCTURES: CASE STUDY THE WHAREHOUSE
STEEL BUILDING AT NSIMALEN AIRPORT
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering
(MEng) in Civil Engineering
Curriculum: Structural Engineering
Presented by:
SOULEYMANOU VONDOU
Student number: 15TP21075
Supervised by:
Pr. Carmelo MAJORANA
Co-supervised by:
Dr. Eng Guillaume Hervé POH’SIE
Eng. Giuseppe CARDILLO
Academic year: 2019/2020

DEDICATION
DEDICATION
I dedicate this endeavour work to my sister, my shield,
HAOUA VONDOU
and
all my family members
FEM analysis applied to the study of structural behaviour of nodes in the steel structures
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, i
2019/2020
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“He who does not thank the people is not to thankful Allah.” This Thesis is the fruit of combined
efforts of several individuals who contributed either directly or indirectly to its elaboration. It
is therefore with gratitude that I address my sincere thanks to:
• The President of the jury for the honour you give me in being the president of the jury
in my thesis presentation;
• The Examiner of this jury for accepting to bring his criticisms and observations to
ameliorate this work;
• My supervisors Prof. Eng. Carmelo MAJORANA, Dr. Eng. Guillaume Hervé
POH’SIE and Eng. Giuseppe CARDILLO for all the guidance, advice and the
patience which undoubtedly contributed to the completion of this work;
• Pr. NKENG George ELAMBO and Dr BWEMBA Charles for all their academic and
administrative support during our training at the NASPW in this MEng program in
partnership with the University of Padua;
• Pr. MBESSA Michel, the Head of Department of Civil Engineering for tutoring and
valuable pieces of advice;
• All the teaching and administrative staff of the NASPW and University of Padua for
their good quality of teaching and the motivation they developed in us to continue our
studies;
• All my classmates and my friends of the 6th batch of Meng in The NASPW who were
source of motivation and tenacity;
• To my parents, Mr VONDOU NICOLAS and Mrs DJANABOU IBRAHIM for the
trust they placed in me and all the efforts made in the accomplishment of this degree;
• To my sister Mrs HAOUA VONDOU for all her support, a single line cannot express
my gratitude to her;
• To other members of my family who names could not mentioned here, for their
encouragement, devotion and financial support during of my training;
• Also, I really thank those who directly or indirectly contributed and supported me in the
accomplishment of this work
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, ii
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GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
LISTE OF ABBREVIATIONS
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BS British Standard
DCH Ductility Class High
DCL Ductility Class Low
DCM Ductility Class Medium
EC Eurocode
CEN European Committee for Standardization
EN European Nations
FEA Finite Element Analysis
FEM Finite Element Method
LRFD Load Resistance Factor Design
SLS Service Limit State
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAP Structural Analysis Program
NTC Technical Standards for Constructions
ULS Ultimate Limit State
LIST OF SYMBOLS
𝐴𝑏 Bolt area
𝐴𝑝 Area of base plate
𝐴𝑣 Shear area of the steel profile
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑡,𝑤𝑐 Effective width of column web in tension
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, iii
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GLOSSARY
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 Effective width
𝑐0 Orography factor
𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 Directional factor
𝑐𝑝𝑒 Pressure coefficient for the external pressure
𝑐𝑝𝑖 Pressure coefficient for the internal pressure
𝑐𝑟 Roughness factor
𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 Season factor
𝑑0 Diameter of the bolt hole
𝑑𝑤 Diameter of the washer
𝑒1 End distance from the centre of a bolt hole to the adjacent end part
measured in the direction of load transfer
𝑒2 End distance from the centre of a bolt to the adjacent edge end,
measured at right angles to the direction of load transfer
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝐷 Bearing resistance of the bolt
𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑑 Design tensile strength of the concrete
𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,1 ; 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,2 ; 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,3 Design resistance for the failure modes 1, failure mode 2 and
failure mode 3
𝑓𝑢 Ultimate strength
𝑓𝑦 Yielding strength
𝐹𝜈,𝑅𝑑 Shear resistance of the bolt
𝐺𝑘,𝑗 characteristic value of the permanent action j
𝐼𝜈 Turbulence intensity
𝑛𝑏 Number of bolts
𝑁𝑃𝑙,𝑅𝑑 Design plastic tension resistance
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 Design tension resistance
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 Design ultimate resistance of the net cross section
𝑞𝑏 Basic velocity pressure
𝑄𝑘,𝑖 Characteristic value of the leading variable action i
𝑞𝑝 Peak velocity pressure
𝑠𝑗,𝑖𝑛𝑖 Rigid beam to column joint
𝑡𝑓 Flange thickness
𝑡𝑝 Thickness of the plate
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, iv
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GLOSSARY
𝑡𝑤𝑐 Thickness of the column flange
𝑣𝑏,0 Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
𝑣𝑏 Basic wind velocity
𝑣𝑚 Mean wind velocity
𝑤𝑒 Wind pressure acting on the external surfaces
𝑤𝑖 Wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces
𝛽2 , 𝛽3 Reduction factors dependent on the pitch p1
𝛾𝑀0 , 𝛾𝑀1 , 𝛾𝑀2 Partial safety factors
𝜆̅ Nondimensional slenderness coefficient
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 Air density
𝜏𝑏 Shear stress in the bolt
A Cross section area
𝑎 Weld throat thickness
A% Elongation at failure
Aeff Effective area of cross-section
Av Shear area
ce Exposure factor
d Diameter of the bolt
E Young modulus
Ep Energy absorbed by the specimen of toughness test
fcd Design compressive strength of the concrete
Ft,Rd Design tension resistance per bolt
fub Ultimate tensile strength of bolt
Fv,Rd Design shear resistance per bolt
fyb Yield strength of bolt
𝐺 Shear modulus
hw Depth of the web
k1 Turbulence factor
kT Terrain factor
L0 Initial length of tension test specimen
Lcr Critical buckling length
Mc,Rd Design resistance for bending
MEd Design bending moment
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, v
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GLOSSARY
Mfull-strength Moment resistance required for a full-strength joint
Nb,Rd Design buckling resistance of the compression member
Nc,Rd Design resistance of compression of the cross section
Ncr Elastic critical load
NEd Design value of the axial load
ni Number of bolt rows
p1 Spacing between the centre bolts in a line in the direction of load
transfer
p2 Spacing between the centre bolts in a line at right angles to the
direction of load transfer
S0 Section of tube of tension test specimen
tw Thickness of the web
Vc,Rd Design shear resistance
VEd Design value of the shear force
Vpl,Rd Design plastic shear resistance
Weff,min Minimum elastic bending modulus of the reduced effective section
Wel,min Minimum elastic section bending modulus
Wpl Plastic section bending modulus
Z% Restriction coefficient
z0 Roughness length
Δ Tolerance
ν Poisson’s ratio
𝜌 Density of mass
σc. Stress on concrete
𝜎res Residual stresses
χ Reduction factor
𝜓 Combination factors that is function of the use category of the
building
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, vi
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ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this work was to analyse the structural behavior of the connection by the
finite element method in steel structure. To achieve this goal, an evaluation of a behavior on
different elements in three type of connection namely the column-truss bolted connection, the
column-truss welded connection and the base column connection was done. A literature review
was carried out on steel nodes and the basic concepts of FEM. The methodology used consisted
on one hand a site recognition, the collection of geometric and structural data and on the other
the design and analysis of the case study building The case study which is a storage warehouse
of 42m by 54m with a height of 11.1 m was analyzed and dimensioned to resist the vertical and
horizontal static loads; including the connections between them according to the Eurocodes
using the software SAP2000 version 22. Thereafter, three connections were selected, modeled
and analyzed in two phases in the Abaqus/CAE software. The first analysis in the plastic domain
was performed to verify the effective resistance of the elements at each connection under the
loads imposed by the standard. It was noticed from the results that the stresses in the different
elements (steel and concrete) due to the recommended loading were relatively small compared
to the limits set by the said standard. Therefore, the results of first analysis confirms that the
elements were correctly dimensioned. Then the second analysis in the non-plastic domain was
done, concerning the connection between the column and the truss with a displacement of
30mm applied to the ends of the truss elements. With this numerical modeling, there is a notice
of a tiny displacement, and the connection between the column and the truss goes to failure
whether it is a welded or bolted connection. For the connection of the base column, the failure
is evaluated by amplifying the static design loads. The results show that an axial force of 581.5
kN combined with a moment of 600 kN.m is required for failure in the connection (compression
stress in the concrete 41.85 N/mm²), all the components of this connection failed except the
anchor, which will break at 705 kN.
Keywords: structural analysis, finite element method, node, steel structure
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, vii
2019/2020
RÉSUMÉ
RÉSUMÉ
L’objectif principal de ce travail était l’analyse du comportement structurel de l’assemblage par

la méthode des éléments finis dans une structure en acier. Pour atteindre cet objectif,
l’évaluation du comportement des différents éléments dans trois types de connexion, à savoir
la connexion boulonnée poteau-ferme, la connexion soudée poteau-ferme et la connexion de
base du poteau, a été mené. Une revue de la littérature a été effectuée sur les nœuds en acier et
les concepts de base de la FEM. La méthodologie utilisée a consisté dans un premier temps à
faire une reconnaissance du site et dans un deuxième temps à collecter les données
géométriques et structurelles du bâtiment du cas d’étude. Le cas d’étude est un entrepôt de
stockage de 42m par 54m avec une hauteur de 11,1 m, a été analysé et dimensionné pour résister
aux charges statiques verticales et horizontales, y compris les connexions entre les éléments
structurels et non structurels conformément aux Eurocodes en utilisant le logiciel SAP2000
version 22. Ensuite, les trois connexions citées ci-dessus ont été sélectionnées, modélisées et
analysées en deux phases dans le logiciel Abaqus/CAE. Une première analyse dans le domaine
plastique a été effectuée pour vérifier la résistance effective des éléments de chaque connexion
sous les charges imposées par la norme. Il a été remarqué à partir des résultats que les
contraintes dans les différents éléments (acier et béton) dues au chargement recommandé étaient
relativement faibles par rapport aux limites fixées par ladite norme. Par conséquent, les résultats
de la première analyse confirment que les éléments ont été correctement dimensionnés. Par la
suite, une deuxième analyse dans le domaine non-plastique, est effectuée sur les mêmes
connexions, concernant la connexion entre le poteau et la ferme, un déplacement de 30mm est
appliqué aux extrémités des éléments de la ferme. Comme résultat avec cette modélisation
numérique, un déplacement aussi infime engendre au niveau de la connexion entre le poteau et
la ferme une rupture que ce soit dans le cas d’assemblage soudé ou boulonné. Pour la connexion
de base du poteau la défaillance est évaluée en amplifiant les charges statiques de conception.
Les résultats montrent une force axiale de 581.5 kN combinée à un moment de 600 kN.m est
suffisants pour rompre la connexion (avec une contrainte de compression dans le béton de 41.85
N/mm²), tous les composants de cette connexion se rompent à l’exception des tiges d’ancrage,
qui cèderai à 705 kN.
Mots-clés : Analyse structurelle, méthode des éléments finis, nœuds, structure métallique.
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, viii
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LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Rolling process for I or H shape (www.steelconstruction.info). ............................ 3

Figure 1.2. Continuous formation of circular hollow cold-formed profiles (Bernuzzi and
Cordova, 2016). .......................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 1.3. The steel sections (Bangash, 2000). ........................................................................ 5
Figure 1.4. Typical stress-strain (σ–ε) relationship for structural steels (Salmon and al.,2009).
.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 1.5. Toughness test (www.jeremyjordan.me). ............................................................... 7
Figure 1.6. Bending test (Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016). .......................................................... 8
Figure1.7. Hardness test (www.nusatek.com). .......................................................................... 8
Figure 1.8. Distribution of residual stresses during the cooling phase an I-shape (Hirt and
Bez, 1994). ............................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 1.9. Residual stresses in a cold-rolled plate (Hayward and al., 2011). ........................ 12
Figure 1.10. Chicago's Home Insurance Building, 1885 (http://www.britannica.com). ......... 13
Figure 1.11. Single-storey buildings (www.steelconstruction.info). ...................................... 14
Figure 1.12. Multi-storey steel buildings (www.unionssm.com). ........................................... 15
Figure 1.13. Residential building (www.steelbuildingempire.com). ...................................... 15
Figure 1.14. Suspension bridge (www.atlastube.com). ........................................................... 16
Figure 1.15. (a) Guyed tower and space-frame (Buick and Graham, 2003) and (b) Space
frame of stadium structure (sc04.alicdn.com). ......................................................................... 16
Figure 1.16. Elastic distribution of bending moment in a simple portal frame (Jaspart, 2002).
.................................................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 1.17. Classification of joints by stiffness (EN1993-1-8). ............................................ 18
Figure 1.18. Classification of joints by full strength (EN1993-1-8). ...................................... 19
Figure 1.19. Strength classification boundaries (EN1993-1-8). .............................................. 19
Figure 1.20. Typical beam to beam connection (AISC, 2009). ............................................... 20
Figure 1.21. Beam to column connection (www.seismicresilience.org.nz/). .......................... 21
Figure 1.22. Column base connection (Adluri, 2001). ............................................................ 21
Figure 1.23. Brace connection (Adluri, 2001) ......................................................................... 22
Figure 1.24. (a) The column splice connection and (b) typical the beam splice connection
(AISC, 2009). ........................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 1.25. Parts of bolt (mechanialjungle.com/what-is-bolt-and-its-types/)........................ 23
Figure 1.26. Tension and shear bolted joint (Bickford, 2008). ............................................... 25
Figure 1.27. Bolt in single shear (www.engineersedge.com/calculators/bolt-shear-aisc.htm).
.................................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 1.28. Bolts in tension (Bangash, 2000). ....................................................................... 26
Figure 1.29. Mechanic failure of bolts: (a) Shear failure and (b) Tension failure
(www.researchgate.net). ........................................................................................................... 28
Figure 1.30. Fillet welds and butt welds to left from right (www.steelconstruction.info/). .... 29
Figure 1.31. Weld defect: (a) incomplete penetration and (b) lack of alignment (Ghosh,
2016)......................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2.1. Pressure of wind on surfaces of building (BS EN1991 1-4). ................................ 36
Figure 2.2. Buckling curves according to EC3-1-1. ................................................................ 41
Figure 2.3. Symbols for spacing of fasteners (Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016)......................... 50
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, ix
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.4. the tension in the bolt row and their levels arm (Morel, 2005). ............................ 52
Figure 2.5. Connection geometry (SCI,P398). ........................................................................ 53
Figure 2.6. Complete yielding of the flange (SCI P398)......................................................... 54
Figure 2.7. Failure of the bolts and flange yielding (SCI P398). ............................................ 54
Figure 2.8. interface of Abaqus/CAE. ..................................................................................... 57
Figure 3.1. Map illustrating the city of Yaounde. ................................................................... 59
Figure 3.2. 3D model of the structure. .................................................................................... 61
Figure 3.3. Top view plan of the building. .............................................................................. 61
Figure 3.4. Section of the building. ......................................................................................... 62
Figure 3.5. Selected purlin for design. .................................................................................... 65
Figure 3.6. Disposition of the purlin relative to horizontal plan. ............................................ 66
Figure 3.7. Vertical bending moments on the purlin at ULS. ................................................. 66
Figure 3.8. Parallel bending moments on the purlin at ULS. .................................................. 67
Figure 3.9. Vertical shear solicitations on the purlin ULS. ..................................................... 67
Figure 3.10. Parallel shear solicitations on the purlin ULS..................................................... 67
Figure 3.11. Outline of a truss representation ......................................................................... 69
Figure 3.12. Deflection of the truss due to the permanents loads. .......................................... 74
Figure 3.13. Deflection of the truss due to the imposed loads. ............................................... 74
Figure 3.14. Static schema of the roof brace. .......................................................................... 74
Figure 3.15. Static schema of the roof brace with only traction members. ............................. 75
Figure 3.16. Maximum axial force and axial resistance of brace roof section. ....................... 76
Figure 3.17. Position of the vertical brace. .............................................................................. 77
Figure 3.18. Static scheme the vertical brace. ......................................................................... 77
Figure 3.19. Column chosen for design. ................................................................................. 78
Figure 3.20. Bending moment solicitation curve on the column. ........................................... 79
Figure 3.21. Shear solicitation in the column. ......................................................................... 79
Figure 3.22. Axial load solicitation curve on the column. ...................................................... 80
Figure 3.23. Bending moment solicitation curves of the beam. .............................................. 82
Figure 3.24. Shear solicitation curves on the beam. ................................................................ 83
Figure 3.25. The bending resistance of the beam. ................................................................... 84
Figure 3.26. The shear resistance of the column. .................................................................... 84
Figure 3.27. Disposition of the bolts in the top member. ........................................................ 85
Figure 3.28. The decompositions of the force due to eccentricity in the top member. ........... 85
Figure 3.29. Disposition of the bolts in the diagonal member. ............................................... 86
Figure 3.30. The decompositions of the force due to eccentricity in the diagonal member. .. 87
Figure 3.31. The decomposition of compress loads under weld parts on top member. .......... 88
Figure 3.32.The decomposition of tension loads under weld parts on diagonal member ....... 88
Figure 3.33. the solicitations on bolts groups attached column-truss. .................................... 90
Figure 3.34. Cross section of column-truss bolted connection. .............................................. 91
Figure 3.35. Cross section of column-truss welded connection .............................................. 91
Figure 3.36. The joint of the column brace chosen. ................................................................ 91
Figure 3.37. Detailing of the brace column connection. ......................................................... 92
Figure 3.38. Column base chosen. .......................................................................................... 93
Figure 3.39. Column base connection cross-section. .............................................................. 94
Figure 3.40. Column base connection plane view. .................................................................. 94
Figure 3.41. Column-truss bolted model. ................................................................................ 97
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, x
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.42. Column-truss welded model. .............................................................................. 97
Figure 3.43. Column base model............................................................................................. 98
Figure 3.44. The loading condition of column-truss bolted: (a) at design loads analysis; (b) at
failure analysis.......................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 3.45. The loading condition of the base column connection ....................................... 99
Figure 3.46. Stresses distribution of the column-truss bolts: (a) Stress distribution on the top
bolts; (b) Stress distribution on the diagonal bolts; (c) Stress distribution on the bolts of the
column .................................................................................................................................... 101
Figure 3.47. Stress on the plate elements: (a) The stress distribution in the column plate, (b)
The stress distribution in the chord plate ............................................................................... 102
Figure 3.48. Stress in the truss elements: (a) the stress evolution in the top element; (b) the
stress evolution in the diagonal elements. .............................................................................. 102
Figure 3.49. Stress in the top bolts. ....................................................................................... 103
Figure 3.50. Stress in the diagonal bolts. .............................................................................. 103
Figure 3.51. The stress distribution in the plate elements: (a) the s tress distribution in the
column plate; (b) the stress distribution in the chord plate. ................................................... 104
Figure 3.52. Evolution of the stress in the truss elements: (a) the stress in top truss element;
(b) the stress in the diagonal truss element. ........................................................................... 105
Figure 3.53. The stress distribution on the bolts of the column ............................................ 106
Figure 3.54. The stress on the plate elements: (a) The stress distribution in the column plate,
(b) The stress distribution in the chord plate .......................................................................... 106
Figure 3.55. The stress in the truss elements: (a) the stress evolution in the top element; (b)
the stress evolution in the diagonal elements. ........................................................................ 107
column plate; (b) the stress distribution in the chord plate. ................................................... 108
the stress evolution in the diagonal elements. ........................................................................ 109
Figure 3.58. Tensile stress in concrete (Abaqus/CAE). ........................................................ 110
Figure 3.59. Compressive stress in concrete. ........................................................................ 110
Figure 3.60. Stress evolution in the column section.............................................................. 111
Figure 3.61. stress evolution in the plate base. ...................................................................... 111
Figure 3.62. Stress evolution in the anchor bolts. ................................................................. 112
Figure 3.63. Compression stress in the concrete at failure. ................................................... 113
Figure 3.64. Stress distribution in the column of the base plate connection. ........................ 113
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, xi
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LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. Nominal values of yield and ultimate tensile strength for hot rolled structural steel
according to EN 10025 ............................................................................................................... 4
Table 1.2. Dimensional tolerances for structural steel I and H sections (EN 10034)................ 9
Table1.3.Tolerances on out-of-square and web off-centre of structural steel I and H sections
(EN 10034) ............................................................................................................................... 10
Table 1.4.Tolerances on straightness of structural steel I and H sections (EN 10034) ........... 10
Table1.5. Essential manufacturing tolerances – welded sections (EN 1090-2) ...................... 11
Table 1.6. Nominal values of the yield strength fyb and the ultimate tensile strength fub for
bolts (BS-EN 1993-1-8, 2005) ................................................................................................. 24
Table 1.7. Maximum bolt hole clearance (in mm) according to EN 1090 .............................. 24
Table 1.8. Maximum bolt hole clearance (in mm) according to AISC ................................... 25
Table 1.9. Categories of bolted connections and design checks.............................................. 27
Table 2.1. Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression parts (EN 1993-1-1: 2005) 38
Table 2.2. Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression parts (EN 1993-1-1: 2005) 39
Table 2.3. Recommended values for imperfection factors for buckling curves ...................... 41
Table 2.4. Selection of the buckling curve according to EC3-1-1 .......................................... 42
Table 2.5. values for NRk= fyAi , Mi, Rk = fyWi and ∆Mi,Ed .................................................. 46
Table 2.6. (a) Coefficients C1, C2 and C3 for beams with end moments (Annex F of ENV
1993-1-1). ................................................................................................................................. 48
Table 2.7. Recommended values for lateral torsional buckling curves for cross-sections using
equation 2.43 (EC3-1-1) ........................................................................................................... 48
Table 2.8. Reduction factors 𝛽2 and 𝛽3 .................................................................................. 50
Table 3.1. Characteristics of steel ............................................................................................ 62
Table 3.2. Concrete characteristics .......................................................................................... 63
Table 3.3. Wind load calculation ............................................................................................. 64
Table 3.4. Loads on purlin ....................................................................................................... 65
Table 3.5. The section properties of purlin .............................................................................. 68
Table 3.6. Verification of purlins ............................................................................................ 68
Table 3.7. The member forces ................................................................................................. 69
Table 3.8. Section properties of top member ........................................................................... 70
Table 3.9 Verification in compression of the top member ...................................................... 70
Table 3.10. The properties bottom member ............................................................................ 71
Table 3.11. The verification of bottom member in tension ..................................................... 71
Table 3.12. Vertical member and their properties ................................................................... 72
Table 3.13. Verification of vertical member ........................................................................... 72
Table 3.14. Diagonal member and their properties ................................................................. 73
Table 3.15. Verification of diagonal member .......................................................................... 73
Table 3.16. Properties of brace roof member .......................................................................... 76
Table 3.17. The verification of the brace roof ......................................................................... 76
Table 3.18. Verification of vertical brace ................................................................................ 77
Table 3.19. properties of column section ................................................................................ 80
Table 3.20. Verification of column ......................................................................................... 81
Table 3.21. Beam section cross properties .............................................................................. 82
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, xii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.22. The verification of the beam section resistance.................................................... 83

Table 3.23. Verification of the vertical brace connection ....................................................... 92
Table 3.24. Column base verifications .................................................................................... 93
Table 3.25. Properties of steel profiles .................................................................................... 95
Table 3.26. Properties of steel bolt grade 8.8. ......................................................................... 96
Table 3.27. Concrete properties ............................................................................................... 96
Table 3.28. The stress comparation of the elements with yield stress of column-truss bolted
connection under static loads ................................................................................................. 102
connection under displacement. ............................................................................................. 105
Table 3.30. The stress comparation of the elements with yield stress of column-truss welded
connection under static loads. ................................................................................................ 107
connection under displacement. ............................................................................................. 109
Table 3.32. Stress comparation of the elements with yield stress of column base connection
................................................................................................................................................ 112
Table 3.33. Stress comparation of the elements with yield stress of column base connection at
failure ..................................................................................................................................... 114
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................... ii
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ vii
RÉSUMÉ ............................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................. ix
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................... xiv
GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 1: LITTERATURE REVIEW ............................................................ 2
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 2
1.1. Steel ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.1.1. Production process ............................................................................................... 2
1.1.2. Grades and sections types of steel ........................................................................ 4
1.1.3. Mechanical testing of steel ................................................................................... 5
1.1.4. Characteristics of steel ......................................................................................... 8
1.1.5. Tolerances ............................................................................................................ 9
1.1.6. Imperfections ...................................................................................................... 11
1.2. Steel structures ........................................................................................................... 13
1.2.1. Background on the steel structure ...................................................................... 13
1.2.2. Structural applications of the steel ..................................................................... 14
1.3. Nodes in the steel structures ...................................................................................... 17
1.3.1. Definition ........................................................................................................... 17
1.3.2. Steel joints .......................................................................................................... 17
1.3.3. Steel connections ................................................................................................ 23
1.4. Finite element method (FEM) ................................................................................... 30
1.4.1. Origin of FEM .................................................................................................... 30
1.4.2. The difference approach of FEM ....................................................................... 31
1.4.3. Types of elements of FEM ................................................................................. 31
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 32
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 33
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 33
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
2.1. Case study .................................................................................................................. 33

2.1.1. Site recognition .................................................................................................. 33
2.1.2. Site visit .............................................................................................................. 33
2.1.3. Data collection.................................................................................................... 33
2.2. Basic of design........................................................................................................... 33
2.2.1. Codes and specifications .................................................................................... 33
2.2.2. Actions ............................................................................................................... 33
2.2.3. Limits state design .............................................................................................. 36
2.2.4. Combination of actions ...................................................................................... 37
2.3. Building analysis and design ..................................................................................... 38
2.3.1. Section classifications ........................................................................................ 38
2.3.2. Tension members ............................................................................................... 39
2.3.3. Compress members ............................................................................................ 40
2.3.4. Members in bending moment, shear and axial forces ........................................ 42
2.4. Design of joints .......................................................................................................... 49
2.4.1. Bracing connections ........................................................................................... 49
2.4.2. Truss-column connection ................................................................................... 50
2.4.3. Beam-column connections ................................................................................. 51
2.4.4. Base of columns ................................................................................................. 55
2.5. Numerical modelling ................................................................................................. 56
2.5.1. Presentation of Abaqus/CAE ............................................................................. 56
2.5.2. Modelling connection process ............................................................................ 57
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 58
CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS .. 59
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 59
3.1. Presentation of the site ............................................................................................... 59
3.1.1. Physical parameters ............................................................................................ 59
3.1.2. Socio-economic parameters ............................................................................... 60
3.2. Presentation of the project ......................................................................................... 61
3.2.1. Description of building....................................................................................... 61
3.3. Design of case study .................................................................................................. 63
3.3.1. Actions on the building ...................................................................................... 63
3.3.2. Loads combinations............................................................................................ 64
3.3.3. Roofs structure ................................................................................................... 64
3.3.4. Brace members ................................................................................................... 74
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
3.3.5. Design of vertical structural elements ................................................................ 78

3.3.6. Beam design ....................................................................................................... 81
3.3.7. Design connections ............................................................................................ 84
3.4. FEM modelling of the connections ........................................................................... 94
3.4.1. Steel profiles ....................................................................................................... 95
3.4.2. Plate elements ..................................................................................................... 95
3.4.3. Bolt elements ...................................................................................................... 95
3.4.4. Concrete footing ................................................................................................. 96
3.4.5. Assembly of instants .......................................................................................... 97
3.4.6. Boundary condition ............................................................................................ 98
3.5. Numerical results ..................................................................................................... 100
3.5.1. Column-truss bolted connection....................................................................... 100
3.5.2. Column-truss welded connection ..................................................................... 105
3.5.3. Column base connection .................................................................................. 109
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 114
GENERAL CONCLUSION ............................................................................. 115
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 116
ANNEXES ........................................................................................................ 119
Annexes A: Tables for the methodology ............................................................................ 119
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, xvi
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of time, we need to shelter ourselves, to push back the limit of our freedom
in our living environment, and moreover with the demographic explosion of the 19th century
this need is more and more felt. It is basically what orientates man to build his living
environment. Thus, constructions in foliage, wood, earth and also stone is observed over the
years. It is true that one can be from sheltered from the sun, rain but the resistance of the
constructions was not really what was guaranteed. It is therefore necessary to invent more
resistant materials seen in the days like concrete, wood and steel.
But for the obvious nowadays observations, constructions are always called to be beyond
expectations with regard to the resistance to loads, natural phenomena such as seism,
architectural challenge, economy and ecology. With the involvement of researchers in material
science and with industrial revolution; steel is at the forefront of the challenges. However, its
advantages are really exploited when it is used in a good way. A perfect use of steel in a structure
comes down to the arrangement and behaviour of the connected elements which is the focus of
a structural engineer's attention when designing.
The connection in steel structures is therefore a subject that fascinates many engineering
researchers to save time and money. The use of numerical analysis method precisely the finite
elements method has been used by Krishnamurthy (1976) Sherbonne (1997), Maggi (2005),
and Mashaly (2011) to optimize these results.
The main objective of this work is to carry out the structural behaviour of the steel connection
using the finite element method. The first chapter discusses about the state of the art and will
permit to master the basic concepts related to steel connections and relevant FEM analysis
conducted on steel connections by various researchers. The second chapter is the methodology
which describes in detail how all the work is going to be carried out i.e. from analysis in the
software SAP2000, design with the Eurocodes and FEM analysis in the software Abaqus. The
third chapter is the application of what was said in chapter two i.e. using SAP2000 to obtain
solicitations, design of the building, modelling, analysing and interpreting the results of the
building's connections in Abaqus/CAE.
Master in Civil Engineering, written by: SOULEYMANOU VONDOU, NASPW, Yaounde, 1
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CHAPTER 1 : LITTERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 1: LITTERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
In civil engineering, materials of construction present important values in the sense that it is
chosen for resistance in several loads. Among these materials, steel by its characteristics answer
the most criteria for resistance of the load as earthquake. However, the profile of the steel as
produce at the standards lengths hence the necessity to use the connections to make the
structure, this connection is one of the most critical parts of the structure which has important
role in the resistance of the structure to seismic force. The objective of this chapter is to present
the literature review on steel, structural steel applications, then talk on the nodes in steel
structures and at the end a brief presentation of the FEM through its background and application
in the steel fields.
1.1. Steel
The use of iron dates back to about 1500 B.C., when primitive furnaces were used to heat the
ore in a charcoal fire. Ferrous metals were produced on a relatively small scale until the blast
furnace was developed in the 18th century. Iron products were widely used in the latter half of
the 18th century and the early part of the 19th century. Steel production started in mid-1800s,
when the Bessemer converter was invented. In the second half of the 19th century, steel
technology advanced rapidly due to the development of the basic oxygen furnace and
continuous casting methods (Mamlouk and Zaniewski, 2018).
1.1.1. Production process
Steel can be obtained by converting wrought iron or directly by means of fusion of metal scrap
and iron ore. Ingots are obtained from these processes, which then can be subject to hot- or
cold-mechanical processes, eventually becoming final products (plates, bars, profiles, sheets,
rods, bolts, etc.). can be obtained in various ways that can be practically summarized into the
following techniques so forming process by compression or tension (e.g. forging, rolling,
extrusion) and forming process by flexure and shear.
The rolling process as shown in the Figure 1.1 improves the mechanical characteristics of the
final product, thanks to the compressive forces applied by the rollers and the simultaneous
thinning of the cross-section that favours the elimination of gases and air pockets that might be
initially present. At the same time, the considerable deformations imposed by the rolling
process contribute to refine the grain structure of the material, with remarkable advantages
regarding homogeneity and strength. In such processes, in addition to the amount of
deformations, also the rate of deformations is a very important factor in determining the final
characteristics of the product. Cold rolling is performed at the ambient temperature and it is
frequently used for non-ferrous materials to obtain higher strengths through hardening at the
price of an often-non-negligible loss of ductility. When cold-rolling requires excessive strains,
the metal can start showing cracks before the desired shape is attained, in which case additional
cycles of heat treatments and cold forming are needed.
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Figure 1.1. Rolling process for I or H shape (www.steelconstruction.info).

The forming processes by bending and shear consist of bending thin sheets until the desired
cross-section shape is obtained. Typical products obtained by these processes are cold-formed
profiles, for which the thickness must be limited to a few millimetres in order to attain the
desired deformations. Figure 1.2 shows the intermediate steps to obtain hollow circular cold-
formed profiles by means of continuous formation processes.
Figure 1.2. Continuous formation of circular hollow cold-formed profiles (Bernuzzi and
Cordova, 2016).
It can be seen that the coil is pulled and gradually shaped until the desired final product is
obtained. With this second working technique, thicker sheets can be shaped into profiles with
thicknesses up to 12–15 mm (0.472–0.591 in.), while the limit value of the coil thickness for
continuous formation processes is approximately 5 mm (0.197 in.). Another important category
of steel product obtained with punch-and-die processes is represented by metal decking,
currently used for slabs, roofs and cladding.
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1.1.2. Grades and sections types of steel

Many characteristics can use to distinguish the steel, the steel grade and section type of steel
are two of them choses to develop in this section.
1.1.2.1. Structural steel grades
According M. Bangash, 2000 It is necessary for steel to be produced within acceptable quality
limits to ensure that it meets the requirements of a load-bearing material. These limits include
minimum strength and elongation requirements, maximum content of various elements, etc.
There are variety of systems for identifying or designated steel, based in grade, type and class.
Mostly country with an industrial capacity has specifications for steel, in united states there
several associations that write specifications for steel, such SAE, AISI, ASTM, and Europe as
Eurocode, British Standards Institution etc. The design specification not contain any
meaningful other than to serve as a reference. In some specification the terms grade identifies
the yields of steel while in others specifications the terms grade can indicate the chemical
components or mechanical properties(Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016).
The details concerning the designation of steels are covered in EN 10027 which distinguish the
designation based on the usage( B for steel in reinforce concrete, E for mechanical construction,
S for structural steels…) , or physical characteristics of the materials and the designation based
on the chemical content ( C for non-alloy carbon , X for alloy steel ). The Table 1.1 give some
steel grade than are uses frequently in the steel structure.
Table 1.1. Nominal values of yield and ultimate tensile strength for hot rolled structural steel
according to EN 10025
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1.1.2.2. Steel section

The forms in which steel is used in structures are I- and H-sections, channels, angles, flats, bars,
plates, sheets, cold-formed sections and hollow sections. These descriptions apply to the cross-
sectional shapes of the members, which are shown in Figure 1.3. It will be seen that there are
two main classes; hot-rolled and cold-formed. The rolled sections are produced by passing a
heated billet between successive pairs of rollers that squeeze the steel, stage by stage, into the
final shape. Hot-rolled plates are made in the same way, but here the rollers are flat and wide.
Figure 1.3. The steel sections (Bangash, 2000).

Cold-formed sections are made by passing thin steel strips (not pre-heated) through sets of
rollers that form the strip into the desired section by a bending process. In the case of circular
hollow sections, this is accompanied by a continuous seam-welding process, whereby the
abutting edges of the rolled section are fused together. Rectangular hollow sections are formed
from circular sections by a further cold-forming roller process. Therefore, all cold- formed
hollow sections have a longitudinal seam weld running down their full length.
1.1.3. Mechanical testing of steel
Many tests are available to evaluate the mechanical properties of steel. This section summarizes
some laboratory tests commonly used to determine properties required in product
specifications.
1.1.3.1. Tension test
This is the test which provides the fundamental directly exploitable characteristics in the
dimensioning calculations: yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. It consists of a
continuous measurement of the evolution of a length between marks materialized on the test
specimen, as a function of the tensile force exerted on the latter. The curve Figure 1.4 obtained
is illustrated by several phases:
• The first phase is that of the elastic domain of steel, it describes the proportionality between
the force and the deformation. The slope of the line corresponding to the longitudinal
deformation modulus E = 210,000 MPa;
• The second branch of the curve is the plastic domain characterized by rapid plastic
deformation along the specimen;
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• A failure phase in which failure initiates and develops in a limited area of the specimen
resulting in a reduction in load as strain continues.
Figure 1.4. Typical stress-strain (σ–ε) relationship for structural steels (Salmon and al.,2009).
The elongation recorded during the last phase is not independent of the geometrical
characteristics of the test-tube. It is propositional to the ratio √𝑆0 ∕ 𝐿0 where So is the initial
section of the test-tube and Lo is the initial length between reference mark and the test piece
respect the condition 𝐿0 = 5,65√𝑆0 which makes it possible to ensure that the test results are
comparable between them:
• The elastic limit 𝑓𝑦 , corresponding to the end stress of proportionality between load and
elongation; in the case of mild steels, the progression of plasticization generates a horizontal
level in the diagram which allows a clear identification of this limit, on the other hand, in
the case of hard steels, this level is no longer noticed and the conventional limit is retained
as stress giving rise to a specified residual elongation;
• The ultimate strength 𝑓𝑢 , corresponding to the maximum load obtained during the test;
• The elongation at failure, A%, defined as the variation in the length between the specimen
mark, the initial state and the break, expressed as a percentage of the length between the
initial mark;
• The Z% restriction coefficient defined as the variation in the area of the cross section
expressed as a percentage of the area of the initial section;
• The instantaneous rational strain ε, obtained by integration of the differential elongation s
related to the length between reference marks:
𝑑𝑙 𝐿
𝑑𝜀 = soit 𝜀 = ln ( ) (1.1)
𝑙 𝐿0
or
𝜀 = ln(1 + 𝐴 ∕ 100) (1.2)
• The instantaneous true stress 𝜎 , that is to say the instantaneous load related to the
instantaneous section S obtained by writing the conservation of the volume between
reference marks.
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𝐿0
𝑆 = 𝑆0 × (1.3)
𝐿
and
𝐹
𝜎= (1.4)
𝑆0
1.1.3.2. Toughness test

The objective of this test is to measure the energy absorbed by a bi-supported specimen,
comprising a median V-notch, when it breaks in bending under the impact of a pendulum ram
The result, note KV is expressed in joule, provides a conventional, convenient and
representative way of behaviour of steels. Above all, for steel given, it makes it possible to
study the evolution of this behaviour with temperature. All unalloyed structural steels in fact
exhibit, in a particular temperature range, a fairly rapid transition between a high level of
fracture energy and a very appreciably lower level, characteristic of brittle behaviour: steel at
low temperature loses its capacity. to break by developing significant plastic deformations and
therefore becomes brittle.
The impact bending fracture energy thus makes it possible to characterize the ductility of steel
and its sensitivity to brittle fracture as a function of temperature. It is used as a reference for
defining standard steel qualities. The difference between h and h’ is proportional to the energy
absorbed by the specimen, Ep, that is:
𝐸𝑝 = 𝐺(ℎ − ℎ′ ) (1.5)
in which G is the weight of the hammer.
Figure 1.5. Toughness test (www.jeremyjordan.me).

1.1.3.3. Bending test
According Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016 the bending test is used to evaluate the capacity of the
material to withstand large plastic deformations at ambient temperature without cracking. The
specimen, usually with a solid rectangular cross-section (but circular or rectangular solid
specimens can also be used) is subject to a plastic deformation by means of a continuous
bending action without load reversal. In detail, as shown in Figure 1.6, the specimen is placed
over two roller bearings with radius R and then a force is applied by means of another roller
with diameter D until the ends of the specimen form an angle α with respect to each other.
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The values of R and D depend on the size of the specimen. At the end of the test, the specimen’s
bottom face is examined to ascertain that no cracks have formed.
Figure 1.6. Bending test (Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016).

1.1.3.4. Hardness test
Hardness tests consist of measuring the penetration of a conventional tool into the feelings of
the steel to be tested on a known load show Figure1.7. The measurement can relate directly to
the depth of penetrations or to the size of the impression left by the tool. Three particular
hardness measurement methods are standardized and commonly used, their results being
identified by a specific code: Brinell (HB), Rockwell (HRD and HRC) and Vickers (HV) tests.
The purpose of the test is to determine the consequences of a possible welding operation on the
steel tested.
Figure1.7. Hardness test (www.nusatek.com).

1.1.4. Characteristics of steel
The tests effected on the steel allows the illustrated the main mechanical characteristics of steel
construction. The code states that the following values for the elastic properties are to be used:
• Modulus of elasticity, E = 210 000 N/mm2
• Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.30
𝐸
• The shear modulus, 𝐺 = 2(1+𝜈) = 81 000 N/mm2
• Density of mass, 𝜌 = 7850 kg/m3
• Coefficient of linear thermal expansion α = 12 × 10-6 per ⁰C (=6.7 × 10-6 per ⁰F)
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1.1.5. Tolerances
All the steel products to be used in steel structures should fulfil geometrical tolerances (on
dimensions and shape) dependent on the forming process. EN 1090-2 (2008) establishes two
types of tolerances:
• essential tolerances – applicable for a range of criteria that are essential for the
mechanical resistance and stability of the structure
• functional tolerances – required to fulfil other criteria such as fit-up and appearance of
the structure. In specific cases special tolerances may be specified.
According to EN 1090, hot-rolled, hot-finished or cold-formed structural products shall
conform to the permitted deviations specified by the relevant product standards. The most
relevant applicable standards are supplied in EN 10025-1 (clause 2.2). In the case of hot-rolled
products with I or H sections, the maximum permitted values specified in EN 10034 (CEN,
1993) are given in Table 1.2 to 1.4. The deviation from the nominal mass of a piece shall not
exceed ±4%. The tolerances on length of pieces are ±50 mm or, where minimum lengths are
requested, +100 mm.
Table 1.2. Dimensional tolerances for structural steel I and H sections (EN 10034)
Web Flange Tol.
Section height Tol. Flange width Tol. Tol.
thickness s thickness (mm
h (mm) (mm) b (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm) t (mm) )
+3.0 +4.0 +0.7 +1.5
h ≤180 b ≤110 s<7 t < 6.5
-3.0 -1.0 -0.7 -0.5
+4.0 +4.0 +1.0 +2.0
180 < h ≤ 400 110 < b ≤ 210 7≤ s <10 6.5 ≤ t <10
-2.0 -2.0 -1.0 -1.0
+5.0 +4.0 +1.5 +2.5
400 < h ≤ 700 210 < b ≤ 325 10 ≤ s < 20 10≤ t < 20
-3.0 -4.0 -1.5 -1.5
+2.0 +2.5
20 ≤ s < 40 20≤ t < 30
-2.0 -2.0
+2.5 +2.5
40 ≤ s < 60 30≤ t < 40
+5.0 +6.0 -2.5 -2.5
h > 700 b > 325
-5.0 -5.0 s ≥ 60 +3.0 +3.0
40≤ t < 60
-3.0 -3.0
- t ≥ 60 +4.0
-4.0
h – Height measured at
the centre line of web
thickness
b – Flange width
s – Web thickness
measured at the mid-point
of dimension h
t – Flange thickness
measured at the
quarter flange width
point
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Table1.3.Tolerances on out-of-square and web off-centre of structural steel I and H sections

(EN 10034)
Out-of-square Tol. (mm)
Tol. (mm) Web off-centre e
k+k1
b ≤110 2.50
b ≤110 1.50 t < 40mm 110 ≤ b < 325 3.5
b > 325 5.0
2 % of b 110 < b ≤ 325 5.0
b > 110 t ≥ 40mm
(max. 6.5 mm) b > 325 8.0
b – Flange width
t – Flange thickness
𝑏1 − 𝑏2
𝑒=
2
Table 1.4.Tolerances on straightness of structural steel I and H sections (EN 10034)

Tolerance on straightness qxx and qyy
Section height h (mm)
on length L (%)
80< h < 180 0.30 L
180 < h ≤ 360 0.15 L
h > 360 0.10 L
Annex D of EN 1090-2 specifies geometrical tolerances for other products, such as welded
sections, cold formed sections, plates, sheets and shells. For exam. Table1.5 describes some of
the main essential tolerances for welded sections. Essential erection and functional tolerances
are also specified in Annex of EN 1090.
The tolerances on mass must be evaluated from the nominal dimensions of profiles using a
volumetric mass of 7850 kg/m3 as specified in clause 7.7.2 of EN 10025-1
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Table1.5. Essential manufacturing tolerances – welded sections (EN 1090-2)

Criterion Parameter Tolerance Δ
Depth
Overall depth h Δ = −h∕50

No positive value given
Flange width
Width b = b1 or b2 Δ = −b/100
Squareness at bearings
Δ = 200
Verticality of web at but
supports for components
without bearing stiffeners Δ ≥ tw
(tw = web thickness)
Plate curvature
Deviation Δ over plate

Δ = b/100
height b but Δ≥ t
(t = plate thickness)
1.1.6. Imperfections
The behaviour of steel structures, and thus the load carrying capacity of their elements, depends,
sometimes very significantly, on the presence of imperfections. Depending on their nature,
imperfections can be classified as follows mechanical or structural imperfections and geometric
imperfections.
1.1.6.1. Mechanical imperfection
The mechanical or structural imperfection indicate the presence of residual stress, which can
have thermal origin or mechanical. Residual stresses are a self-equilibrating state of stress that
is locked into the element as a consequence of the production processes, mostly due to non-
uniform cooling and to non-uniform plastic deformation.
For hot-rolled, the cross section with a larger exposed surface and small thermal mass, will cool
down faster than more protection element. In general, the cooler region tends to shrink more
than the warmer region. As consequence a stress distribution with tensile stress that oppose the
shrinkage of the perimeter region and compressive stresses that equilibrate in the inner region.
So, for I shapes, the variation of temperature in the cross section and as consequence the
different dilatation of the fibres that is, the cool fibre hinders the reduction of the warmer fibre.
Figure 1.8 illustrates the repartition of residual stress in the intermediate section of I beam, the
magnitude and the distribution depend on the geometric characteristics of section and in
particular, on the web to thickness ratio of flange and web.
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Figure 1.8. Distribution of residual stresses during the cooling phase an I-shape (Hirt and
Bez, 1994).
In the case of cold-formed profiles and plates, the raw product is a hot- or cold-rolled sheet. If
the rolling process is performed at ambient temperature, the outermost fibres, in contact with
the rollers, tend to stretch, while the central fibres remain undeformed. As a consequence, a
self-equilibrated residual state of stress arises, such as the one shown in Figure 1.9, due to the
differential elongation of the fibres in the cross-section. Here the residual stress has mechanical
origin.
Figure 1.9. Residual stresses in a cold-rolled plate (Hayward and al., 2011).
1.1.6.2. Geometrical imperfection
The geometrical imperfection can be defined according Bernuzzi and Cordova (2016), as the
difference than can be found between the theoretical shape and real size of the members or the
actual members as a whole or as the actual members or as built-structures. The geometrical
imperfection can be subdivided to cross section imperfection, member imperfection or
structural system imperfection.
If the difference is related to the dimension variation of the cross section or the properties of
the cross section, so the tolerance has established by the standards to limit these imperfections.
The member imperfection consists in the deviation of the axis of elements from the ideal
straight line also caused by production process, this type of imperfection increases the
susceptibility to buckling phenomena. And in the end the structural system imperfection such
as variability in the lengths of framing members, lack of verticality of columns and of
horizontality of beams, errors in the location of foundations, errors in the placement of the
connections and so on. which can be different in nature but all are caused by the production
process.
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1.2. Steel structures

In the interests of knowledge of steel construction, the topics covered are how steel construction
has evolved and in what areas of construction steel is used.
1.2.1. Background on the steel structure
According to Bell (2019), the development of steel can be traced back 4000 years to the
beginning of the Iron Age. Proving to be harder and stronger than bronze, which had previously
been the most widely used metal, iron began to displace bronze in weaponry and tools. For the
following few thousand years, however, the quality of iron produced would depend as much on
the ore available as on the production methods.
By the 17th century, iron's properties were well understood, but increasing urbanization in
Europe demanded a more versatile structural metal. By the 19th century, the amount of iron
being consumed by expanding railroads provided metallurgists with the financial incentive to
find a solution to iron's brittleness and inefficient production processes. Undoubtedly, though,
the most breakthrough in steel history came in 1856 when Henry Bessemer developed an
effective way to use oxygen to reduce the carbon content in iron: The modern steel industry
was born which rapidly became popular in Europe and by the 1880s steel quality became more
consistent.
In the United States of America, the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 destroyed thousands of timber
buildings (STEEL LLC, 2018). After the fire Chicago responded by creating stricter building
regulations by requiring non-combustible construction materials including brick, stone, marble,
and limestone. Other building solutions were cast iron and wrought iron paired with brickwork,
but as the city grew, Chicago needed to look to steel construction to go skyward. The Home
Insurance Building was built with a steel frame in 1885 (Figure 1.10), which was the first ever
world skyscraper made of 10 floors.
Figure 1.10. Chicago's Home Insurance Building, 1885 (http://www.britannica.com).

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By the early 1900s, advances in technology and production yielded a steel product that was
consistently stronger. Railroads thrived and structural steel became the building material by
which others would be judged. From 1875 to 1920 steel production in America grew from
380,000 tons to 60 million tons annually, making the U.S. the world leader. This allowed
magnates like Charles Schwab and Andrew Carnegie to become some of the wealthiest men of
the time. The incredibly rapid growth was built on a solid technological base and the ongoing
development of office buildings, factories, railroads, bridges and more.
1.2.2. Structural applications of the steel
The structural steel and the innumerable benefits of the structural steel are enough to make it
one of the best materials used in the construction. In most constructions so a few has developing
in this section, mild steel is used. It has immense strength compare to the concrete, which makes
it an ideal choice for constructing structure.
1.2.2.1. Steel buildings
The steel buildings are differed under many points, the final use, the structural elements, the
shape of the elements used in the structure. So, the buildings made with steel are classified in
based on many criteria. The typical buildings encounter in many documents can be.
The single-storey buildings as shown in the Figure 1.11 recover generally plus 50% of the hot-
rolled construction steel (Buick and Graham, 2003). Over 90% of the single-storey buildings
non-domestic buildings have the steel frame, demonstrating the dominance of the steel for this
class of buildings. It is ability to provide span up the 60m (the supermarkets, aircraft hangar,
exhibition hall, and so on). It is consisting on the anatomy levels by the cladding, secondary
steel and frame structure, which covers the specific function for the normal working of the
buildings.
Figure 1.11. Single-storey buildings (www.steelconstruction.info).

The other type of the buildings was the multi-storey buildings as illustrated in Figure 1.12 the
components of the buildings structure are column, beams can be the opening beams for facility
the installation that require the buildings, floors and the bracing system provided in resisting of
the lateral forces. In others multi-story buildings, the bracings system may be provided by
developing a continue or semi-continue frame action between beams and columns. Their frame
can be classified as non-sway or sway-sensitive depending of the sway stiffness.
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Figure 1.12. Multi-storey steel buildings (www.unionssm.com).

Moreover, the residential construction as shown in Figure 1.13 is a type of steel buildings, these
buildings should stand the test of time. They should be able to withstand external forces such
as wind, earthquake and storms. The plasticity and flexibility of the structural steel make it
suitable for the construction of the residential buildings. A technique called light gauge
construction is used to build residential buildings.
Figure 1.13. Residential building (www.steelbuildingempire.com).

In the summary, the steel has large useful in the buildings sector as the case of bridge domain.
1.2.2.2. Steel bridges
Using steel in bridges exploits its advantageous properties of economically carrying heavy loads
over long span with the minimum dead weight. For the long span, steel has natural solution.
Each types of the bridges corresponding to the well critters that bases structural engineering to
realise this. Suspension as shown in Figure 1.14 or cable stayed are suitable for the longest
spans, beet is less to support heavy loading across short or medium spans while the portal frame
bridges are mainly suitable for short or medium spans. The arch bridge suitable in particular
site condition. The trusses bridges are suitable in flat terrain to reduce the height and length of
approach embankments and for railways bridges where existing gradients cannot be modified.
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Figure 1.14. Suspension bridge (www.atlastube.com).

1.2.2.3. Others the structural application of the steel
Apart from buildings and the bridges, steel is used for towers and masts. Existing self-
supporting and guyed towers shown in Figure 1.15-a, have wide variety of uses, from
broadcasting of television and radio, telecommunication for telephone, data transmission. The
mast describes a tower which depend for its stability on cable guys. Another type of steel is
used to form mainly the roof, walls and floors, this type of steel is three-dimensional structure
called “space-frame” as illustrated by Figure 1.15-b. Space frame are classified as single, double
or multi-layered structure, which may be flat, resulting in grid structure, or may be curved in
one or two directions, forming barrel vaults and dome structure.
a) b)
Figure 1.15. (a) Guyed tower and space-frame (Buick and Graham, 2003) and (b) Space
frame of stadium structure (sc04.alicdn.com).
In conclusion, the steel structure is a wide domain, which include building structures, bridges,
towers, pipe-line and space-frame. Each type of structure is form by the structural elements
(beams, columns, floor) connected in nodes to make the entire structure.
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1.3. Nodes in the steel structures

1.3.1. Definition
For assurance, for the well transfer of forces, the structural elements are connected by using the
connected system which can be a bolt, weld or other connections used. The set of the structural
elements and the connected use form the Nodes. To understand what is really happening in the
node, the joint (the meet point of several members) is treated differently from the connections.
When the connection as well as the corresponding zone of interaction between the connected
members are considered together, the wording joint is used (Jaspart & Weynand, 2016).
1.3.2. Steel joints
BS-EN 1993-1-8 (2005), define a joint as a zone where two or more members are
interconnected. For design purposes, it is the assembly of all the basic components required to
represent the behaviour during the transfer of relevant internal forces and moments between the
connected members. There are different possible classifications of joints types, a few of which
are presented in the following discussion
1.3.2.1. Classification according to stiffness
This type of classification is only to applied when there is a need to classify the beam-to-column
joint configuration shown Figure 1.16 (Jaspart and Demonceau, 2008). Here the actual rotation
stiffness Sj,ini and classification boundaries are compared, thus a joint may be considered as
rigid, pinned or semi-rigid.
Figure 1.16. Elastic distribution of bending moment in a simple portal frame (Jaspart, 2002).
a. Rigid joint
When the joint has sufficient rotation stiffness to justify analysis based on full continuity. That
is to say the joint behaviour is assumed not to have influence on the distribution of internal
solicitations and not its overall deformation. The following formulation is used in Eurocode 3
to define a rigid beam to column joint:
𝑘𝑏 𝐸𝐼𝑏
𝑠𝑗,𝑖𝑛𝑖 ≥ 𝐿𝑏
(1.6)
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Where kb = 8 for frames where the bracing system reduces the horizontal displacement by at
least 80% and kb = 25 for the others frames.
Where:
E is the elastic modulus of the beam material;
Ib is the second moment of area of the beam;
Lb is the beam span (distance between the axes of the supporting columns)
b. Semi-rigid joint
A joint which does not meet the criterion for a rigid joint or a nominally pinned joint should be
classified as a semi-rigid joint. Semi-rigid joints provide a predictable degree of interaction
between members, based on the design moment rotation characteristics of the joints. These
joints should be capable of transmitting the internal forces and moments.
c. Nominally pinned joints
A joint which does not meet the criteion for a rigid joint or a nominally pinned joint should be
classified as a semi-rigid joint. Semi-rigid joints provide a predictable degree of interaction
between members, based on the design moment-rotation characteristics of the joints. These
joints should be capable of transmitting the internal forces and moments.
0.5 𝐸𝐼𝑏
𝑠𝑗,𝑖𝑛𝑖 ≤ (1.7)
𝐿𝑏
Figure 1.17. Classification of joints by stiffness (EN1993-1-8).

1.3.2.2. Classification according to strength
A joint may be classified as full-strength, nominally pinned or partial strength by comparing its
design moment resistance Mj,Rd with the design moment resistances of the members that it
connects. When classifying joints, the design resistance of a member should be taken as that
member adjacent to the joint.
a. Full strength
The design resistance of a full-strength joint should be not less than that of the connected
members. A joint may be classified as full-strength if it meets the criteria given.
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M j,Rd ≥ Mfull-strength (1.8)
Figure 1.18. Classification of joints by full strength (EN1993-1-8).

b. Nominally pinned
A nominally pinned joint should be capable of transmitting the internal forces, without
developing significant moments which might adversely affect the members or the structure as
a whole. It should be capable of accepting the resulting rotations under the design loads. A joint
may be classified as nominally pinned if its design moment resistance Mj,Rd is not greater than
0,25 times the design moment resistance required for a full-strength joint, provided that it also
has sufficient rotation capacity.
M j,Rd ≥ 0.25 Mfull-strength (1.9)
c. Partial strength
A joint which does not meet the criteria for a full-strength joint or a nominally pinned joint
should be classified as a partial-strength joint.
Figure 1.19. Strength classification boundaries (EN1993-1-8).

1.3.2.3. Classification according to ductility
From an experimental point of view, ductility is measured by the deformation (usually rotation)
capacity of a joint before its collapse. A connection can be classified as ductility based on both
its absolute and its relative rotation capacity.
The design code EN 1998-1 has introduced three levels of structural ductility class connections
with design concepts and range of reference value of the behaviour factors: low ductility class
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(DCL), medium ductility class (DCM) and the high ductility class (DCH). Even according the
ductility to distinguish the ductile, semi-ductile and the brittle connection. Ductile joints are
suitable for plastic frame analysis while brittle ones do not allow any redistribution of internal
forces. The use of semi ductile joints in a plastically designed frame can result only from a
preliminary comparison between their available and required rotation capacities.
1.3.2.4. Classification according to the types of members joining
According to many books such as Bernuzzi and Cordova 2016, steel joints can be classified
according to the type of elements joined, thus there are beam to beam joint, beam to column
joint, column base joint, bracing joint and splice joint.
a. Beam to beam joint
This type of connection is using generally for the raison of the transport or the erection, it allows
to connected the beams without another structural elements but some technique use the bolts,
welds or both. This connection is generally a very limited degree of flexural resistance. It is a
place to live bending moment, shear force and often the normal force is present (ANIS, 2003).
Due to the emplacement of the main beam to the main girders, among the beam to beam
connection recognized the web cleat bolted connection, web cleat bolted welded connection,
web cleated connection with secondary beam, flush end plate connection, stiff end flush end
plate connection and fin plate( Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016).
Figure 1.20. Typical beam to beam connection (AISC, 2009).

b. Beam to column joint
Beam-to-column connections are neither ideally pinned nor ideally fixed and possess a finite
non-zero stiffness. However, they are classified as simple (pinned), semi-rigid and rigid (fixed)
depending on the connection stiffness as talked in 1.3.2.1. Most commonly, beam to column
connections are bolted connections since beams and columns are linear elements transported
on-site, where they are connected during assembly. It is to clarify that as “connection” usually
is characterized the interface between connected parts and their connecting means (bolts, welds)
while as “joint” the overall area of the connection in which, in addition, the end part of the beam
and the part of the column between beam flanges (column flanges, web panel, stiffening
elements) are included.
This type of connection realised depends on the performance required, allow the type in the
beam-column regarding the parts of column and beam are connected, the following solutions
are frequently assigned. Web angle connection a couple angle is site bolted to the beam web
and the column flange, fin plate connection, header plate connection and flush end plate.
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As all the type of connection, beam to column joint ensure the well transfer of solicitations,
moreover having a mechanical behaviour predefine. The Figure 1.21 show a beam-column
joint.
Figure 1.21. Beam to column connection (www.seismicresilience.org.nz/).

c. Column base connection
The column base is the important part of steel structure so far as it transfers the loads acting in
the building to the foundation. A column base is consisted by the column, the plate and the
anchors Figure 1.22 illustrate. The plate is welded by fillet weld to the foot of the column and
bolted down the foundation. When the column base carry only the axial forces as the case of
the simple frames there are generally modelled as ideal pin and assure the role of transfer, only
the axial forces. So, the anchor bolt required in this case is only for the erection. However, the
column base can be acting by the bending moment, shear force more than axial force, so the
thickness of plate, the anchor bolts the hole bolt governing by the bending.
Figure 1.22. Column base connection (Adluri, 2001).

The tension force is transferred at foundation by the friction between the steel and concrete.
View the important role played by the column base, it is recommended carefully in the design
phase and to choose the appropriate grade of steel in order to avoid brittle failure.
d. Bracing connection
The structure should be able to transfer also horizontal loading to the ground, which results
from wind, seismic action or as well constructional imperfections, such as deviations of
columns from verticality. In concrete buildings, lateral stability is mainly ensured by the
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monolithic nature of concrete structures and therefore by the possibility of the beam to columns
joints to resist moments, i.e. through the development of frame action, as well as through
provision of shear walls. In steel buildings there are two possibilities to provide lateral stability
and resist horizontal forces: through moment resisting frames that require rigid connections
between beams and columns and through vertical bracing systems combined probably with
shear walls.
The bracing members include flats, angles, channels, I section, and hollow sections. Bracing
arrangements may involve the bracing members working in tension alone, or the both tension
and compression. In the most cases, the bracing members is attached by bolding to a gusset
plate, which is itself welded to the beam and its end connection. These connections are usually
designed as simple connections, this implies they don’t transmit moments.
Figure 1.23. Brace connection (Adluri, 2001)

e. Splices
The steel structure is made with the structures, members have the standards length, sometime
the need to exceed this length seems to be necessary, it is in this perspective that the splice
connection is used, often it is about the beam splice (Figure 1.24-b) when connections is realize
between the horizontal members, generally under bending moment and shear and the other
times the column splice (Figure 1.24-a) when is the vertical members are connected, generally
under compression, shear force and bending moment.
It should be noted that the splice connection realise with bolt or weld; all depends on the
solicitation that resist the connection. Transport, erection and economy (the load change with
the level, often need to change a section) are often the reasons for choosing the splice
connection.
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(a) (b)
Figure 1.24. (a) The column splice connection and (b) typical the beam splice connection
(AISC, 2009).
1.3.3. Steel connections
The structural elements of steel structures have need to be connected with another, so many
techniques exist for connecting these members. This part of chapter presents briefly the means
assembly which exist.
1.3.3.1. Bolted connection
A bolt is a piece of metal constituted by a smooth part (shank) and a threaded part, which is
used with a circle of metal, a nut, to fasten things together show Figure 1.25 it is the mean of
assembly the steel the most used.
Figure 1.25. Parts of bolt (mechanialjungle.com/what-is-bolt-and-its-types/)

a. Basic characteristics of bolts
The assembly of a bolt and a nut is commonly called a steel fastener. Introduction of high
strength steel has increased the bolt grading range which now start from ordinary steel strength
such as4.5, .4.6, 5.6 to high strength steel bolts such as 8.8, 10.9, and 12.9. The bolt grades
shown in are commonly used in steel connections. All of these bolt grades are generally used
in connections subject to static forces and moments. For connections subject to fatigue friction
grip connections with high strength bolts such as grades 8.8 and 10.9 are to be used because of
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their high fatigue strength and limited deformation characteristics. The basic mechanical
properties for 4.6, 5.6, 6.8, 8.8, and 10.9 grade bolts are shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6. Nominal values of the yield strength fyb and the ultimate tensile strength fub for
bolts (BS-EN 1993-1-8, 2005)
b. Bolt holes
Some standards (e.g. the Italian NTC) are quite rigid about bolt hole tolerances, prescribing
(Italian NTC) only 1 mm of tolerance until size M20, then 1.5 mm, which can be derogated by
the statement “when possible settlements under service loads do not go over acceptable limits.”
Eurocode requests 1 mm until M14 included, 2 mm from M16 to M24, then 3 mm. The 2 mm
is acceptable also for M12 and M14 if bearing resistance is less than shear resistance (which
means that bolt shear must not control design since it is a nonductile limit state) and if the
engineer takes into account a reduced shear resistance of bolts (85% of the full value).
Internationally renowned publications give 2 mm until M24 as a reference standard and 3 mm
when over it.
Some fabrication shops might ask for larger tolerances to help erection, but it is not
recommended to go over the mentioned limits unless connections are designed by friction. EN
1090 allows standard clearances (here considered as the difference between the hole dimension
and bolt nominal diameter) as in Table 1.7 for oversize holes and slots. Note that slot width is
by rule the same as a regular (standard) hole size. Table 1.8 gives the metric tolerances for holes
according to AISC.
Using oversize holes means designing bolts by friction (“slip-critical connection”) also
according to AISC. Slots (short or long) can be used even without the slip-critical condition if
the slot is perpendicular to the load according to the AISC practice.
Table 1.7. Maximum bolt hole clearance (in mm) according to EN 1090
27 and
Nominal diameter (mm) 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
beyond
Round standard hole 1 2 3
Oversize standard hole 3 4 6 8
Short slot (length) 4 6 8 10
Long slot (length) 1.5d
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Table 1.8. Maximum bolt hole clearance (in mm) according to AISC
27 and
Nominal diameter (mm) 16 20 22 24
beyond
Round standard hole 2 3
Oversize standard hole 4 6 8
Short slot (length) 6 8 10
Long slot (length) 1.5d
It is to be noted that slots or oversized holes might not be compatible with some seismic
prescriptions. According to AISC 341-10, for example, only standard holes and short slots
(perpendicular to force) can be used in lateral load resisting systems, with the exception of
oversize holes on one part only (plate or profile) for brace connections.
c. Categories of bolted connection
Bolted joints come in two flavours, depending on the direction of the external loads or forces
acting on the joint. If the line of action of the forces on the joint is more or less parallel to the
axes of the bolt, the joint is said to be loaded in tension and is called a tension or tensile joint.
If the line of action of the load is more or less perpendicular to the axes of the bolt, the joint is
loaded in shear and is called a shear joint. Both types are illustrated in Figure 1.26 (tensile on
the upper sketch and shear on the lower).
Some joints support combined tensile and shear loads and are named after the larger of the loads
placed on them, be it tensile or shear. The distinction between tensile and shear joints is
important, because the two types differ in the way they respond to loads, the ways in which
they fail, the ways in which they are assembled, etc. (Bickford, 2007).
The purpose of a bolt or group of bolts in all tensile and in most shear joints is to create a
clamping force between two or more things, which we’ll call joint members. In some shear
joints the bolts act, instead, primarily as shear pins, but even here some bolt tension and
clamping force is useful, if for no other reason than to retain the nuts.
Figure 1.26. Tension and shear bolted joint (Bickford, 2008).
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Speaking only of bolts, it can distinguish shear and tension connections. It is therefore in this
sense that, according to Eurocode 3, Messrs. Jaspart and Weynand have written an excellent
text, Design of joints in steel and composite structures (Multicomp Lda Mem Martins,2016) to
develop the two main categories of bolted connections.
i. Shear connections
Here the bolt is subjected to forces that are perpendicular to the axis of the bolt (Figure 1.27).
In this case the bolt is active when its lateral surface goes in contact with the lateral surface of
the hole. Shear stress in the bolt is given by:
𝑉
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑛 (1.10)
𝑓 ⋅𝐴res
Figure 1.27. Bolt in single shear (www.engineersedge.com/calculators/bolt-shear-aisc.htm).

The shear connection subdivides in 3 sub-categories, A, B and C. in the category A belong non-
preloaded shear connections of bearing type; in the category B preloaded shear connections that
are slip resistant at SLS; and in the category C preloaded shear connections that are slip resistant
at ULS.
ii. Tension connections
In a tension connection the bolt is subjected to tension forces. Specifically, in tensile joints, the
bolts should clamp the joint members together with enough force to prevent them from
separating or leaking. If the joint is also exposed to some shear loads, the bolts must also prevent
the joint members from slipping (Bickford, 2008).
Figure 1.28. Bolts in tension (Bangash, 2000).
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Here the tension connections are subdivided in two sub-categories, D and E. In the category D
belong non-preloaded connection transferring tension forces, while in the category E preloaded
connections transferring tension forces.
The types of connections and the required checks are summarized in the Table 1.9. Categories
of bolted connections and design checks
Table 1.9. Categories of bolted connections and design checks
The main goal of our study is the design and behaviour of the bolted joints to avoid the failure
of joint, so the proper design and/or the effective assembly techniques are some resolution
taking account to avoid this failure(H. Bickford, 1995). After the summary view on bolts joint
and their design under the difference loads, now turn the attention to joint failure. Joint failure
occurs when the bolts fail to perform their clamping function properly.
When the bolts self-loosen, shake or break the joint fail obviously. In generally it is caused by
vibration or other cyclical shear loads. The tensile and shear joints are subject to this mode of
failure. All types of bolted joints can fail because of fatigue, corrosion or stress cracking. The
stress cracking occurs when bolts are solicited by the high stresses; and fatigue when the joint
acting by the too tension; and corrosion occurs when the bolts are in contact with fluid than
attack bolts. The failure mode cited or they exert too little force on the joint causing slip (Figure
1.29-a) on the shear joint and the tension joint may separate or leak (Figure 1.29-b) (Bickford,
2008). On the other side some authors in particular Kevin Kane and Barry Onouye in their book
(B. Onouye and K. Kane, 2012) talked the types of failure based the behaviour of the joints
members after failure, so it is shear failure, bearing failure, tension failure, end tear-out of the
connected member failure and block shear failure.
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a) b)
Figure 1.29. Mechanic failure of bolts: (a) Shear failure and (b) Tension failure
(www.researchgate.net).
The bolt connection is the mean of connect members ask truly attention from design to erection
to avoid any failure to end the ensure the durability of structure, weld coming to purpose the
alternative.
1.3.3.2. Welded connection
Welding is a process in which two pieces of metal are melted and fused together to form a joint.
The base material is one of the pieces to be connected, whereas welding metal is added as fuse
between these materials.
i. Characteristics of weld
Welding can be characterizing as autogenous or heterogeneous according to the participation
of the parts of the material to be welded in the fusion process.
In autogenous processes, the base metal participates to the formation of the joint by fusion or
crystallization with the weld metal, if present. Modern autogenous processes are typically
characterized by a combined fusion of both base material and weld material. These processes
are classified basing on the specific technique employed to attain sufficient heat input, as well
as on the basis of protecting the weld pool, which is the combination of fused materials in the
weld region during the welding process. The most common processes are: oxyacetylene
(oxyfuel) welding, arc welding with consumable or non-consumable electrodes, submerged arc
welding, shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, also known as metal inert gas
welding, metal active gas welding, gas tungsten arc welding, also known as tungsten inert gas
welding, and electroslag welding, used mostly for automatic applications for large welds.
In heterogeneous processes, only the base material is the weld material used at a temperature
lower than the melting temperature of the base material
ii. Types of welds
There are two main types of weld: butt welds and fillet welds
Fillet welds are welds of theoretically triangular cross-section joining two surfaces
approximately at right angles to each other in lap, tee and corner joints (Figure 1.30). In general,
fillet welds are economical, easy to fabricate, and require very simple preparation of the
materials being joined. Fillet weld strength is directly proportional to its length and throat
dimension. The volume of weld material, and therefore the cost, is proportional to the square
of the weld leg. It is more economical to use smaller and longer fillet welds with small legs
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rather than shorter fillet welds with large legs. There is an additional economic advantage if the
weld can be made in one pass.
In butt weld, the edges of the members are butted against each other and joined by fusing the
metal to produce a continuous joint. Thus, butt weld is made within the surface profile of the
joining members (Figure 1.30). Depending on the current used, the arc can melt the metal to a
certain depth only. If the thickness of the members being joined is more than this depth, the
edges of the members are required to be prepared to form a groove along the joint line, so that
the continuity of the joint through the full thickness is achieved. The prepared groove is then
filled by weld metal from the electrode. Properties of the parent metals, edge preparation,
selection of the electrode, and welding parameters (current, speed, voltage, etc.) play a vital
role in developing the strength of a butt welded joint.
Figure 1.30. Fillet welds and butt welds to left from right (www.steelconstruction.info/).
iii. The defect of the weld
After the done welded connections, occurrent this procedure it is possible the technique knows
some imperfection which have as consequently the defects as undercut, incomplete penetration
(Figure 1.31-a), slag inclusions, porosity, lack of fusion or lack of alignment (Figure 1.31-b).
To detect these defects, many types of tests can be effect on the weld joint: non-destructive
testing (visual checks, magnetic particle inspection, ultrasonic flaw detection, radiography, etc,)
and destructive testing (bending test, hardening test, etc.). for more detailing refers to
Steinhauer, 1990 and Halmshaw, 1988.
Figure 1.31. Weld defect: (a) incomplete penetration and (b) lack of alignment (Ghosh,
2016).
iv. Advantages and disadvantages of welding
(Davison and Owens, 2003) mentioned some advantages of using welded connections over
bolted and riveted connections.
• Freedom of design, and the opportunity to develop innovative structures;
• Easy introduction of stiffening elements;
• Less weight than in bolted joints because fewer plates are required;
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• Welded joints allow increased usable space in a structure;

• Protection against the effects of fire and corrosion are easier and more effective.
The disadvantages are (Morel, 2005):
• The base metal must be weldable;
• The control and maintenance of welded joints are expensive;
• Welding requires a qualified worker and specific materials;
• The parts to be joined have to be prepared and arranged to have sufficient clearance so
that filler metal can easily be filled;
• Since the metal to be joined is held by clamping, residual stresses develop in the region
of weld. These residual stresses are often tensile in nature and greatly affect the
behaviour of metal under fatigue loading;
• Stress concentration is produced where filler metal joins with the parent metal.
1.4. Finite element method (FEM)
Engineering has recourse at three methods to solve a problem, this method can be analytical
method, experimental method or Numerical method. Although the numerical method
appearance, the FEM defined as an advanced numerical method used to solve engineering
problems and mathematical physics. Millions of engineers and scientists worldwide use the
FEM to predict the behaviour of structural, mechanical, thermal, electrical and chemical
systems for both design and performance analyses. In this section the Origin and important
notions of FEM are developing.
1.4.1. Origin of FEM
The method views the day in 1950’s from aerospace domain. many contributions are bringing
the evolution of FEM in particular the contributions of Professor Jun Turner (united states) and
John Argyris (Europe). In 1953 Turner came with the idea of modelling and analysing the
aircraft wings through representation of skin with triangular elements (direct stiffness method)
that is a prerequisite for convergence of FEM.
Several years after the initial by turner and al. Clough realized that the better name of for direct
stiffness method would be “finite element method” and published the first paper using this term
in 1960 (Clough 1960). Subsequent work by Clough his student Ed. Wilson led to the creation
of the first finite element program for stress analysis. The professor Olgierd Zienkiewiez at
university of Swansea is contributed largely in FEA with his collaborates, as Bruce Irons which
allowed the solve the multi-dimensional geometric. Zienkiewiez (1967) also the authored of the
first textbook on the FEM.
Despite the application of the method in the structural analysis, many members of the scientific
community were sceptical about the mathematical rigors. After a mathematical rigorous
verification of validation of FEM, the method become most popular primary due to the research
conducted at UC Berkeley by Taylor and Wilson. The major contribution of this last was the
creation of finite element program SAP, the algorithmic structure of which is encountered in
almost all analysis program today (Hutton, 2004).
Early the method is not expanded because it is difficult to find computer source. The use of
method has vastly increased due to the improvement in computer had were capabilities.
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1.4.2. The difference approach of FEM

Three different approaches are being used when formulating an FEM problem. They are
Direct approach, variational approach and weighted residual approach.
1.4.2.1. Direct approach

The direct approach is related to the “direct stiffness method” of structural analysis and it is the
easiest to understand when meeting FEM for the first time. The main advantage of this approach
is that you can get a field of basic techniques and the essential concept involved in the FEM
formulation without using much of mathematics. However, by direct approach we can solve
only simple problems.
1.4.2.2. Variable approach
In variational approach the physical problem has to be restated using some variational principle
such as principle of minimum potential energy. It is widely used for deriving finite element
equations whenever classical variational statement is available for the given problem. A basic
knowledge of calculus of variations is required to use variational approach. The major
disadvantage of the variational approach is that there exist many physical problems for which
classical variational statement may not be available. This is the case with most of the nonlinear
problems. In such cases variational approach is not useful. The Rayleigh-Ritz method is an
approximate method based on the variational formulation.
1.4.2.3. Weighted residual approach
Weighted residual method (WRM) is a class of method used to obtain the approximate solution
to the differential equations of the form
L (φ) + f = 0 in D (1.11)
where φ(x) is the dependent variable and is unknown and f (x) is a known function. L denotes
the differential operator involving spatial derivative of φ, which specifies the actual form of the
differential equation
In WRM, we directly work on differential equation of the problem without relying on any
variational principle. It is equally suited for linear and nonlinear differential equations.
Weighted residual method involves two major steps. In the first step, we assume an approximate
solution based on the general behaviour of the dependent variable. The approximate solution is
selected that satisfies the boundary conditions for φ. The assumed solution is then substituted
in the differential equation. Since the assumed solution is only approximate, it does not satisfy
the differential equation resulting in an error or what we call a residual. The residual is then
made to vanish in some average sense over the entire solution domain. This procedure results
in a system of algebraic equations. The second step is to solve the system of equations resulting
from the first step subject to the prescribed boundary condition to yield the approximate solution
sought.
1.4.3. Types of elements of FEM
Often the type of elements to be used will be evident from the physical problem itself and
geometry of the body. Let’s consider briefly various types of finite elements, which are subject
to certain static and kinematic assumptions.
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1.4.3.1. Bars elements

According Hutton, 2004 spring element is also often used to represent the elastic nature of
supports for more complicated systems. A more generally applicable, yet similar, element is an
elastic bar subjected to axial forces only. This element, which we simply call a bar element, is
particularly useful in the analysis of both two- and three-dimensional frame or truss structures.
Formulation of the finite element characteristics of an elastic bar element is based on the
following assumptions:
• The bar is geometrically straight.
• The material obeys Hooke’s law.
• Forces are applied only at the ends of the bar.
• The bar supports axial loading only; bending, torsion, and shear are not transmitted to
the element via the nature of its connections to other elements.
1.4.3.2. Beam elements
The one-dimensional, axial load-only elements discussed in 1.4.3.1 are quite useful in analysing
the response to load of many simple structures. However, the restriction that these elements are
not capable of transmitting bending effects precludes their use in modelling more commonly
encountered structures that have welded or riveted joints. The flexure (beam) element capable
of properly exhibiting transverse bending effects. The element is first presented as a line (one-
dimensional) element capable of bending in a plane. Then extended to two plane bending and
the effects of axial loading and torsion are added.
1.4.3.3. shell elements
A shell is, in essence, a structure that can be derived from a plate by initially forming the middle
surface as a singly or doubly curved surface. The same assumptions as used in thin plates
regarding the transverse distribution of strains and stresses are again valid. However, the way
in which the shell supports external loads is quite different from that of a flat plate. The stress
resultants acting on the middle surface of the shell now have both tangential and normal
components which carry a major part of the load, a fact that explains the economy of shells as
load-carrying structures and their well-deserved popularity (Cook and al., 1988).
Conclusion
This chapter was aimed at presenting a literature review on steel material, the application of
structural steel construction, the nodes in steel structure and the previous studies use FEM to
improve steel connections. In conclusion, the steel through its properties as lightweight, a
strength and the rapidity of the erection seem be the appropriate material of construction used
in the different fields in the word smack expansion. However, it appears that in all structure,
whatever the material used, the joint remains the principal zone of the vulnerability of the
structure. Mostly when it is a steel structure, a special interest is given to classification and a
technique of assembly the structure. The researchers went so far as to use a preferred method
to reduce the vulnerability of this type of structure faced with the most devastating solicitations.
The methodology that will be adopted to analysis is presented in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 2 : METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The methodology is a part allowing to establish the procedure of the research in order to attain
the fixed objectives. In other words, it will be question of describing the different constitutive
elements of our research. In this work, the first step consists in a site recognition through a
documentary research followed by the data collection. Then, the norms used and the design
procedure for elements such as roof elements, beam, column, and foundation will be presented,
then connection between these members and finally a numerical modelling of the connections
was done in the software Abaqus/CAE to study their behaviour on different loading conditions.
2.1.Case study
In this section the action taken to take ownership of the case study are described.
2.1.1. Site recognition
The site recognition will be carried out from a documentary research whose essential goal is
to know the location of the site, the climate, the hydrology and socio-economic parameters in
the region.
2.1.2. Site visit

The purpose of this activity is the building description results from the observation and the
presentation of the use category, the dimension, the floor plans and elevation configuration.
2.1.3. Data collection

The data that collect is structural data, they are related to the structural plan of building where
we can identify the position of structural elements namely beams, columns and nodes and the
characteristics of materials used.
2.2. Basic of design

In this section the codes, specification and the actions will be using to design are develop.
2.2.1. Codes and specifications
The norms that will be used for the design of elements are:
Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design
Eurocode 1: Actions on structure,
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures,
Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures.
These European standards define the loads and the combination of loads for the design.
2.2.2. Actions
Different types of loads can be applied on a structure. This analysis is focused on a building
structure and the different kinds of actions are considered: the permanent loads and the variable
loads.
2.2.2.1. Permanent loads
This kind of load is constituted by the self-weight of structural and non-structural elements.
The weight of the structural elements is obtained by multiplying the specific weight of steel
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by the section of the elements. The self-weight of the non-structural elements are extracted
form Eurocode 1.
2.2.2.2. Variable loads

These are actions which can significantly vary in time. We have imposed loads and wind loads.
a. Imposed loads
Imposed loads are those arising from occupancy. It includes the normal use by people, the
furniture and moveable objects and others. According to the Eurocode 1, different use
categories of areas exist. Therefore, those ones are presented in the table A1 of the annex A.
Based on these different categories the different values of loads recommended by this norm are
presented in the table A2 of the Annex A.
b. Wind load
The response of a building to wind pressures depends not only upon the geographical location
and proximity of other obstructions to airflow but also upon the characteristics of the structure
like the size, shape and dynamic properties of the structure. The effect of wind on the structure
as a whole is determined by the combined action of external and internal pressures acting upon
it. In all cases, the calculated wind loads act normal to the surface to which they apply. The
pressures created inside a building due to access of wind through openings could be suction
(negative) or pressure (positive) of the same order of intensity while those outsides may also
vary in magnitude with possible reversals. Thus, the design value shall be taken as the algebraic
sum of the two in appropriate or concerned direction.
i. Basic wind velocity

EN 1994 1-4 specifies that the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, 𝑣𝑏 is the
characteristic 10 minutes mean wind velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year,
at 10 m above ground level in open country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and
isolated obstacles with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights. This velocity will be
calculated from equation 2.1
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 ⋅ 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 ⋅ 𝑣𝑏,0 (2.1)
Where:
𝑣𝑏 is the basic wind velocity;
𝑣𝑏,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, may be given in the National Annex;
𝑐𝑑𝑖𝑟 and 𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 are respectively the directional and seasonal factor. EN 1994 1-4 recommend
this value to be taken as 1;
ii. Peak and Basic velocity pressure

The basic velocity pressure will be calculated with equation 2.2.
1
𝑞𝑏 = 2 ⋅ 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 ⋅ 𝑣𝑏2 (2.2)
Where:
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.25 kg/m3 the air density.
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The peak velocity pressure qp(z) at height z, which includes mean and short-term velocity
fluctuations, shall be determined as:
1
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = [1 + 7 ⋅ 𝐼𝜈 (𝑧)] 2 ⋅ 𝜌 ⋅ 𝑣𝑚 (𝑧)2 (2.3)
𝑣𝑚 (𝑧) is the mean wind velocity defined as:
𝑣𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) ⋅ 𝑐0 (𝑧) ⋅ 𝑣𝑏 (2.4)
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) is the roughness factor, given by equation 2.5.
𝑧
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = 𝑘𝑇 ⋅ ln (𝑧 ) for zmin ≤ z ≤zmax (2.5)
0
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) for zmin ≤ z (2.6)
Where:
z0 is the roughness length, depend of the terrain category defined in the table A3 of the Annex
A.
kT is the terrain factor, depending on the roughness length zo.
0.07
𝑧0
𝑘𝑇 = 0.19 ⋅ (𝑧 ) (2.7)
0,𝐼𝐼
Where:
z0,Ⅱ = 0.05m.
zmin is the minimum height, depend of the terrain category defined in the table A3 of the Annex
A.
zmax is to be taken as 200 m.
𝑐0 (𝑧) is the orography factor, taken as 1.0.
𝐼𝜈 is the turbulence intensity calculated as;
𝑘1
𝐼𝑣 = 𝑧 for zmin ≤ z ≤zmax (2.8)
𝑐0 (𝑧)⋅ln( )
𝑧0
Where:
k1 is the turbulence factor and the recommended value for k1 is 1,0 and;
𝐼𝑣 (𝑧) = 𝐼𝑣 (𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) for zmin ≤ z (2.9)
The peak velocity pressure can also be calculated as;
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑒 (𝑧) ⋅ 𝑞𝑏 (2.10)
With:
ce(z) is the exposure factor illustrated in annex A1 as a function of height above terrain and the
terrain category.
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iii. Wind pressure on surfaces

• External surfaces
The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces, we, should be obtained from Expression 2.11.
𝑤𝑒 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) ⋅ 𝑐𝑝𝑒 (2.11)
Where:
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) is the peak velocity pressure;
ze is the reference height for the external pressure given in annex A2.
𝑐𝑝𝑒 is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure, depending on the size of the loaded
area; which equals cpe,10 because the loaded area A for the structure is larger than 10m².
• Internal surfaces
The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure, wi, should be obtained from
Expression 2.12.
𝑤𝑖 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑖 ) ⋅ 𝑐𝑝𝑖 (2.12)
Where:
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑖 ) is the peak velocity pressure;
zi is the reference height for the internal pressure given in annex A2;
𝑐𝑝𝑖 is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure.
The net pressure on a wall, roof or element is the difference between the pressures on the
opposite surfaces taking due account of their signs. Pressure, directed towards the surface is
taken as positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as negative as illustrated in the
Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1. Pressure of wind on surfaces of building (BS EN1991 1-4).

2.2.3. Limits state design
Limit state design considers the resistance, serviceability and durability of a structure. All
relevant design situations should be considered for the structure. The design situations
considered by the Eurocodes are:
• Persistent – the normal use of the structure.
• Transient – temporary situations, e.g. execution.
• Accidental – exceptional events, e.g. fire, impact or explosion.
• Seismic – seismic events that may act on the structure.
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Two limit states are considered during the design process: ultimate and serviceability.
2.2.3.1. Ultimate Limit State
Ultimate limit states are those that relate to the failure of a structural member or a whole
structure. Design verifications that relate to the safety of the people in and around the structure
are ultimate limit state verifications. Limit states that should be considered where relevant are:
• Loss of equilibrium of the structure or a structural member.
• Failure of the structure or a structural member caused by: excessive deformation causing
a mechanism, rupture, loss of stability, fatigue or other time-dependent effects.
• Failure of the supports or foundations, including excessive deformation of the
supporting ground.
2.2.3.2. Services Limit State
Serviceability limit states concern the functioning of the structure under normal use, the comfort
of the people using the structure and the appearance of the structure. The criteria that are
considered during serviceability limit state design checks are:
• Deflections that affect the appearance of the structure, the comfort of its users and its
functionality.
• Vibrations that may cause discomfort to users of the structure and restrict the
functionality of the structure.
• Damage that may affect the appearance or durability of the structure.
2.2.4. Combination of actions

A combination of actions defines a set of values used for the verification of the structural
reliability for a limit state under the simultaneous influence of different actions with the
specified safety coefficients recommended by the norm; they are defined by:
• The fundamental combination, used for the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) associated with
collapse or other similar forms of structural failure is:
∑ 𝛾𝐺,𝑗 𝐺𝑘,𝑗 + 𝛾𝑄,1 𝑄𝑘,1 + ∑𝑖>1 𝛾𝑄,1 𝜓𝑜,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖 (2.13)

𝑗≥1
Where:
the coefficients 𝛾𝐺,𝑗 , 𝛾𝑄,1 are partials factors which minimize the action which tends to reduce
the solicitations and maximize the one which tends to increase it. The recommended values
preconized by the Eurocode 0 as illustrated by Annex A Table A4.
• The characteristic combination (rare), used for non-reversible serviceability limit states
(SLS) to be used in the verifications with the allowable stress method is:
∑ 𝐺𝑘,𝑗 + 𝑄𝑘,1 + ∑ 𝜓𝑜,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖

𝑗≥1 𝑖>1
(2.14)
Where:
𝜓 is the combination factors that is function of the use category of the building. The
recommended values by the Eurocode 0 are presented in the table A5 of the annex A;
𝐺𝑘,𝑗 is the characteristic value of the permanent action j;
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𝑄𝑘,1 is the characteristic value of the leading variable action 1;

𝑄𝑘,𝑖 is the characteristic value of the accompanying variable action
2.3. Building analysis and design
2.3.1. Section classifications
The local buckling of cross sections affects their resistance and rotation capacity and must be
considered in design. The evaluation of the influence of local buckling of a cross section on the
resistance or ductility of a steel member is complex. Consequently, a deemed-to-satisfy
approach was developed in the form of cross section classes that greatly simplify the
problem. Thus, four classes of cross sections are defined, as follows:
• Class 1 cross section are those which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity
required for plastic analysis without reduction of the resistance;
• Class 2 cross sections are those which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but
which have limited rotation capacity because of local buckling;
• Class 3 cross section are those in which the stress in the extreme compression fiber of the
steel member assuming an elastic distribution of stresses can reach the yield strength, but
local buckling is liable to prevent development of the plastic moment resistance;
• Class 4 cross section are those in which local buckling will occur before the attainment of
yield stress in one or more parts of the cross section.
All necessary parameters needed for a prompt determination of the class of a steel element’s
cross-section are indicated at Table 2.1 and Table 2.2;
Table 2.1. Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression parts (EN 1993-1-1: 2005)
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Table 2.2. Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression parts (EN 1993-1-1: 2005)
2.3.2. Tension members

A member exclusively subject to a tension force is under a uniaxial stress state. According to
clause 6.2.3, the design value of tension force at each cross section, including cross section in
the vicinity of connections, should satisfy:
𝑁𝐸 ⅆ
≤ 1.0 (2.15)
𝑁𝑡,𝑅 ⅆ
Where:
𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑 is the design tension resistance. For section with holes the design tension resistance 𝑁𝑡,𝑅𝑑
should be taken as the smallest of:
• Design plastic resistance of the gross cross section,
𝑁𝑃𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ∕ 𝛾𝑀0 (2.16)
where A is the gross cross section area, fy is the yield strength of steel and 𝛾𝑀0 is the partial
safety factor.
• design ultimate resistance of the net cross section at holes for fasteners,
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 = 0.9𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢 ∕ 𝛾𝑀2 (2.17)
Where:
Anet is the net cross section area,
fu is the ultimate strength of steel
𝛾𝑀2 is the partial safety factor.
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2.3.3. Compress members

The resistance of a steel member subject to axial compression depends on the cross-section
resistance or the occurrence of instability phenomena, such as flexural buckling, torsional
buckling or flexural-torsional buckling.
2.3.3.1. Pure compression

The cross-section resistance of axially compressed members is verified by the following
condition:
𝑁𝐸 ⅆ
≤ 1.0 (2.18)
𝑁𝑐,𝑅 ⅆ
Where:
NEd is the design value of the axial compression force
Nc,Rd is the design resistance of the cross section for uniform compression, given by:
• Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections
𝑁𝑐,𝑅 𝑑 = 𝐴𝑓𝑦 ∕ 𝛾𝑀𝑂 (2.19)

• Class 4 cross section
𝑁𝑐,𝑅 𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 ∕ 𝛾𝑀𝑜 (2.20)
where A is the gross area of the cross section, Aeff is the effective area of a class 4 cross section,
fy is the yield strength of steel and γM0 is a partial safety factor.
2.3.3.2. Buckling resistance

In compression members it must also be verified that:
NEd ≤ Nb,Rd (2.21)
Where:
Nb,Rd is the design buckling resistance of the compression member and this generally controls
design.
The design flexural buckling resistance of members is given by:
• Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-sections
Nb,Rd = χ A fy / γM1 (2.22)
• Class 4 cross-section
Nb,Rd = χ Aeff fy / γM1 (2.23)
where χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode and γM1 is a
partial safety factor. The reduction factor χ is obtained from the expression 2.24:
1
𝜒= ̅2 )0.5
but 𝜒 ≤ 1.0 (2.24)
𝜙+(𝜙2 −𝜆
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In this expression, ϕ =0.5[1+α(𝜆̅ -0.2) + 𝜆̅2]and 𝜆̅ is the nondimensional slenderness coefficient,

given by:
• Class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections
𝐿 1
𝜆̅ = √𝐴𝑓𝑦 ∕ 𝑁𝑐𝑟 = 𝑐𝑟 ⋅ (2.25)
𝑖 𝜆 1
• Class 4 cross sections
𝐿 √𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 ∕𝐴
𝜆̅ = √𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 ∕ 𝑁𝑐𝑟 = 𝑐𝑟 × (2.26)
𝑖 𝜆 1
Where:
α is the imperfection factor;
Ncr is the elastic critical load (Euler’s critical load) for the relevant buckling mode;
Lcr is the length of the corresponding buckling mode;
i is the radius of gyration of the cross section;
λ1 = π (E/ fy )0.5 = 93.9ε
ε = (235 /fy)0.5
The effect of imperfections is included by the imperfection factor α, the recommended values
α are given in Table 2.3. These curves, mathematically represented by equation 2.24, are
illustrated in Figure 2.2.The imperfection factor α and the associated buckling curve to be
adopted in design of a given member depends on the geometry of the cross sections, on the steel
grade, on the fabrication process and on the relevant buckling plane, as described in Table 2.4.
Table 2.3. Recommended values for imperfection factors for buckling curves
Buckling curve a b c d
Imperfection factor
0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76
αLT
Figure 2.2. Buckling curves according to EC3-1-1.
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Table 2.4. Selection of the buckling curve according to EC3-1-1
2.3.4. Members in bending moment, shear and axial forces

Some structural members are subjected the several forces. In this case, each possible the
combination force is design differently as follow.
2.3.4.1. Uniaxial bending

the design value of the bending moment MEd at each cross section should satisfy:
𝑀𝐸 ⅆ
≤ 1.0 (2.27)
𝑀𝑐,𝑅 ⅆ
Where:
Mc,Rd is the design resistance for bending.
The design resistance for bending about one principal axis of a cross section is determined as
follows:
• Cross sections class 1 and 2
𝑤𝑃𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = (2.28)
𝛾𝑀0
• Cross sections class 3
𝑤𝑒𝑙,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = (2.29)
𝛾𝑀0
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𝑤𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = (2.30)
𝛾𝑀0
where Wpl is the plastic section bending modulus; Wel,min is the minimum elastic section bending
modulus; Weff,min is the minimum elastic bending modulus of the reduced effective section; fy is
the yield strength of the material; 𝛾𝑀0 is the partial safety factor.
2.3.4.2. Bi-axial bending

Design for bi-axial bending can be verified by plastic (class 1 or 2 cross sections) or
elastic (class 3 and 4 cross sections) interaction formulae, as described next:
𝛼 𝛽
𝑀𝑦,𝐸ⅆ 𝑀𝑧,𝐸ⅆ
[𝑀 ] + [𝑀 ] ≤ 1.0 (2.31)
𝑃𝑙,𝑦,𝑅ⅆ 𝑃𝑙,𝑧,𝑅ⅆ
Where α and β are parameters that depend on the cross section’s shape and Mpl,y,Rd and Mpl,z,Rd
are the plastic moments of resistance about y and z, respectively. Parameters α and β can
conservatively take the value 1.0; in alternative, they can take the values defined in clause 6.2.9,
that is, α=2 and β=5n with β ≥1 for I or H sections, α=β=2 for circular hollow sections and α=β
=(1,66∕(1-1.13.n2)) with α and β less or equal than 6 for rectangular hollow sections. The n is
given by 𝑁𝐸 𝑑 ∕ 𝑁𝑃𝑙,𝑅 𝑑 .
𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝛾 (2.32)
𝑀0
Where:
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 the maximum longitudinal stress due to moment and axial force taking into account the
bolt fastener holes if relevant.
2.3.4.3. shear resistance

the design value of the shear force, VEd, must satisfy the following expression 2.33.
𝑉𝐸ⅆ
≤ 1.0 (2.33)
𝑉𝑐,𝑅ⅆ
Where:
Vc,Rd is the design shear resistance. Considering plastic design, in the absence of torsion, the
design shear resistance Vc,Rd, is given by the design plastic shear resistance Vpl,Rd, given by the
equation 2.34:
𝑓𝑦
𝐴𝑉 ( )
√3
𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝛾𝑀0
(2.34)
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Where:
Av is the shear area, may be taken as for rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web A=2btf +
(tw + 2r) tf but not less than ηhwtw
A is the crosssectional area;
b is the overall breadth;
h is the overall depth;
hw is the depth of the web;
r is the root radius;
tf is the flange thickness;
tw is the web thickness (If the web thickness in not constant, tw should be taken as the
minimum thickness.).
η see EC3-1-5.
The shear buckling resistance of webs should be verified, for unstiffened webs when:
ℎ𝑤 𝜀
> 72 𝜂 (2.35)
𝑡𝑤
Where:
hw and tw represent the depth and the thickness of the web, respectively;
η is a factor defined in EC3-1-5, which may be conservatively taken as 1.0, and ε is given by
the relation √235 ∕ 𝑓𝑦 .
2.3.4.3. Bending and Shear interaction

when a section is subjected to bending moment and shear force, the design plastic bending
resistance should be reduced to allow for the presence of the shear force. Thus, the following
interaction criterion (equations 2.36 and 2.37) between bending moment and shear force:
• No reduction the moment resistance
𝑉𝐸𝑑 < 0,5 ⋅ 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅ⅆ (2.36)
• Reduction the moment resistance
𝑉𝐸𝑑 ≥ 0,5 ⋅ 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅ⅆ (2.37)
the value of the design moment resistance should be evaluated using a reduced yield strength
(1- ρ) f y for the shear area, where ρ = (2VEd∕Vpl,Rd -1)2.
2.3.4.4. Bending and Axial resistance

When a cross section is subjected to bending moment and axial force (N + My, N + Mz or even
N + My + Mz), the bending moment resistance should be reduced, using interaction formulae.
The interaction formulae to evaluate the elastic cross section capacity are the well-known
formulae of simple beam theory, valid for any type of cross section.
The condition of equation 2.38 should be satisfied.
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𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑁,𝑅𝑑 (2.38)
where MN,Rd is the design plastic moment resistance reduced due to the axial force NEd as shown
expression 2.39.
2
𝑁𝐸ⅆ
𝑀𝑁,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅ⅆ [1 − (𝑁 ) ] (2.39)
𝑝𝑙 ,𝑅ⅆ
For doubly symmetrical I- and H-sections or other flanges sections, allowance need not be made
for the effect of the axial force on the plastic resistance moment about the y-y axis when both
the following criteria are satisfied:
N Ed ≤ 0,25 N pl,Rd (2.40)
and
0.5ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑦
𝑁𝐸𝑑 ≤ (2.41)
𝛾𝑀0

In the absence of shear force, for Class 3 cross-sections the maximum longitudinal stress shall
satisfy the criterion:
𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝛾 (2.42)
𝑀0
where is the design value of the local longitudinal stress due to moment and axial force taking
account of fastener holes.

In the absence of shear force, for Class 4 cross-sections the maximum longitudinal stress σx,Ed
calculated using the effective cross sections shall satisfy the criterion:
𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑥,𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝛾 (2.43)
𝑀0
where is the design value of the local longitudinal stress due to moment and axial force taking
account of fastener holes where relevant.
And the following additional condition has to be fulfilled for members subject to combined
bending and axial compression:
𝑁𝐸ⅆ 𝑀𝑦,𝐸ⅆ +𝛥𝑀𝑦,𝐸ⅆ 𝑀𝑧,𝐸ⅆ +𝛥𝑀𝑧,𝐸ⅆ
𝜒𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 + 𝑘𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘 + 𝑘𝑦𝑧 𝑀𝑧,𝑅𝑘 ≤1 (2.44)
𝛾𝑀1 𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝛾𝑀1
𝛾𝑀1
𝑁𝐸ⅆ 𝑀𝑦,𝐸ⅆ +𝛥𝑀𝑦,𝐸ⅆ 𝑀𝑧,𝐸ⅆ +𝛥𝑀𝑧,𝐸ⅆ

𝜒𝑦 𝑁𝑅𝑘 + 𝑘𝑧𝑦 𝑀𝑦,𝑅𝑘 + 𝑘𝑧𝑧 𝑀𝑧,𝑅𝑘 ≤1 (2.45)
𝛾𝑀1 𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝛾𝑀1
𝛾𝑀1
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Where:
NEd, My,Ed and Mz,Ed are the design values of the compression force and the maximum moments
about the y-y and z-z axis along the member, respectively;
∆My,Ed, ∆Mz,Ed; are the moments due to the shift of centroidal axis;
χy and χz are the reduction due to flexural buckling;
χLT is the reduction factor due to lateral torsional buckling;
kyy, kyz, kzy, kzz are the interaction factors (the coefficients k equal to 1).
Table 2.5. Values for NRk= fyAi , Mi, Rk = fyWi and ∆Mi,Ed
Class 1 2 3 4
Ai A A A Aeff
Wy Wpl,y Wpl,y Wel,y Weff,y
Wz Wpl,z Wpl,z Wel,z Weff,z
∆My,Ed 0 0 0 eN,y NEd
∆Mz,Ed 0 0 0 eN,z NEd
2.3.4.5. Lateral-Torsional Buckling resistance

Lateral-torsional buckling is characterised by lateral deformation of the compressed part of the
cross section (the compressed flange in the case of I or H sections). The verification of
resistance to lateral-torsional buckling of a prismatic member consists of the verification of the
condition of equation 2.46.
𝑀𝐸ⅆ
≤ 1.0 (2.46)
𝑀𝑏,𝑅ⅆ
where MEd is the design value of the bending moment and Mb,Rd is the design buckling
resistance, given by:
• Class 1 and 2 cross sections
𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝑊𝑝𝑙,𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = (2.47)
𝛾𝑀1

𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝑓𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑦
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = (2.48)
𝛾𝑀1
𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝑓𝑦 𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑦
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = (2.49)
𝛾𝑀1
the reduction factor 𝜒𝐿𝑇 is determined by:
1
𝜒𝐿𝑇 = ̅2 )0.5
but 𝜒𝐿𝑇 ≤ 1.0 (2.50)
𝜙𝐿𝑇 +(𝜙𝐿𝑇 −𝜆𝐿𝑇
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With:
ϕLT =0.5[1+αLT(𝜆̅LT-0.2) + 𝜆̅2LT];
αLT is the imperfection factor, which depends on the buckling curve ;
𝑊𝑦 𝑓𝑦 0.5
𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 = [ 𝑀 ] ;
𝑐𝑟
Mcr the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling. Is based on gross cross-sectional
properties and takes into account the loading conditions, the real moment distribution and the
lateral restraints as illustrate by equation 2.51.
2𝐼 0.5
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 𝑘 (𝐾𝐿)2 𝐺𝐼𝑇 2
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑐1 (𝑘 {[(𝑘 𝑧 ) 𝑤
+ + (𝑐2 𝑧𝑔 − 𝑐3 𝑧𝑗 ) ] − (𝑐2 𝑧𝑔 − 𝑐3 𝑧𝑗 )} (2.51)
𝑧 𝐿)2 𝑤 𝐼𝑧 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧
Where:
Iw is the warping constant,
zg is the distance between the load application point and the shear centre, that is
zg = za - zs (in general this term is positive when loads acting towards the shear centre, i.e. the
gravity loads are applied above the shear centre.)
zj is a parameter with units of length, defined as:
0.5
𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑠 − ⋅ ∫𝐴(𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) ⋅ 𝑧 𝑑𝐴 (2.52)
𝐼𝑦
Where:
c1, c2 and c3 depend on the shape of the bending moment diagram (i.e. by the load conditions),
and on the support conditions. These coefficients are reported in Table 2.6-a and Table 2.6-b
kw is an effective length factor accounting for warping end restraint, ranging from 0.5 (full
fixity) to 1.0 (no fixity);
kz is an effective length factor accounting for rotation about y–y axis: it varies from 0.5 for full
fixity to 1.0 for no fixity.
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Table 2.6. (a) Coefficients C1, C2 and C3 for beams with end moments (Annex F of ENV 1993-
1-1).
(b) Coefficients C1, C2 and C3 for intermediate transverse load (Annex F of ENV 1993-1 1).
The buckling curves to be adopted depend on the geometry of the cross section of the member
and are indicated in Table 2.7. For the imperfection factors αLT associated to the various curves,
the values given in section 2.5.4.2 for members in compression should be adopted
Table 2.7. Recommended values for lateral torsional buckling curves for cross-sections using
equation 2.43 (EC3-1-1)
Cross-section Limits Buckling curve
h/b ≤ 2 a
Rolled I-sections
h/b > 2 b
h/b ≤ 2 c
Welded I-sections
h/b > 2 d
Other cross-sections - D
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The verification of lateral-torsional buckling for a member in bending may be ignored if at least
one of the following conditions is verified so only cross-sectional checks apply:
𝑀𝐸ⅆ
𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 ≤ 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇,0 or ≤ 𝜆2̅𝐿𝑇,0 (2.53)
𝑀𝑐𝑟
2.4. Design of joints

The procedure using to design and verifying all types of connections in case study building
will subject of this section
2.4.1. Bracing connections
The connection of the bracing system is illustrated in this section.
2.4.1.1. Bolt resistance of the bolts
The shear resistance of the single bolt will be design according to the equations 2.54:
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑏
𝐹𝜈,𝑅𝑑 = (2.54)
𝛾𝑀2
For class 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8, 𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 and for class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9, 𝛼𝑣 = 0.5. With Ab is the
cross-sectional area of the bolt at the shear plane determined as: 𝐴𝑏 = 𝜋𝑑 2 ∕ 4, 𝑓𝑢𝑏 is the
ultimate strength of the bolt.
2.4.1.2. Bearing resistance of bolts
The bearing resistance should be satisfying the condition:
𝐹𝑏,𝐸𝐷
≤1 (2.55)
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝐷
Where:
𝐹𝑏, 𝐸𝐷 the force acting on single bolt defined by
𝐹 2 𝑀𝐸𝐷 2
𝐹𝑏,𝐸𝐷 = √( 𝑛𝐸𝐷 ) + ((𝑛 ) (2.56)
𝑏 𝑏 −1)𝑃
With:
𝐹𝐸𝐷 the force acting on the structural element,
𝑛𝑏 the numbers of the bolts using, the moment du to eccentricity
𝑃 the distance between the bolts.
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 the bearing resistance of single bolt is defined by:
𝑘1 𝑎𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = (2.57)
𝛾𝑀2
Where:
d is the diameter of the bolts;
fu is the yielding strength of the plate;
𝑎𝑏 is the smallest of 𝛼𝑏 , 𝑓𝑢𝑏 ∕ 𝑓𝑢 and 1; with 𝛼𝑏 equals 𝑒1 ∕ 3𝑑0 for end bolts and 𝑝1⁄3𝑑0 −
1/4 for inner bolts
𝑘1 is the smaller of:
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𝑒
For edge bolts between 2.8 𝑑2 − 1.7 or 2.5
0
𝑒2
For inner bolts between 1.4 𝑑 − 1.7 or 2.5
0
𝑑0 is the diameter of the bolts holes on the plate and e1, e2, p1, p2 are the constructive
dispositions on the plate and are represented in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3. Symbols for spacing of fasteners (Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016).
2.4.1.3. The resistance of connecting plates
the design ultimate resistance should be determined as:
𝛽2 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢
with 2 bolts 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝐷 = (2.58)
𝛾𝑀2
with 3 bolts 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝐷 = (2.59)
𝛾𝑀2
where:
𝛽2 and 𝛽3 are reduction factors dependent on the pitch p1 as given in Table 2.8. For
intermediate values of p1 the value of 𝛽 may be determined by linear interpolation. And 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡
is the net area of the angle.
Table 2.8. Reduction factors 𝛽2 and 𝛽3

Pitch (p1) ≤ 2,5 do ≥ 5,0 do
2 bolts (𝛽2 ) 0,4 0,7
3 bolts or more (𝛽3 ) 0,5 0,7
2.4.1.4. Plate verification

The plate use to connected the elements should be verify the condition 2.60.
𝑁𝐸𝐷 𝑁𝐸𝐷 ⋅𝑒 𝑓
+ ⋅ 𝑦𝐺 ≤ 𝛾 𝑦𝑘 (2.60)
𝐴𝑛 𝐽𝑥 𝑀0
Where:
𝑁𝐸𝐷 the design load, 𝑦𝐺 the position of gravity centre of 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 defined by 𝑦𝑄 = 𝑠𝑥0 ∕ 𝐴net .
2.4.2. Truss-column connection

In this step of design process, firstly the compressed top chord connection, the diagonal member
will be verify using the equations from 2.61 and 2.62. then the welded connection is verifying
according EC3, part 8, 4.5.3.2 as:
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0.5 𝑓𝑢
[𝜎⊥2 + 3(𝜏⊥2 + 𝜏∥2 )] ≤𝛽 (2.61)
𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
𝑓
𝜎⊥ = 𝛾 𝑢 (2.62)
𝑀𝑤
Where:
𝜏 the tangential stresses to the axis of the weld generate by Ved (𝑉𝐸𝑑 ∕ 𝐴𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 ),
𝜎 the normal stresses perpendicular to the axis of the weld generated by Med (𝑀𝐸𝑑 ∕ 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 ).
The correlation factor 𝛽𝑤 is defined on Table 2.8, depending on the type of steel, 𝑓𝑢 represents
the ultimate strength of weakest part joined.
Table 2.9. The correlation factor 𝛽𝑤 (table 4.2.XIV in TU 2008)

S235 S275-S355 S420-S460
𝛽1 0.85 0.70 0.62
𝛽2 1.0 0.85 0.75
2.4.3. Beam-column connections

This type of connection made by bolts, so before all, the verification of bolt resistance, the
bearing resistance, the resistance of connecting plate are checking and then the equation from
2.63 to 2.74 should verifying.
2.4.3.1. Traction resistance
The traction resistance of each bolt is given by expression 2.63:
𝐴
𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = 0.9𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝛾 𝑏 (2.63)
𝑀2
2.4.3.2. Tension force per bolt row

The traction force in each row of bots is given by:
𝑀𝐸ⅆ 𝑑𝑖
𝐹𝑡,𝐸𝑑,𝑖 = ≤ 𝐹𝑡,Rd,I (2.64)
𝛴𝑑𝑖2
Where:
𝐹𝑡,Rd,i is the traction resistance per bolt row of i-th row.
di the distance from the centre of compression to row i as illustrated by the Figure 2.4.
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Figure 2.4. the tension in the bolt row and their levels arm (Morel, 2005).
2.4.3.3. Simultaneous traction and shear

If the bolt is subjected to combined design shear 𝐹𝑣,Ed and tension, 𝐹𝑡,Ed the resistance of the
bolt is defined as:
𝐹𝑣,𝐸ⅆ 𝐹
+ 1,4𝐹𝑡,𝐸ⅆ ≤ 1 (2.65)
𝐹𝑣,𝑅ⅆ 𝑡,𝑅ⅆ
Where:
Fv,Rd and Ft,Rd, are the design shear resistance per bolt (Eq. 2.54) and the design tension
resistance per bolt (Eq. 2.63), respectively.
2.4.3.4. moment resistance

the moment resistance of the connection is given by:
𝑀𝑅𝑑 = ∑𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑,𝑖 ⋅ 𝑑𝑖 (2.66)
2.4.3.5. resistance of the column web in the compressed zone

The design resistance of an unstiffened column web in the compressed zone is calculated as:
𝜔𝑘𝑤𝑐 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑐,𝑤𝑐 𝑡𝑤𝑐 𝑓𝑦,𝑤𝑐

𝐹𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = (2.67)
𝛾𝑀0
Where:
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑡𝑓𝑏 + 2𝑡𝑝 + 5(𝑡𝑓𝑐 + 𝑟𝑐 )
𝜔 is a reduction factor that takes account of the interaction with shear in the column and its
value will be taken as 1.
𝑘𝑤𝑐 is a reduction factor which value will be taken as 1.
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2.4.3.6. resistance of the column web in the tension zone

Resistance of the column in the tension zone will be given by:
𝜔𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑡,𝑤𝑐 𝑡𝑤𝑐 𝑓𝑦
𝐹𝑡 = (2.68)
𝛾𝑀0
Where:
𝑡𝑤𝑐 is the thickness of the column flange.
For a bolted connection, the effective width of column web in tension 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑡,𝑤𝑐 should be taken
as equal to the effective length of equivalent T-stub representing the column flange in tension.
The effective length of equivalent T-stub representing the column flange in tension will be the
length of the critical failure mode. The section below shows how T-stub failure mode will be
determined.
According to T-stub approach there are 3 failure modes: mode 1, mode 2 and mode 3. Basic
requirement:
𝐹𝐸𝑑 ≤ min(𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,1 ; 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,2 ; 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,3 ) (2.69)
Where 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,1 , 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,3 are the design resistance for the failure modes 1, failure mode
2 and failure mode 3. The figure 2.5 shows the different geometric parameters taken into
consideration for the Tstub failure mode.
Figure 2.5. Connection geometry (SCI,P398).
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For the failure mode 1, the failure is due to the plate as shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6. Complete yielding of the flange (SCI P398).

The 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,1 is given by:
(8𝑛−2𝑒𝑤 )𝑀𝑃𝑙,1,𝑅ⅆ,𝑢
𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,1 = (2.70)
2𝑚𝑛−𝑒𝑤 (𝑚+𝑛)
Where 𝑀𝑃𝑙,1,𝑅𝑑,𝑢 is the plastic resistance moment of the equivalent T-stub for mode 1.
2𝑓
0.25∑𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓,1 𝑡𝑝 𝑢,𝑝
𝑀𝑃𝑙,1,𝑅𝑑,𝑢 = (2.71)
𝛾𝑀,𝑢
With:
m is defined in figure 2.5,
𝑛 = min(𝑒2 ; 1.25𝑚),
𝑑
𝑒𝑤 = 𝑤⁄4 𝑑𝑤 is the diameter of the washer or the width across points of the bolt head, as
relevant. Washers are not necessarily provided; it is conservative to assume washers are not
used.
∑𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓,1 is the effective length of the equivalent T-stub for mode 1(see Annex A, Table A5).
For the failure mode 2, the failure is due to the local yielding of the plate and bolts
failure as show in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7. Failure of the bolts and flange yielding (SCI P398).
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The 𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,1 is given by:

2𝑀𝑝𝑙,2,𝑅ⅆ,𝑢 +𝑛𝛴𝐹𝑡,𝑅ⅆ,𝑢
𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,2 = (2.72)
𝑚+𝑛
Where:
𝛴𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑,𝑢 is the total tension resistance for the bolts in the T-stub (=2𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑 for a single row);
𝑀𝑝𝑙,2,𝑅𝑑,𝑢 is the plastic resistance moment of the equivalent T-stub for mode 2;
2𝑓
0.25∑𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑝 𝑦
𝑀𝑝𝑙,2,𝑅𝑑,𝑢 = (2.73)
𝛾𝑀,𝑢
∑𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the effective length of the equivalent T-stub for mode 2(Annex A, Table A5).
For mode 3 failure is due to the bolts. The verification is given by:
𝐹𝑅𝑑,𝑢,3 = ∑𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑,𝑢 (2.74)
2.4.4. Base of columns

A column base foundation is made of three (03) main components namely; the column section,
the base plate and the concrete plinth as illustrate by figure 2.7. The column section is fixed to
the base plate with the aid of a fillet weld, while the plate is in turn connected to the concrete
plinth using, anchorage bars.
2.4.4.1. Column base plate contact

The Med, Ned and Ved solicitations produces tangential τ and normal stresses σ on the column
section evaluated using the formulations indicated in equations 2.75 and 2.76.
𝑁𝐸ⅆ 𝑀𝐸ⅆ
𝜎= + (2.75)
𝐴 𝑤
𝑉𝐸ⅆ
𝜏= (2.76)
𝐴
Where:
A and 𝑤 are the column cross sectional area and modulus of elasticity about the respective
axis. The total stress component on the section will be evaluated using the equation 2.77.
ρ = √𝜎 2 + 3𝜏 2 (2.77)
the column cross section will be satisfactory the equation 2.78.
𝜌 ≤ 𝑓𝑦𝑘 ∕ 𝛾𝑠 (2.78)
2.4.4.2. Welded connection verification
The verification of the fillet weld is made by calculating the resultant stress on the weld
connection. The same procedure as that described in section 2.4.1.4, design of connection.
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a. Contact base and concrete plinth verification

the Verification of the contact area between the base and concrete plinth will be investigated
using equation 2.79. Verification is met if the design compressive strength fcd of the concrete
plinth is greater than the acting stress on concrete mass, σc.
𝜎𝑐 < 𝑓𝑐𝑑 (2.79)
The computation of the acting stress depends on the eccentricity between axial force and
geometric centre of concrete mass.
b. Anchor rebars
The built-in length of anchorage rebars are verified using the tensile strength of concrete by
application of equation 2.80.
𝑁𝐸ⅆ
< 𝑓𝐶𝑡𝑑 (2.80)
𝜋𝐷𝑙
Where:
𝐷 represent the diameter of the anchorage rebars.
𝑙 is the length of the anchorage rebar.
𝑓𝐶𝑡𝑑 is the design tensile strength of the concrete mass.
c. Thickness of a column base
The thickness “s” of a column base plate is satisfactory if the inequation 2.81 is satisfied.
𝑀𝐸ⅆ
< 𝑓𝑦𝑑 (2.81)
𝑤𝑠
With 𝑤𝑠 = 𝑛𝑠 2 ∕ 6 , n represents the width of the end plate considered and s the thickness of
the plate.
2.5. Numerical modelling

Abaqus/CAE is a software of finite element method which is used in this work to do the
advanced modelling and simulation of the pavement.
2.5.1. Presentation of Abaqus/CAE

Abaqus is a suite of powerful engineering simulation programs based on the finite
element method, sold by Dassault Systems. It consists of three products: Abaqus/Standard,
Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/CAE. Abaqus/CAE is a complete Abaqus environment that
provides a simple, consistent interface for creating, submitting, monitoring, and evaluating
results from Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit simulations. Using Abaqus, it is possible to
use various different material models to simulate the behaviour of most typical engineering
Abaqus is a suite of powerful engineering simulation programs based on the finite
element method, sold by Dassault systems. It consists of three products: Abaqus/Standard,
Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/CAE. Abaqus/CAE is a complete Abaqus environment that
provides a simple, consistent interface for creating, submitting, monitoring, and evaluating
results from Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit simulations. Using Abaqus, it is possible to
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use various different material models to simulate the behaviour of most typical engineering.
The Figure 2.8 presents the interface of Abaqus/CAE.
Figure 2.8. interface of Abaqus/CAE.

2.5.2. Modelling connection process
Abaqus/CAE package will be used to model the nodes in the steel structure. To accomplish the
modelling and analyses the connections in Abaqus/CAE the following steps will used:
• Parts: This is the building block of the Abaqus/CAE model. Here all the sections of
the members of the connections are going to be created either by extrusion for the
steel profiles or by revolution for the bolts.
• Properties: This section is meant for the definition of the properties of the materials
to use. All the parts created are going to be given specific properties.
• Assembly: In this module the members created in the parts module are going to be
assembled to make up the connection.
• Step: In the step module the analysis procedure and the output request will be
configured.
• Load: In the load module the loads and boundary conditions will be applied on the
model.
• Mesh: Before launching the analysis in Abaqus/CAE the assembled elements must be
meshed. So, in this module the connection members are going to be meshed as
dependent instances with the appropriate mesh technique.
• Job: After meshing the next step is to launch the analysis. In this module the job is
going to be created and submitted for analysis.
• Visualisation: In this module the results of the analysis are going to be viewed.
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Conclusion
The main objective of this chapter was to present the design procedure of the structural members
and the connections of the building concerned, and to show the modelling procedure of its
connections for numerical analysis. The fact is that for analytical design, the solicitations are
computed use SAP 2000 Version 22 and the design performed with Eurocode 3. After designing
the structural members and connections, the result can be modelled on Abaqus/CAE in order to
study the structural behaviour. So, the modelling procedure of the connections in Abaqus/CAE
was described Then the next chapter will present the application of this methodology.
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CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Introduction
The results obtained from the previously detailed methodology will be given in application at
Nsimalen airport in Cameroun. This application will integrate in particular the general
presentation of the site, the presentation of the project in accordance with the physical and
socio-economic parameters previously obtained. After presenting this the case study, the
structural members and connections of the building will be designed. The connections will then
be modelled in the software Abaqus/CAE to study the structural behaviour of the connections
under different load conditions. The last part of this chapters is focused on the results of the
connection analysis.
3.1. Presentation of the site

This presentation will be partitioned in two parts, namely the physical parameters and socio-
economic parameters.
3.1.1. Physical parameters

The physical parameters presented here will essentially be based on the geographical location
and climatic conditions of the site.
3.1.1.1. Geographic localisation

Yaounde is the political capital of Cameroon and chief town of the Centre region; situated at
latitude 3.87o (3 o 50ˈ) North and longitude 11.52 o (11 o 31ˈ) East at an elevation of 760 metres
above sea level. Located 300km from the Atlantic Ocean and surrounded by 7 hills, Yaounde
it covers a total surface area of 304 km² as displayed by Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1. Map illustrating the city of Yaounde.
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3.1.1.2. Climat and hydrology

Yaounde features a tropical wet and dry climate, with record high temperatures of 36oC, an
average of 23.8oC and a record low temperature of 14oC. Primarily due to the altitude,
temperatures are not as high as would have been expected for a city located near the equator.
The town of Yaoundé features a lengthy rainy season covering a nine-month span between
March and November. However, there is a noticeable decrease in precipitation within the rainy
season, observed during the months of July and August, giving the city the appearance of having
two rainy and two dry seasons. The average precipitation is 1650mm of rain per year and
average humidity is 80%.
The hydrographic network of Yaoundé is very dense and composed permanent rivers such as
the Mfoundi river which crosses the city from North to South, a few creeks and lakes. Yaounde
is part of the western sector of the Southern Cameroon Plateau. The area is characterized by
gentle rolling chains of hills, and numerous valleys and wetlands; this varied physical landscape
permits a combination of streams, hydromorphic soils and a great variety of plants and Fauna.
3.1.1.3. Geology and relief

The bedrock in Yaounde is mainly composed of gneiss. This rock is neither porous nor soluble,
but it is its discontinuities (faults, diaclases) that give fissure permeability to the formation. The
hydrogeology is characterized by continuous aquifers, approximately exploitable overlying
water bearing fissures or fracture aquifers in the bedrock; these types of aquifers are
superimposed or isolated. Concerning the relief, the land rises gently in escarpments from the
southwestern coastal plain before joining the Adamawa Plateau via depressions and granite
massifs. The field is characterised by rolling, forested hills, the tallest of which have bare, rocky
tops.
3.1.2. Socio-economic parameters
The socio-economic parameters principally discussed here are demography and economic
activities.
3.1.2.1. Demography
The city of Yaoundé covers 304 km² including an urbanized area of 183 km² and has an
estimated population in 2005 of 1,817,524 inhabitants, or an average density of 5,691 per km².
In 1960, when the country gained independence, Yaoundé had only 100,000 inhabitants. The
Orstom office noted a growth in the population of Yaoundé close to 9.5% from 1926 to 1980,
immigrants constituting two - third of the urban population.
3.1.2.2. Economic activities

Yaounde is above all a tertiary city. However, there are a few industries: breweries, sawmills,
carpentry, tobacco, paper mills, mechanics and construction materials. A major part of
Yaounde's economy is based on the informal economy i.e., the street vendors usually selling
items on the streets like; paper handkerchiefs, caramelized or non-caramelized peanuts, drinks
fresh, clothes, etc or small shops in the neighbourhoods. The informal sector also affects the
housing sector, in which many builders are in fact non-professionals.
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3.2. Presentation of the project

3.2.1. Description of building
The building analysing in this project is the warehouse steel building as shown in figure 3.1.
The structure has a plan-size as show Figure 3.2 (referring to the center-to-center distance
between columns) of 54x42m. The maximum height is 9m and 10m at roof ridge (peak), with
a 10% slope. The structural system is constituted by dix parallel frames, placed at a constant
distance of 6m. Two columns that support the roof truss compose each frame, the span between
the columns is equal to the shorter side of the building, i.e., 42 m as illustrate Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.2. 3D model of the structure.
Figure 3.3. Top view plan of the building.
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Figure 3.4. Section of the building.
3.2.2. Materials properties

The steel structural grade chosen is S355 also the plates grate, the bolts is the class 8.8 and the
concrete class is C25/30. The main characteristic of these materials for linear analysis and
design of the structure are given in Table 3.1 for all the steel elements and Table 3.2 for the
concrete.
Table 3.1. Characteristics of steel
Symbol Value Unit Designation
S355 - Gives the steel resistance
fyk 355 N/mm2 Characteristic yield strength
fu 510 N/mm2 Characteristic ultimate strength

E 210 000 N/mm2 Young modulus
G 80769.231 N/mm2 Shear modulus
υ 0.3 - Poisson’s ratio
α 0.000012 perK Coef. of thermal expansion
𝛾𝑀0 1.05 - Safety factor for resistance whatever the section

Safety factor for resistance of members to
𝛾𝑀1 1.05 - instability
𝛾𝑀2 1.25 - Safety factor for cross section in tension
𝛾 78.5 kN/m3 Specific weight of steel
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Table 3.2. Concrete characteristics

Symbole Value Unit Designation
C25/30 - Concrete class
𝑅𝑐𝑘 30 N/mm2 Characteristic concrete cubic strength after 28 days
Characteristic concrete cylindrical strength after 28
𝑓𝑐𝑘 25 N/mm2 days
𝑓𝑐𝑚 33 N/mm2 Mean compressive strength of concrete
𝐸𝑐𝑚 31476 N/mm2 Secant Modulus of concrete
𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚 2.56 N/mm2 Mean axial tensile strength of concrete

Characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete
𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑘,0.05 2.16 N/mm2 fractile 5%
Characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete
𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑘,0.95 4.95 N/mm2 fractile 95%
𝑣 0.5 - Poisson’s ratio
𝐺 13115 N/mm2 Shear modulus
𝛾 25 kN/m3 Specific weight of concrete
3.3. Design of case study

The loads acting on the roofs first was determined, followed by the load combinations and the
calculation of the different solicitations. The loads from the roof are carried by the purlins who
transmit it to truss, from the truss they are transmitted to the columns and finally to the
foundations.
3.3.1. Actions on the building

EN 1991-1-1 gives the general recommendations for loads acting on structures according to the
building category. The categories ranges from category A to category D depending on the
specific use. These categories are represented in table A1 of Annex A. The building is meant
for warehouse use this implies it fall under category D which as specific use is department
stores.
3.3.1.1. Vertical loading

The vertical loads acting on the elements of the superstructure are recorded and presented
thereafter.
a. Permanent loads
In this case study, the building can divide in two part that are the roof and the stockage area.
For all these two parts it isn’t exist the permanent structural loads but the non-structural
permanent loads for the roof is due to the roof cover taken 0.12 kN/m2
b. Imposed loads
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According to EC 0 the average imposed loads for department stores (use category D) is equal
to qk = 4.5 kN/m2 and for roof accessible only for maintenance service the impose loads can
take qk= 0.6 kN/m2.
3.3.1.2. Horizontal loading

The horizontal loads on the structure are generated due to the wind loads. So, the wind loads
on the structure was determined in the excel sheet using the equations mentioned in section
2.2.2.2 , the results are shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3. Wind load calculation
The sign of wind loads depends if it pressure or depression case than it consider.
3.3.2. Loads combinations

The load combination in the equation below provides for the verification of the structure at
Ultimate Limit State.
1.35𝐺𝑘 + 1.5𝑄𝑘 (3.1)
With 𝐺𝑘 = 𝐺𝑘1 + 𝐺𝑘2 .

For non-reversible Serviceability Limit State (SLS), the verification is done using the following
equation.
𝐺𝑘 + 𝑄𝑘 (3.2)
However, along this chapter if it is necessary to precise the loads combination for element that
considering, it will be doing.
3.3.3. Roofs structure

The structural elements of the roof are constituted by the purlin and the truss. In this section the
designs and verification those elements done main discuss, starting by design and verification
the purlin for ending by truss.
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3.3.3.1. Purlins
The purlins for this case study are the beams with 6m of length, responsible to transfer the loads
from cover to the truss. It realises by the IPE profile and it is considering the discontinue beams.
The Figure 3.5 shows the choice of the beam under study.
Figure 3.5. Selected purlin for design.

a. Loads acting on purlins
The loads considered here are taken with respect to Eurocode 1. It has the permanent and the
variables loads which the value reported in the Table 3.4.
Table 3.4. Loads on purlin

Types of loads designation Influence Values
width/surface
Permanents loads Self-weight of 0.1 kN/m
section beam 1m (IPE 140 A)
(𝐺𝑘1 = 0.1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2)
Self-weight of the 1.5 1.5

0.12 ⋅ ( )
roof cover (𝐺𝑘2 = cos 5.71 cos 5.71
0.12 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2)
Total permanent 0.29𝑘𝑁/𝑚
load (𝑮𝒌 )
Variables loads Wind load under 1.5 1.5
roof cover 0.6 ⋅ ( )
cos 5.71 cos 5.71
𝑄𝑤 = 0.6𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
Maintenance loads 1.5m 0.6 ⋅ 1.5
𝑄𝑚 = 0.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
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b. Load combination of purlins

For the design of the steel profile of purlin, a series of combinations will be used to obtain the
worst situation our beam section may encounter.
Comb ULS 1: 1.3𝐺𝑘 + 1.5𝑄𝑤 (pressure under roof)

Comb ULS 2: 1.3𝐺𝑘 − 1.5𝑄𝑤 (depression under roof)
Comb ULS 3: 1.3𝐺𝑘 + 1.5𝑄𝑚 (maintenance situation)
Comb ELS 1: 𝐺𝑘 + 𝑄𝑤
Comb ELS 2: 𝐺𝑘 + 𝑄𝑚
Remember the purlin is support by the top truss which have the inclination relative to horizontal
plan. So,the loads acting on purlin divided in two components, the vertical component 𝑃⊥ and
the parallel component 𝑃∥ as illustrated by the Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6. Disposition of the purlin relative to horizontal plan.
Where 𝑃⊥ equal to the load multiply by cos 𝛼 if the loads apply perpendicular to horizontal plan
and equal to same load if it is apply perpendicular to inclination plan and 𝑃∥ will be multiply by
sin 𝛼 in the first case and equal to zero in the second case.
c. Design and verifications of purlins

The three loads arrangements inserted in the software SAP 2000 V22 permit to obtain
solicitations curves along the purlin for the bending moment and the shear force represented
from the Figure 3.7 to the Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.7. Vertical bending moments on the purlin at ULS.
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Figure 3.8. Parallel bending moments on the purlin at ULS.
Figure 3.9. Vertical shear solicitations on the purlin ULS.
Figure 3.10. Parallel shear solicitations on the purlin ULS.
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i. Cross section properties

The verification has done by the IPE 140 A which the properties of section report in the Table
3.5 and the verification of resistance section report in the Table 3.6.
Table 3.5. The section properties of purlin

G 10.5 kg/m
h 137 mm
b 73 mm
tw 3.8 mm
tf 5.6 mm
r 7 mm
A 13.4 cm2
hw 126.2 mm
d 112.2 mm
Iy 435 cm4
Iz 36.4 cm4
iy 5.7 cm
iz 1.65 cm
IPE 140 A
wpl,y 71.6 cm3
wpl,z 15.5 cm3
ii. Verifications of purlins section
Table 3.6. Verification of purlins

Designation Values/verification observation
Classification Bent web 29.53 ≤ 66.53 Class 1
section Compress flange 4.93 ≤ 8.32
shear 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 5.63 kN ≤ 94.07 kN verified
verification
𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 0.12 kN ≤ 57.59 kN verified
Moment 𝛼 𝛽 0.46 < 1 verified
𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 𝑀𝑧,𝐸𝑑
verification [ ] + [ ]
𝑀𝑃𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 𝑀𝑃𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑
Shear and 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑦,𝑅𝑑 9.9 kN ≤ 47.04 kN No
moment reduction
interaction 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑧,𝑅𝑑 0.81 ≤ 28.80 the moment
resistance
Lateral- 𝑀𝑦,𝐸𝑑 0.90 ≤ 1 verified

torsional 𝑤𝑝𝑙,𝑦 ⋅ 𝑓𝑦
buckling 𝑥𝐿𝑇 𝛾
𝑀1
𝑀𝑍,𝐸𝑑
+
𝑤𝑝𝑙,𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓𝑦
𝑥𝐿𝑇 𝛾
𝑀1
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SLS 𝛿𝑄 𝑙 verified
verification 16.63 𝑚𝑚 < = 24𝑚𝑚
250
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛿𝐺 + 𝛿𝑄 𝑙 verified
8.31 + 16.63 < = 30𝑚𝑚
200
= √𝛿𝑦2 + 𝛿𝑧2 + 𝛿𝑄
compression 𝐴𝑓𝑦 351 kN > 95.76 kN* verified

resistance 𝑁𝐶,Rd =
𝛾𝑀0
Axial bucking 𝑁𝐸𝑑 95.76 verified
check = 0.55 < 1
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 175.48
(*) The compressive stress on the purlin (HEA220 class 1 also in compression) is equal to the
reaction force of considered for the design of braces, this is NEd = 95.76kN.
3.3.3.2. Truss design

The truss assumed to be symmetrical about the centre of the truss, is shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11. Outline of a truss representation

It is important to note the loads acting under truss derive the external reactions of the purlin, so
the loads and the combination loads it is same for purlin. Only at end of the design, the self-
weight of all the truss elements are considering for SLS verification.
The most unfavourable combination of truss it the Comb ULS 3. After analysis by SAP200
the members most solicitated are report in the Table 3.7.
Table 3.7. The member forces

Members most solicited N⁰ bars Compression Traction
(kN) (kN)
Bottom members 5 / 513.6
Top members 13 -521.7 /
14 -521.7 /
Vertical members 23 -164.4 /
8 / 71.3
Diagonal members 24 / 284.1
57 -47.3 /
The numeration adopts in figure 3.10 of element bar is the same report in table 3.7.
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a. Top member
The top members are all subject the compression load, the maximum 𝑁𝐸𝑑,max = −521.7 𝑘𝑁 it
is value use in verification the elements section. The double angle section (100x100x10 mm)
so the properties is report in Table 3.8 is used to verification.
Table 3.8. Section properties of top member
Single angle properties

G 15 kg/m
h 100 mm
b 100 mm
t 10 mm
r1 12 mm
r2 6 mm
A 19.2 cm2
ys 2.82 mm
zs 2.82 mm
Iy 177cm4
Iz 177 cm4
iy 3.04 cm
iz 3.04 cm
wpl,y 24.6 cm3
wpl,z 24.6 cm3
Table 3.9 Verification in compression of the top member

Classification h/t 10 ≤ 13.8 Class 3
section (b+h)/2t 10 ≤ 10.12
compression 𝐴𝑓𝑦 1005,71 > 521.7 verified
𝛾𝑀0
check = 0.65 < 1
𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 806.3
b. Bottom member
The bottom members are all subject the traction load, the maximum 𝑁𝐸𝑑,max = 513.6 𝑘𝑁 it is
value use in verification the element section (show Table 3.11). The double angle section
(100x100x10) is used show Table 3.12 for the properties.
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Table 3.10. The properties bottom member

G 15 kg/m
h 100 mm
b 100 mm
t 10 mm
r1 12 mm
r2 6 mm
A 19.2 cm2
Anet 17.6 cm2
ys 2.82 mm
zs 2.82 mm
Iy 177 cm4
Iz 177 cm4
iy 3.04 cm
iz 3.04 cm
wpl,y 24.6 cm3
wpl,z 24.6 cm3
Table 3.11. The verification of bottom member in tension

section (b+h)/2t 10 ≤ 10.12
Tension min[𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 ] 760.3 > 513.6 verified
resistance
c. Vertical members
The vertical members of truss subjected to the compression loads with Ned,max = -164.4 kN
and the traction loads with Ned,max = 71.3 kN, the double angle section (60x60x6) show Table
3.12 is used for vertical members. The verifications are reported in Table 3.13.
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Table 3.12. Vertical member and their properties

G 5.42 kg/m
h 60 mm
b 60 mm
t 6 mm
r1 8 mm
r2 4 mm
A 6.91 cm2
Anet 5.77 cm2
ys 1.69 mm
zs 1.69 mm
Iy 22.79 cm4
Iz 22.79 cm4
iy 1.82 cm
iz 1.82 cm
wpl,y 5.29 cm3
wpl,z 5.29 cm3
Table 3.13. Verification of vertical member

section (b+h)/2t 10 ≤ 10.12
compression 𝐴𝑓𝑦 362.0 > 164.4 verified
𝛾𝑀0
= 0.91 < 1
check 𝑁𝑏,𝑅𝑑 181.0
Tension min[𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 ] min{181; 450.1} > 71.3 verified

resistance
d. Diagonal members
The diagonal members of truss subjected to the compression loads with Ned,max = -47.3 kN
and the traction loads with Ned,max = 284.1 kN, the double angle section (80x80x6) show
Table 3.14 is used for vertical members. The verifications are reported in Table 3.15.
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Table 3.14. Diagonal member and their properties

Single angle propeties
G 9.63 kg/m
h 80 mm
b 80 mm
t 8 mm
r1 10 mm
r2 5 mm
A 12.3 cm2
Anet 10.6 cm2
ys 2.26 mm
zs 2.26 mm
Iy 72.25 cm4
Iz 72.25 cm4
iy 2.43 cm
iz 2.43 cm
wpl,y 12.58 cm3
wpl,z 12.58 cm3
Table 3.15. Verification of diagonal member

section (b+h)/2t 10 ≤ 10.12
compression 𝐴𝑓𝑦 644.3 > 47.3 verified
𝛾𝑀0
= 0.15 < 1
Tension min[𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 ] min{644.3; 457.9} > 284.1 verified

resistance
e. Serviceability limit state verification of truss

employing 2L 100x100x10, 2L 80x80x8 and 2L 60x60x6 sections in members of the roof truss;
the deflection due to unfactored permanent load (Figure 3.12) and the maximum deflection due
unfactored imposed load (Figure 3.13) using SAP2000 software is respectively 23.5mm shown
figure and 45.1mm. shown as illustrated by figure Allowable deflection for the roofs (table 4.1
ENV 1993-1-1: 1992)
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Figure 3.12. Deflection of the truss due to the permanents loads.

𝐿
𝛿2 = 23.5𝑚𝑚 < 500 = 84𝑚𝑚 due to the permanent loads is verified.
Figure 3.13. Deflection of the truss due to the imposed loads.

𝐿
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 45.1𝑚𝑚 < 250 = 168𝑚𝑚 due to the imposed loads is verified.
3.3.4. Brace members

The structure of the case study has only the two types of brace which are the brace of roof
(horizontal brace) and brace of the column (vertical brace).
3.3.4.1. Brace of the roof
The force than it considering to design these members provides to the longitudinal pression of
wind on the buildings and the imperfection of the brace. The Figure 3.14 illustrated the static
scheme adopted for the roof brace but only the traction element of the brace has considered to
the final design as shown in the Figure 3.15.
Figure 3.14. Static schema of the roof brace.

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Figure 3.15. Static schema of the roof brace with only traction members.
The force on the brace is:
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑤 + 𝐹𝑖 (3.3)
Where 𝐹𝑤 the force due to wind pressure while 𝐹𝑖 comes from the imperfections of the brace.
a. Action of the wind (Fw)

To calculate the action of the wind is considered the longitudinal direction and the windward
wall. The area covered measuring 42 m x11.1m whereas the half action of the wind is absorbed
by the foundation and half by the brace. The area concerned for the calculation of the wind
force acting on a single node is equal A = 6m x5.55m.
𝐹𝑤 = (𝐶𝑝𝑒 + 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ) ⋅ 𝐴 = 23.31𝑘𝑁 (3.4)
Where (𝐶𝑝𝑒 + 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ) = 0.7 the external pressure coefficient windward.
b. Action due to imperfection of bracing

The initial deflection with amplitude e0 of bracing system will be replace by equivalent
stabilizing force qd:
𝛼𝑚 𝐿
𝑒0 = 500
= 63.84𝑚𝑚 (3.4)
1
where 𝛼𝑚 = √0.5 (1 + 𝑚) = 0.76 with m = 7 braced elements and L = 42m
The equivalent stabilizing loading qd assumption the total deflection
𝐿 42000
𝛿= = = 84.0 mm (3.5)
500 500
The distribution equivalent load:
𝑒0 +𝛿𝑞
𝑞𝑑 = 𝛴𝑁𝐸𝑑 ⋅ 8 ⋅ = 0.35𝑘𝑁 ∕ 𝑚 (3.6)
𝐿2
considering 𝛴𝑁𝐸𝑑 as the maximum compression stress of the compressed top chord of the truss
in the ULS combination equal to – 521.7 kN so 𝐹𝑖 = 7 ⋅ 0.35 = 2.45𝑘𝑁
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑤 + 𝐹𝑖 = 25.75𝑘𝑁 (3.7)
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The values of the external constraints for the brace of roof scheme are: 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 90.2𝑘𝑁
On the structural analysis, the compression resistance of the diagonal elements is not taken into
account, the maximum axial force diagram obtains with SAP2000 v22 it shows to Figure 3.16.
The element most stressed is diagonal element with 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 108.2𝑘𝑁, the verification using the
section L 50x50x5 mm (show Table 3.16) it reported in the Table 3.17.
Table 3.16. Properties of brace roof member
A= 6,56 cm2
Anet = 5.23 cm2
Table 3.17. The verification of the brace roof

Classification h/t 7.14 ≤ 13.8 Class 3
section (b+h)/2t 7.14 ≤ 10.12
Tension min[𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 ] 123.29kN > 108.2kN verified
resistance
Figure 3.16. Maximum axial force and axial resistance of brace roof section.
2019/2020
3.3.4.2. Columns brace

The horizontal actions are taken by the column braces. Cross braces were adopted, so one brace
works tension, and the other in compression. For the design only the one in tension was
considered, the resulting steel profile was determined and applied for compression. The
maximum efforts were obtained under the lateral wind effect of the wind on the building. The
Figure 3.17 show the position of the brace column (vertical brace) in lateral face of building.
Figure 3.17. Position of the vertical brace.

The static scheme considering to design the vertical brace it represents in the Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18. Static scheme the vertical brace.

After analysis this static scheme by SAP2000 v22, it is results the maximum axial force
(tension) in the brace members is 𝑁𝐸𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 151.2𝑘𝑁. The L 60x60x6mm section chosen and
the angle is fixed with 𝜙18. the verification is reported in Table 3.18
Table 3.18. Verification of vertical brace

section (b+h)/2t 10 ≤ 10.12
Tension min[𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 ; 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝑑 ] 181.0 kN > 151.2 kN verified
resistance
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3.3.5. Design of vertical structural elements

Vertical structural members in our case study are the Columns and the vertical braces. The
columns are responsible for the transfer of vertical actions from roof to foundation. The vertical
braces transfer horizontal actions to column as talked and design in the section 3.3.4.2 so this
section is subject to design the column. The column D8 with the maximum solicitation will be
chosen for this purpose and designed accordingly. This is the column of the internal frame
encircled as illustrate by Figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19. Column chosen for design.
3.3.5.1. loads evaluation for vertical members

The loads than considering to design the column are follows:
• vertical load (compression load)
it is results of the truss reaction, the self-weight of the column and the compress force due to
the reaction of pitch brace.
𝑁max = 164.8𝑘𝑁 + 14.9𝑘𝑁 + 126.7𝑘𝑁 = 306.4𝑘𝑁
• horizontal load (wind load)

here the wind load per unit length 𝑞𝑣,𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 acting of internal column of the windward side
prescribe in table of the section 3.3.1.2 is considering (𝑐𝑝𝑒 + 𝑐𝑝𝑖 ) =0.7 and the influence width
of the internal column is s = 6m so the wind load equal 𝑞𝑣,𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = (𝑐𝑝𝑒 + 𝑐𝑝𝑖 ) ⋅ 𝑞𝑝 ⋅ 𝑠 =
3. 82 𝑘𝑁/𝑚. So, the load combination considering are:
at ULS 1,3𝐺𝑘 + 1,5𝑞𝑤 and at SLS 𝐺𝑘 + 𝑞𝑤
3.3.5.2. Bending moment, shear force and axial force verifications in the column
the load arrangement is considered for the column permit to obtain different solicitation curves
for the bending moment, shear and the axial loads presented in Figure 3.20, Figure 3.21 and
Figure 3.22 respectively.
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Figure 3.20. Bending moment solicitation curve on the column.
Figure 3.21. Shear solicitation in the column.
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Figure 3.22. Axial load solicitation curve on the column.
3.3.5.3. Column verification

The column section chose to verify the resistance to the solicitations of column is HEB 320, the
properties is report in Table 3.19 and all the verifications are report in the Table 3.20.
Table 3.19. properties of column section

G 127 kg/m
h 320 mm
b 300 mm
tw 11.5 mm
tf 20.5 mm
r 27 mm
A 161.3 cm2
hw 279 mm
d 225 mm
Iy 30820 cm4
Iz 9239 cm4
iy 13.82 cm
iz 7.57 cm
HEB 320
wpl,y 1926 cm3
wpl,z 615.9 cm3
2019/2020
Table 3.20. Verification of column

Classification Bent web 19,6 ≤ 66.53 Class 1
shear 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 57.3 kN ≤ 782.2 kN verified
verification
Combination 0.25𝑁𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 306.4 kN ≤ 1056.1 kN Verified
axial and 0.5ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑦 306.4 kN ≤ 420.2 kN (the effect of
bending 𝛾𝑀0 Ned has not
taken
account!)
𝑀𝑁,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 232.1 kN.m ≤ 504.4 kN.m verified
Shear and 0.5 ∗ 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 45 kN ≤ 391.1 kN No reduction
moment the moment
interaction resistance
compression 𝐴𝑓𝑦 4224.5𝑘𝑁 >306.4𝑘𝑁 verified

𝛾𝑀0

= 0.14 < 1
Stability Equation 2.44 and 2.45 of 0.75 ≤ 1 verified

design chapter 2 0.38 ≤ 1
(bending and (with Mz,Ed=0)
axial
compress)
SLS 𝑞𝜈,𝑐𝑜𝑙 ⋅ 𝑙 4 46.63𝑚𝑚 <
ℎ
= 60𝑚𝑚 verified
verification 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 150
8𝐸𝐼𝑦
3.3.6. Beam design

The external frame of the building is cover by the perpends, which supported by the beam. This
section of document it focalises to design this beam.
3.3.6.1. Loads Analysis on the beam

The beam span under 6m of length, then it is question support the beam of reinforce concrete
(20x30cm) and the masonry so follows lines the loads values are determines.
Permanent loads:
• The self-weight of the beam section (IPE 220 R): Gko = 0.32 kN/m;
• The permanent structural loads (the beam of reinforce concrete and the masonry);
𝐺𝑘1 = 2 ⋅ 𝐴𝑏 ⋅ 𝛾𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 ⋅ 𝛾𝑚 = 7.92 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 (3.8)
Variable load: in this case, it is not exist the variable load but for plus the safety, the analysis
doing with Qk = 1kN/m.
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3.3.6.2. Loads combination of beam

The beam has one span, thus the load combinations using are:
at ULS 1.3𝐺𝑘0 + 1.3𝐺𝑘1 + 1.5𝑄𝑘
and
at ELS 𝐺𝑘0 + 𝐺𝑘1 + 𝑄𝑘
3.3.6.3. Cross section verifications
IPE 200 R was chosen as beam steel section, its characteristics are given in Table 3.21.
Table 3.21. Beam section cross properties

G 31.6 kg/m
h 225 mm
b 108 mm
tw 6.7 mm
tf 11.8 mm
r 12 mm
A 40.2 cm2
hw 201.6 mm
d 177.6 mm
Iy 3481 cm4
Iz 249 cm4
IPE 220 R
iy 8.30 cm
iz 2.49 cm
wpl,y 352 cm3
wpl,z 71.8 cm3
After analysis the loads and define the section properties, the solicitations were obtained from
the software SAP2000 is illustrated by Figure 3.23 and Figure 3.24.
Figure 3.23. Bending moment solicitation curves of the beam.
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Figure 3.24. Shear solicitation curves on the beam.
The verification the resistance of the beam section is reported in the Table 3.22.
Table 3.22. The verification of the beam section resistance

Classification Bent web 24.09≤ 66.53 Class 1
shear 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 36.25 kN ≤ 250 kN verified
verification
Moment
verification 𝑀𝑅𝑑,𝑝𝑙 54.61 kN.m ≤ 69.40 kN.m verified
Shear and No reduction the

moment 0.5 𝑉𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 36.25 ≤ 125 kN moment resistance
interaction
Lateral- 𝑀𝐸ⅆ 0.93 ≤ 1 verified
torsional 𝑀𝑏,𝑅 𝑑
buckling
SLS 𝑙
2.9𝑚𝑚 < = 24𝑚𝑚
verification 𝛿𝑄 250
verified
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛿𝐺 + 𝛿𝑄 𝑙
26.57𝑚𝑚 < = 30𝑚𝑚
200
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Figure 3.25. The bending resistance of the beam.
Figure 3.26. The shear resistance of the column.

3.3.7. Design connections
The connections were designed according to the most solicited nodes according to the equations
from section 2.4
3.3.7.1. Truss-column connection
Here the connection between the column and truss is verify.
a. Plate chord and truss bolted
This part verifies particularly the bolted parameters.
i. Compressed top member connection
The top chord than considering in this section is the member 22 according the numeration of
the Figure 3.11. The analysis done by SAP2000 v22 reveals this member subject at ULS in the
axial compress force 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 251.9𝑘𝑁. For this connection 4Φ20 bolts of class 8.8 (As = 245
mm2) are used.
𝑒1 ≥ 1.2𝑑0 → 𝑒1 = 30𝑚𝑚
{ 𝑒2 ≥ 1.2𝑑0 → 𝑒2 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝑝1 ≥ 2.2𝑑0 → 𝑝1 = 50𝑚𝑚
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The Figure 3.27 shown the dispositions details of the bolts in the top member 22.
Figure 3.27. Disposition of the bolts in the top member.
Due to the eccentricity e = 21.8mm between the axial force and the axe of the bolts, a moment
M = NEd.e = 5.5 kN.m results. So, each bolt is subject the 𝑇𝑏 and 𝐻𝑏 forces determine as follows
and illustrate by the Figure 3.28
𝑀
𝐻𝑏 = 𝑝 = 36.61𝑘𝑁 (3.9)
1 𝑛𝑠
𝑁
And 𝑇𝑏 = 𝑛 𝐸ⅆ = 21.00𝑘𝑁 (3.10)
𝑛
𝑏 𝑠
Then 𝑅𝑏 = √𝑇𝑏2 + 𝐻𝑏2 = 42.20𝑘𝑁 (3.11)
Figure 3.28. The decompositions of the force due to eccentricity in the top member.
(1) bolt resistance verification
the bolt resistance is giving by equation 2.54, the bolts use is the class 8.8 so 𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 and 𝑓𝑢 =
800𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝛼𝑣 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = 94.0𝑘𝑁 (3.12)
𝛾𝑀2
𝐹𝜈,𝑅𝑑 > 𝑅𝑏 = 42.2𝑘𝑁 verified! (3.13)
(2) Bearing stress verification

The bearing resistance should be satisfying the condition of equation 2.55.
𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = 81,9𝑘𝑁 (3.14)
𝛾𝑀2
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𝑓𝑢𝑏
= 1.40 𝑑
𝑓𝑢 2.8𝑒2
𝑒1 − 1.7 = 4,97
With 𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0,48 = 0.48 and 𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑0 = 2.5
3𝑑0
𝑝1 1 2.5
{3𝑑0 − 4 = 0.54 { 𝑑
𝐹𝑏, 𝐸𝐷 42.20
So = = 0.51 ≤ 1 verified! (3.15)
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝐷 81,9
(3) resistance of the connecting plate verification

the equation 2.59 it is use to verify the resistance of the connecting plate.
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝐷 = = 294.1 𝑘𝑁 (3.16)
𝛾𝑀2
The value 𝛽3 is determine used table 2.8. For 2 angles profile 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝐷 = 588.2 𝑘𝑁 > 251,9 kN.
thus, the resistance of the connecting plate is verified.
ii. Diagonal member connection

The diagonal chord than considering in this section is the member 24 according the numeration
of the figure 3.25 The analysis done by SAP2000 v22 reveals this member subject at ULS the
axial traction force 𝑁𝐸𝑑 = 284.1𝑘𝑁. For this connection 4Φ16 bolts of class 8.8 (As = 157
mm2) are used.
𝑒1 ≥ 1.2𝑑0 → 𝑒1 = 30𝑚𝑚
{ 𝑒2 ≥ 1.2𝑑0 → 𝑒2 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝑝1 ≥ 2.2𝑑0 → 𝑝1 = 50𝑚𝑚
The Figure 3.29 shown the dispositions details of the bolts.
Figure 3.29. Disposition of the bolts in the diagonal member.
Due to the eccentricity e = 18mm between the axial force and the axis of the bolts, a moment
M = NEd.e = 5.1 kN.m results. So, each bolt is subject the 𝑇𝑏 and 𝐻𝑏 forces determine as follows
and illustrate by the Figure 3.30.
𝑀
𝐻𝑏 = 𝑝 = 42.6𝑘𝑁 (3.17)
1 𝑛𝑠
𝑁
And 𝑇𝑏 = 𝑛 𝐸ⅆ = 23.70𝑘𝑁 (3.18)
𝑛 𝑏 𝑠
Then 𝑅𝑏 = √𝑇𝑏2 + 𝐻𝑏2 = 48.70𝑘𝑁 (3.19)
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Figure 3.30. The decompositions of the force due to eccentricity in the diagonal member.
(1) bolt resistance verification
the bolt resistance is giving by equation 2.54, the bolts use is the class 8.8 so 𝛼𝑣 = 0.6 and 𝑓𝑢 =
800𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = 60.2𝑘𝑁 (3.20)
𝛾𝑀2
𝐹𝜈,𝑅𝑑 > 𝑅𝑏 = 48.7𝑘𝑁 verified! (3.21)
(2) Bearing stress verification

The bearing resistance should be satisfying the condition of equation 2.55.
𝑘1 𝛼𝑏 𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝑑 = = 67,5𝑘𝑁 (3.22)
𝛾𝑀2
𝑓𝑢𝑏
= 1.86 𝑑
𝑓𝑢 2.8𝑒2
𝑒1 − 1.7 = 4,89
With 𝛼𝑏 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0,49 = 0.49 and 𝑘1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑0 = 2.5
3𝑑0
𝑝1 1 2.5
{3𝑑0 − 4 = 0.53 { 𝑑
𝐹𝑏, 𝐸𝐷 48.70
So = = 0.72 ≤ 1 verified! (3.23)
𝐹𝑏,𝑅𝐷 67.5
(3) resistance of the connecting plate verification

the equation 2.59 it is use to verify the resistance of the connecting plate.
𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝐷 = = 188.2 𝑘𝑁 (3.24)
𝛾𝑀2
The value 𝛽3 is determine used table 2.8. For 2 angles profile 𝑁𝑢,𝑅𝐷 = 376.4 𝑘𝑁 > 284.1 kN.
thus, the resistance of the connecting plate is verified.
b. Plate chord and truss welded

Here the geometrical characteristic of the weld at the elements truss and their resistance has
determine.
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i. Top member connection

The length of weld is L2=100 mm for side near to center of the gravity section and the other
side the length is L1=50mm has illustrated by the Figure 3.31. The weld is type fillet by
8mm*8mm (L=8mm and a1=a2=5.66 mm).
The resistance is given by:
𝐹2 𝑓𝑢
𝜏2,∥ = 𝑎 = 159.86 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≤ = 241.20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 verified
2 𝐿2 √3𝛽𝜔 𝛾𝑀𝑤
and
𝐹1 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝐸ⅆ 𝑒 𝑁𝐸ⅆ (𝑏−𝑒)

Where: 𝐹1 = ⋅ 𝑏 and 𝐹2 = ⋅
2 2 𝑏
Figure 3.31. The decomposition of compress loads under weld parts on top member.
ii. Diagonal member connection
The length of weld is L2=120 mm for side near to center of the gravity section and the other
side the length is L1=70 mm has illustrated by Figure 3.32. The weld is type fillet by
8mm*8mm (L=8mm and a1=a2=5.66 mm).
The resistance is given by:
𝐹2 𝑓𝑢
and
𝐹1 𝑓𝑢
𝑁𝐸ⅆ 𝑒 𝑁𝐸ⅆ (𝑏−𝑒)

Where: 𝐹1 = ⋅ 𝑏 and 𝐹2 = ⋅
2 2 𝑏
Figure 3.32.The decomposition of tension loads under weld parts on diagonal member
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c. Connection plate
The vertical shear (V) and the moment (M) governing this connection resulting from the
eccentricity (e) of the force axis (this is the axis in which the hinge is located) and the bolt axis
will act on the plate bolts shown Figure 3.33.
𝑒 = ℎ ∕ 2 = 160𝑚𝑚
{ 𝑉 = 164.4𝑘𝑁
𝑀 = 𝑉. 𝑒 = 26.31𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
i. bolt resistance verification

8 bolts of Φ16 (As = 157mm2) are using to realize the connection, the first of all the neutral
axis (yc) of groups bolt is find the equation 3.25.
𝑛 2 𝑛
1
𝑦𝑡 = 2𝐵 [− ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑏𝑖 + √(∑ 𝐴𝑏𝑖 ) + 4𝐵 ∑ (𝐴𝑏𝑖 𝑦𝑖 )] = 42,5𝑚𝑚 (3.24)
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Where n is the number of bolts, B the spacing distance between the bolts.
For the inertia (J) of the groups bolts is:
𝑛
2𝐵𝑦𝑐3
𝐽= +∑ 𝐴𝑏𝑖 (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑡 )2 = 6612.31𝑐𝑚4 (3.25)
3 𝑖=1
So, the stress tension (𝜎𝑡 ) can determine in this step.
𝑀𝑦𝑡
𝜎𝑡 = = 16.9 𝑁. 𝑚𝑚−2 (3.26)
𝐽
The maximum traction force acting on the bolts is:
𝑀
𝑁𝑏, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑏𝑖 (𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦𝑡 ) = 22.0𝑘𝑁 (3.27)
𝐽
Let’s check the traction resistance of the bolts
𝑘2 𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑠
𝐹𝑡,𝑅𝑑 = = 90.4𝑘𝑁 > 𝑁𝑏,𝑚𝑎𝑥 verified (3.28)
𝛾𝑀2
The shear force on each bolt is giving by:
𝑉
𝑉𝑏𝑖 = = 20.6𝑘𝑁 (3.29)
𝑛𝑏
Let’s check the shear resistance of each bolts
𝐹𝑣,𝑅𝑑 = = 60.3𝑘𝑁 > 𝑉𝑏𝑖 verified (3.30)
𝛾𝑀2
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The groups bolt it subject the shear and traction, so it is importance to check the resistance to
shear -traction using the equation 2.65.
𝐹𝑣,𝐸ⅆ 𝐹
+ 1,4𝐹𝑡,𝐸ⅆ = 0.5 ≤ 1 (3.31)
𝐹𝑣,𝑅ⅆ 𝑡,𝑅ⅆ
Figure 3.33. the solicitations on bolts groups attached column-truss.

ii. Weld connection verification
The fillet weld connection use is 8mm x 8mm (L=10mm, a=7.07mm). The verification of the
weld resistance are follows:
𝑉
𝜏∥ = 2𝑎𝑙 = 27.04𝑀𝑃𝑎 (3.32)
𝑀 3𝑀
and 𝜎 ⊥ = 𝑊 = 𝑎𝑙2 = 60.38𝑀𝑃𝑎 (3.33)
𝑓𝑢
So [𝜎 ⊥2 + 3𝜏∥ 2 ]0.5 = 76.41𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≤ 𝛽 417,78𝑀𝑃𝑎 (3.34)
𝑤 𝛾𝑀2
And
𝑓
𝜎 ⊥ = 60,38𝑀𝑃𝑎 ≤ 0.9 𝛾 𝑢 = 338.4𝑀𝑃𝑎 (3.35)
𝑀2
The resistance of the weld fillet is verified.
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Figure 3.34. Cross section of column-truss bolted connection.
Figure 3.35. Cross section of column-truss welded connection

3.3.7.2. Brace connection
These connections are used at the joints between the vertical braces and the column. Since the
braces resist to horizontal loads, the force at the joint is principally the axial load due to wind.
The Figure 3.36 shows the joint to be designed. The connection here is an axial connection, so
no moment transmission. The maximum effort was obtained for this connection is 𝑁𝐸𝑑 =
117.9𝑘𝑁.
Figure 3.36. The joint of the column brace chosen.
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The details and resistance of the joint connection reports in the Table 3.23.
Table 3.23. Verification of the vertical brace connection

Designation Value/verification Observation
Diameter of the bolts 16mm Diameter of the holes 17mm
Number of bolts 3
Class of bolt Class 8.8 fub = 800 MPa
Plate thickness 10 mm fu = 430 MPa
The shear acting on each 35.3 kN

bolt
The shear resistance of 60.2 kN > 35.3 kN Verified
one bolt
The bearing resistance of 54.0 kN > 35.3 kN verified
bolts
The resistance of the 162.43 kN > 151.21 kN
plate connecting
Figure 3.37. Detailing of the brace column connection.

3.3.7.3. Column base
The column base connections are used at the joints between the columns and the foundation.
The solicitations obtained from the analysis of the column D8 (show Figure 3.38) are
considered here again since foundations nodes are used for the distribution of loads from the
super structures to the foundation soils.
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Figure 3.38. Column base chosen.
The results for the verification of the column base in the excel sheet in are reported in Table
3.24.
Table 3.24. Column base verifications
Designation Value/Verification Observation
Concrete class C25/30
Concrete footing 1200 mm x 900mm
Base plate dimensions 600mm x 450mm Mimimum required 12771mm2
Thickness of plate 30mm Minimum required 19,57mm
Tensile strength of the plate 355 N.mm-2

fyp
Diameter of the anchor bolts 34mm As= 718,56 mm2
Anchor bolt length 800mm
Section of the footing 1200x900x1000 mm
Moment resistance 296.6 kN.m verified

(Mrd)
fillet weld 8x8mm The resistance of fillet weld it

greated than shear design
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After the choses of the base column and verification their resistance, the detailing of this
connection is representing in Figure 3.39 and Figure 3.40.
Figure 3.39. Column base connection cross-section.
Figure 3.40. Column base connection plane view.

3.4. FEM modelling of the connections
This section explains the detail procedure of how each part the connections was modelled in
Abaqus/CAE. The software is unit less so the dimensions used needs to be coherent. In all the
models, the units used was millimetres (mm) for length, kilogramme (kg) for mass and in
newton (N) for force. There was a total of 2 connection types to model i.e. truss to column and
column base. To reduce computational time only the part of the members connected (beam and
columns) were modelled. The load applied corresponds to the load used to design the
connection. After applying this load, the connection was then pushed to failure. The results
obitaines are present in section 3.5.
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3.4.1. Steel profiles

The steel profiles are modelled as 3D deformable solids. The bolt holes were made using cut
extrude option with the corresponding distance from plate edges. Since the profiles are made
of steel S355, the properties of the profiles are report in Table 3.25. Some steel profiles contain
holes for the bolts, these profiles couldn’t be meshed directly so the instance was divided with
the help of the partition cells. For these profiles two types of mesh technique were used that is,
the sweep a for the parts near the bolt hole and structured technique for the other parts. This
was to avoid distorted elements which may false the results.
Table 3.25. Properties of steel profiles

Elastic properties
Density 7.85E-6 kg/mm3
Young modulus 210000 N/mm2
Poison ratio 0.3
Plastic properties
Yield stress Plastic strain

355 N/mm2 0
510 N/mm2 0.0025
3.4.2. Plate elements

The plate is model as 3D deformable solid in using the part creator in the part module, in
Abaqus/CAE each part created is called an instance. The holes for the bolt shank were made on
the plate using the cut extrude option.
After shaping the geometry, the elements properties were attributed. In Abaqus/CAE properties
of materials are entered in the properties module. The plate is made up of steel S355, the
properties of S355 used are same of the represented in Table 3.25. After the holes of appropriate
diameter were made, the next step was to mesh the instances. The plate was meshed with same
techniques of the steel profiles.
3.4.3. Bolt elements

The bolts were modelled as 3D deformable solids and “type” revolution. To avoid many
elements that could lead to complex meshing and longer computational time, the bolt and the
nut was modelled as one element. In the properties module the parameters of bolt grade 8.8
were used as represented in Table 3.26. The bolt couldn’t be meshed directly so it was divided
it into 3 parts using the partition cell option, then the parts were meshed using the sweep
technique and medial axis algorithm.
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Table 3.26. Properties of steel bolt grade 8.8.

Elastic properties
Density 7.8E-6 kg/mm3
Young modulus 210000 N/mm2
Poison ratio 0.3
Plastic properties
Yield stress Plastic strain
640 N/mm2 0
800 N/mm2 0.0025

Due to the complexity of the geometry it was difficult to mesh the anchor bolts using the Hex
elements, so Wedge elements were used.
3.4.4. Concrete footing

The column base is fixed connection this implies the moments, so this connection works both
in compression and in the traction. For this reason, there is no need to model the reinforcement
in the concrete since the rebars are assumed to work in only tension. The properties of concrete
used are shown in Table 3.27. Since the footing is a regular block it was easily meshed with the
structured technique.
Table 3.27. Concrete properties
Elastic properties
Density Young modulus Poisson’s ratio
2.5E-6 kg/mm3 33000 N/mm2 0.3

Plasticity properties
Dilatation angle eccentricity fb0/fc0 k Viscosity

parameter
31 0.1 1.16 0.66 0
Compressive behaviour
Yield stress 15.3 25.2 5.7
Inelastic strain 0 0.000214786 0.003573541
tensile behaviour
Yield stress 0 0.16 0.81

Inelastic strain 0 0.001814786 0.003573541
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3.4.5. Assembly of instants

After all the instance were created and properties attributed, they were assembled. This was
done using the assembly module. First all the parts were being inserted from the add instance
tool, then with the help of the ‘translate’ and ‘rotate’ tool, the instance were positioned to the
appropriate coordinates. The results of the assembly of connections are shown in Figure 3.41
to Figure 3.43
Figure 3.41. Column-truss bolted model.
Figure 3.42. Column-truss welded model.
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Figure 3.43. Column base model.
3.4.6. Boundary condition

For the loading the design loads were first applied to compare the stresses obtained in Abaqus
to the yielding stress used. After the model was loaded to cause failure and observe the failure
mechanisms. The types of load applied were pressure load, concentre load and moment. they
were obtained by converting the linear loads used in design into point loads then divided by the
area of the surface on which it is applied.
In the first connection than mentioned preview the concentre loads and the moment applied on
the plate connect column and plate chord to simulate the static loading conditions due to
eccentricity of column axis and plate connection. The truss elements subject to the compress
concentre load (top member) and the traction always giving by the concentre load. After
obtaining the results of the analysis, the boundary conditions at the truss member edges and the
loads were removed, then a displacement constraint of 30 mm was applied to obtain failure in
the connection. It was applied in the bottom and top of the column section the fixed support
whereas the truss members are restraints all movement out of the plane in which the loads
applied. The Figure 3.44 shows the loading condition of the column-truss bolt connected at
design loads analysis and at failure analysis.
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(a) (b)
Figure 3.44. The loading condition of column-truss bolted: (a) at design loads analysis; (b) at
failure analysis.
For the column-truss using welded connection was applied the same boundary condition and
the loads (types of loads and values), the only different it is as mention preview, the truss
element was weld to plate chord. So, the loading condition is the same as in the Figure 3.44.
In the column base model, a pressure load of 19 N/mm² and the moment obtain in SAP2000
analyse were applied. The concrete footing was fixed (U1=U2=U3=UR1=UR2=UR3=0) as
boundary condition at the base (shown Figure 3.45). After the results of the analysis was
obtained, the connection was loaded till failure.
Figure 3.45. The loading condition of the base column connection
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3.5. Numerical results

After complete analysis with Abaqus/CAE, the results obtained for the analysis of different
steel connections are presented in this section
3.5.1. Column-truss bolted connection

After the analysis the connection with Abaqus program, the results of the stress distribution in
each component is present in this section.
3.5.1.1. Column-truss bolted under static loads
a. Bolts elements
The Figure 3.46-a and b shows the maximum stress in the top and diagonal bolts, it is
respectively 43.92 N/mm² and 77.5 N/mm² as mentioned previous it acted in the pure shear and
the Figure 3.46-c shown the stress distribution in the bolts column is 386.1 N/mm² which is
subjected to tension and shear but all these stress on bolts are less than the yielding value of
640 N/mm²
(a)
(b)
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(c)
Figure 3.46. Stresses distribution of the column-truss bolts: (a) Stress distribution on the top
bolts; (b) Stress distribution on the diagonal bolts; (c) Stress distribution on the bolts of the
column
b. Plates elements
The plate of column has the maximum stress 323.4 N/mm² as illustrated by Figure 3.47-a and
in the plate chord the maximum stress is 227.2 N/mm² as illustrated by Figure 3.47-b both the
stresses acting on plates are less the yielding value of 355 N/mm².
(a)
(b)
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Figure 3.47. Stress on the plate elements: (a) The stress distribution in the column plate, (b)
The stress distribution in the chord plate
c. Truss elements
The stress in the top elements is 61.2 N/mm² and the stress in the diagonal elements is 85.6
N/mm² as shown in Figure 3.48, which (stresses) are in the limit of resistance of the elements.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.48. Stress in the truss elements: (a) the stress evolution in the top element; (b) the
stress evolution in the diagonal elements.
The Table 3.28 content the summary of the all maximum stress in the component elements of
the column-truss bolted connection, in conclusion based of the values reports in table, all the
elements are subjected to stresses which are less than their yielding stress, so there is no failure
in the elements.
connection under static loads
Elements Von Mises stress (N/mm²) Yield stress (N/mm²)
Top bolts 43.92 640
Diagonal bolts 77.5 640
Column bolts 386.1 640
Column plate 323.4 355
Plate chord 227.2 355
Top element 61.2 355
Diagonal element 85.6 355
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Column 314.2 355
3.5.1.2. Column-truss bolted under displacement

In this part, it will be applied the displacement to the edges of top and diagonal truss elements
to simulate the horizontal of the lateral loads with the aim to observe the behaviour of the
elements of the connection at the failure.
a. Bolts elements
i. Evolution of stress in the bolts of top elements
The Figure 3.49 shows the evolution of stress in bolts components of the connection at failure.
Figure 3.49. Stress in the top bolts.

The red bolt elements are those that are at maximum shear stress. The green and yellow
elements are also in shear. It should be noted that the elements that exceed the yield strength
are those in red, and orange. At failure this stress is 738.5 N/mm² greater than 640 N/mm² which
is the limit for a bolt class 8.8.
ii. Evolution of stress in the bolts of diagonal elements
The Figure 3.50 shows the evolution of the shear stress in diagonal bolts.
Figure 3.50. Stress in the diagonal bolts.

It should also be noted here that the maximum stress obtained at failure is 777.2 N/mm², which
is well above the limit value for bolt class 8.8. On the other hand, the blue part is not really
stressed.
b. Plate elements
The Figure 3.51-a shows how stress begins at the top of the plate column where the plate has
subjected in the large tension. These stresses develop in the red area of the figure. These
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elements indicate that the plate of the column has been failure by traction. The Figure 3.51-b
presents the failure of the chord plate. It should be noted that the small stress on both plates at
failure is 418.6 N/mm2 which is slightly higher than the yield strength of the steel used.
(a)
(b)
column plate; (b) the stress distribution in the chord plate.
c. Truss elements
The Figure 3.52 presents the evolution of the stress in the truss elements.
(a)
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(b)
Figure 3.52. Evolution of the stress in the truss elements: (a) the stress in top truss element;
(b) the stress in the diagonal truss element.
Due to displacement apply in the edges truss elements, the figure shows that the elements are
most stresses in encountered of the holes bolt as results in the simulation under static load while
here the failure occur. The red area is the most stressed with a stress value of 429.4 N/mm²
which is higher than the yield stress of the steel section used (355N/mm²).
The Table 3.29 summary the stresses of the elements
connection under displacement.
Top bolts 738.5 640
Diagonal bolts 777.2 640
Column bolts 386.1 640
Plate chord 510 355
Column 510 355
3.5.2. Column-truss welded connection

The section is devoted to analysis of the stresses in the elements of the welded connection
between the column and the truss.
3.5.2.1. Column-truss welded connection under pure static loading
In this sub-section the analysis is carried out by applying the loads using to the design. After
the analysis the connection with Abaqus program, the results of the stress distribution in each
component is present in this section.
2019/2020
a. Bolt element
It is existing only the bolt using to column part, the stress on this element is 402 N/mm2 which
is less than the yield stress of the bolt which is 640 N/mm2 as illustrated by the Figure 3.53
Figure 3.53. The stress distribution on the bolts of the column

b. Plate elements
The plate of column has the maximum stress 245.6 N/mm² as illustrated by the Figure 3.54-a
and in the plate chord the maximum stress is 345.4 N/mm² as illustrated by Figure 3.54-b both
the stresses acting on plates are less the yielding value of 355 N/mm².
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.54. The stress on the plate elements: (a) The stress distribution in the column plate,
(b) The stress distribution in the chord plate
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c. Truss elements
The stress in the top elements is 105.4N/mm² and the stress in the diagonal elements is 234.9
N/mm² as shown in the Figure 3.55, which (stresses) are in the limit of resistance of the
elements.
(a)
(b)
the stress evolution in the diagonal elements.
The Table 3.30 content the summary of the all stress in the component elements of the column-
truss welded connection, in conclusion based of the values reports in table, all the elements are
subjected to stresses which are less than their yielding stress, so again there is no failure in the
elements.
connection under static loads.
Column bolts 402 640
Plate chord 345.4 355
Column 342.4 355
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3.5.2.2. Column-truss welded under displacement

The lateral displacement applied to both models was done so to simulate horizontal effects of
lateral loads with the aim of obtaining analysis the behaviour of elements component of
connection. In this goal the static loads apply previews remove and the 30mm of displacement
apply to do this analysis.
a. Plate elements
The Figure 3.56-a and b shows the stress evolution in the plate element after displacement, it
results all the plate element failure and it can add unlike of bolted connection, here the failure
zone has more extended.
(a)
(b)
column plate; (b) the stress distribution in the chord plate.
b. Truss elements
The Figure 3.57 illustrated the stress evolution in the truss element after subject of
displacement. It results all the part of element failure unlike to the bolted element where the
failure occurs encountered to the hole bolts.
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(a)
(b)
the stress evolution in the diagonal elements.
The Table 3.31 content the summary of the all stress in the component elements of the column-
truss welded connection after subjected of displacement, in conclusion based of the values
reports in table, the stresses recorded are greater than yielding stress of elements. So, there is
failure in the elements.
connection under displacement.
Column plate 510 355
Plate chord 510 355
Top element 430 355
Diagonal element 430 355
Column 510 355
3.5.3. Column base connection

In this sub-section, the results of the column base connection are presents. The resultant stress
in each connection components were getting to check if there is failure and hence if the
connection is able to resist when subjected to these loads.
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3.5.3.1. Column base connection under pure static design loads

a. Tensile stress in concrete
For concrete, it should be noted that the compressive and tensile strength of concrete is not
achieved. The Figure 3.58 shows the evolution of maximum tensile strength in concrete due to
design loads.
Figure 3.58. Tensile stress in concrete (Abaqus/CAE).

It can be seen that the maximum tensile stress is 1.56 N/mm² while the prescribed value of the
mean tensile strength of a concrete class C25/30 is fctm=2.56N/mm². The red area is the most
stressed by traction. It is also noted in the Figure 3.58 that this traction is formed around the
area where the anchor bolts are in traction.
b. Compress stress in the concrete
The Figure 3.59 shows the evolution of compressive stress in concrete as a result of the applied
the static force.
Figure 3.59. Compressive stress in concrete.

From the stress key we could see that the maximum compressive stress of concrete is
21.47N/mm2 and occurs at a region very close to the base of the anchor plate. Here we could
say that the compressive stress of concrete C25/30 fck=25 N/mm2 is not exceed.
c. The stress in the column section

The Figure 3.60 shows the evolution of the stresses in the column section obtained after
completion of the analysis.
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Figure 3.60. Stress evolution in the column section.

The maximum stress observed in the steel column is around 309.23N/mm2 which is below the
yielding strength of our column section fyk = 355 N/mm2.
d. The stress in the plate base

Stresses in plate base are interpreted here by the Mises constraint as presented in Figure 3.61.
Figure 3.61. stress evolution in the plate base.

The maximum stress observed in the plate base model is around 336.13N/mm2 which is below
the yielding strength of our plate section fyk = 355 N/mm2.
e. The Stress in the anchor bolts

The Figure 3.62 shows the compress and the tensile stress evolution in the anchor bolts as
obtained after analysis.
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Figure 3.62. Stress evolution in the anchor bolts.

In this case, the stress has a value of 632.88N/mm² for tension and 57 N/mm² which are much
lower than the yield strength of the bolts whose yield strength fub = 640N/mm².
The Table 3.32 content the summary of the all maximum stress in the component elements of
the connection, in conclusion based of the values reports in table, all the elements are subjected
to stresses which are less than their yielding stress, so there is no failure in the elements.
Table 3.32. Stress comparation of the elements with yield stress of column base connection
Concrete (Tensile stress) 1.56 2.56
Concrete (Compression stress) 21.47 25
Column 309.33 355
Plate base 336.13 355
Anchor bolts 632.88 650
After observing the stress inside the different elements of the pavement due to the recommended
loading, let’s increase this later and observe the failure mechanisms.
3.5.3.2. Column base connection under failure loads
In this part, it will be applied the loads of static design with an amplitude growth of constant
manner and at end of the analysis the loads failure is determined thus the behaviour of the
components elements of connection is observe at this failure. The failures connection begging
from the loads:
• The compress load: 512 kN which is equivalent to pressure 31.75 N/mm2.
• The moment: at the incrementation which the failure started the moment estimate at
600 kN.m
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a. Stress in the concrete footing at failure

The Figure 3.63 shows the evolution of the compression stress in concrete.
Figure 3.63. Compression stress in the concrete at failure.

It should also be noted here that the maximum compressive stress obtained at failure is
52.84N/mm², which is well above the limit value for class C25/30 concrete. On the other hand,
the red part is not really stressed. As the concrete it is failure under the compress stress, it is
guessed not very necessary to observe the behaviour under tension stress.
b. Stress in the column section
The failure was also due to local yielding in the column 510.02N/mm2 as shown in Figure 3.64,
where the stresses attained the ultimate value of the column section.
Figure 3.64. Stress distribution in the column of the base plate connection.
The others elements (plate base and anchor bolts) not failure at moment when column and
concrete already failure. But the plate starts the failure when the amplitude attained 3.24 while
the anchor bolts is failure at the end of analysis i.e. when amplitude attained 4. The Table 3.33
content the stress recorded at failure of connection.
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Table 3.33. Stress comparation of the elements with yield stress of column base connection at
failure
Concrete (Tensile stress) 9.75 2.56
Concrete (Compression stress) 52.84 25
Column 510.02 355
Plate base 510.02 355
Anchor bolts 865 650
Conclusion
The main of this chapter which to present and interpret the results of SAP2000 and
Abaqus/CAE modelling, he can note that SAP2000 permit to have the solicitations which help
to design the structural elements and their connections. At the end the section IPE 140 A is
obtained for the purlin section, the truss elements are components the 2L section which the
dimensions depend of the solicitations subjected. The brace members are in L sections which
designed to the resistance of the horizontal loads. The column is the HEB 320 section, and the
bolts necessary to maintained their structural elements together are determined. About
Abaqus/CAE results, he saw that due to the load applied at the design phase, the steel and
concrete stress are very low. Then due to the displacement applied the elements analysis fails
and the failure loads were recorded and the different failure mechanisms were identified.
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GENERAL CONCLUSION
GENERAL CONCLUSION
This work was aimed at analysing the structural behaviour of the steel connection using the
finite element method. This study was done firstly through a literature review on steel nodes
and the basics concepts of the FEM. Secondly, the methodology of the analysis and design of
structural elements and connections of elements was presented. Then following this
methodology, the warehouse steel building was designed according to the Eurocodes
recommendations and its connections were modelled in the software Abaqus/CAE for
numerical analyses. Thirdly, the building was designed and a numerical analysis using the FEM
of their connections was done in the software Abaqus/CAE, then the results of the connections
analysis were discussed.
Three connections were analysed: the column-truss bolted connection, the column-truss welded
and the column base. The analysis was done in two (2) parts, the first was charged with the
loads used during the design phase according to the norms to check the structural behaviour.
For column-truss bolted the principal components had a column HEB 320, the truss elements
2L 100*100*10 as top member and 2L 80*80*8 for le diagonal member, theses structural
elements were joined to each other by bolts using plates. So, these are the elements whose
behaviour has been studied in the Abaqus software and therefore, it can be concluded after all.
For the elements of the connections, the stress obtained in Abaqus was compared to the yielding
stress used during the design and according to the results obtained, none of the connections
members yielded. And as results, it could also be noticed regarding the connection between
column-truss that the elements are more stressed in the welded connection than in the bolted
connection under the effect of the design loads. The base of the column connection consists of
the HEB320, a 30mm of the plate, 4 anchor bolts and a concrete block of class C25/30, they
were also subjected to an analysis of structural behaviours under design loads and it is found
that the connection resists well.
After applying the design loads, the failure was imposed on the connections. For the column to
truss connections, a 30 mm displacement was applied at the ends of each truss elements, the
results obtained showed that the members of the connection had completely yielded and stress
attained the ultimate value. The results obtained from the analysis under lateral displacement
revealed that the the connection between the column and the truss goes to failure and as in the
design loads analysis due to the common elements of the column-truss connection, the welded
connection is always more stressed than bolted. For the column base connection, a maximum
axial load of 581.5 kN with 600 kN.m moments was recorded and a maximum compressive
stress of 41.85 N/mm² was obtained in the concrete footing to reach the failure of the
connection. In general, the steel connection components can optimise.
The subject matter is very broad and it was necessary to limit the scope of the research.
However, this work cannot be without imperfection as some certain factors were not taken into
account. In order to improve this work, it can be suggested to study another type of connection
of the buildings, taking into account the soil-structure interaction for further study, or
considering the effect of seism to do the analysis.
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Engineering, Vol 30, No 10, pp 2677-2686.
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Edition in SI Units Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers FOURTH Edition In si
units.
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with the Eurocodes, with worked examples’’, Brussels, Belgium
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https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.1965.9696133
2019/2020
ANNEXES
ANNEXES
Annexes A: Tables for the methodology
Table A1. Categories of use of the building (EC 1 Part 1)
Table A2. Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings (EC 1 Part 1)
2019/2020
ANNEXES
Table A3. Terrain categories and terrain parameters (EC 1 part 4)
Annex A1. Illustrations of the exposure factor ce(z) for co=1,0, kI=1,0 (BS EN1991 1-4)
Annex A2: Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure
profile (BS EN1991 1-4)
2019/2020
ANNEXES
Table A4: Recommended values of 𝜓 factors for buildings ( EC 0 part 1)
Table A5: Effective length of the T-stub (Imperfection factor (BS EN 1993 1-8)
2019/2020

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REPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD ANALYSIS APPLIED TO THE

Curriculum: Structural Engineering

Academic year: 2019/2020

I dedicate this endeavour work to my sister, my shield,

AISI American Iron and Steel Institute

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

DCH Ductility Class High

DCL Ductility Class Low

DCM Ductility Class Medium

CEN European Committee for Standardization

FEA Finite Element Analysis

FEM Finite Element Method

LRFD Load Resistance Factor Design

SLS Service Limit State

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

SAP Structural Analysis Program

NTC Technical Standards for Constructions

ULS Ultimate Limit State

Keywords: structural analysis, finite element method, node, steel structure

L’objectif principal de ce travail était l’analyse du comportement structurel de l’assemblage par

Figure 1.1. Rolling process for I or H shape (www.steelconstruction.info). ............................ 3

Table 3.22. The verification of the beam section resistance.................................................... 83

2.1. Case study .................................................................................................................. 33

3.3.5. Design of vertical structural elements ................................................................ 78

CHAPTER 1: LITTERATURE REVIEW

Figure 1.1. Rolling process for I or H shape (www.steelconstruction.info).

1.1.2. Grades and sections types of steel

1.1.2.2. Steel section

Figure 1.3. The steel sections (Bangash, 2000).

1.1.3.2. Toughness test

in which G is the weight of the hammer.

Figure 1.5. Toughness test (www.jeremyjordan.me).

Figure 1.6. Bending test (Bernuzzi and Cordova, 2016).

Figure1.7. Hardness test (www.nusatek.com).

Table1.3.Tolerances on out-of-square and web off-centre of structural steel I and H sections

Table 1.4.Tolerances on straightness of structural steel I and H sections (EN 10034)

Table1.5. Essential manufacturing tolerances – welded sections (EN 1090-2)

Overall depth h Δ = −h∕50

Deviation Δ over plate

1.2. Steel structures

Figure 1.10. Chicago's Home Insurance Building, 1885 (http://www.britannica.com).

Figure 1.11. Single-storey buildings (www.steelconstruction.info).

Figure 1.12. Multi-storey steel buildings (www.unionssm.com).

Figure 1.13. Residential building (www.steelbuildingempire.com).

Figure 1.14. Suspension bridge (www.atlastube.com).

1.3. Nodes in the steel structures

Figure 1.17. Classification of joints by stiffness (EN1993-1-8).

M j,Rd ≥ Mfull-strength (1.8)

Figure 1.18. Classification of joints by full strength (EN1993-1-8).

Figure 1.19. Strength classification boundaries (EN1993-1-8).

Figure 1.20. Typical beam to beam connection (AISC, 2009).

Figure 1.21. Beam to column connection (www.seismicresilience.org.nz/).

Figure 1.22. Column base connection (Adluri, 2001).

Figure 1.23. Brace connection (Adluri, 2001)

Figure 1.25. Parts of bolt (mechanialjungle.com/what-is-bolt-and-its-types/)

Figure 1.26. Tension and shear bolted joint (Bickford, 2008).