Chapter 2

Boolean Algebra and

Logic Gates
Boolean Algebra and
Logic Gates
2.1 Basic Definitions
2.2 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
2.3 Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra
2.4 Boolean Functions
2.5 Canonical and Standard Forms
2.6 Other Logic Operations
2.7 Digital Logic Gates
2.8 IC Digital Logic Families
2.1 Basic Definitions

1.Closure A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair
of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique
element of S.
Example:-
The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4,...} is closed with respect to
the binary operator plus (+) by the rules of arithmetic addition, since for any
a, b ∈ N we obtain a unique c ∈ N by the operation a + b = c.
 2. Associative law
• A binary operator * on a set S is
said to be associative whenever:
2.1 Basic (x* y)*z = x*(y*z) for all x, y, z ∈ S

Definitions 3. Commutative law

• A binary operator * on a set S is
said to be commutative
whenever: x* y = y* x for all x, y
∈S
2.1 Basic Definitions

4. Identity element
A set S is said to have
an identity element with respect to a binary
operation * on S if there exists an element e ∈ S with
the property: e* x = x* e = x for every x ∈ S
Example:
The element 0 is an identity element with
respect to operation + on the set of integers I = {...
,−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... } since: x + 0 = 0 + x = x for
any x ∈ I The set of natural numbers N has no
identity element since 0 is excluded from the set.
 5. Inverse
• A set S having the identity element e with
respect to a binary operator * is said to
have an inverse whenever, for every x ∈ S,
there exists an element y ∈ S such that: x*
2.1 Basic y = e Example: In the set of integer I with e
= 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a) since
Definitions a + (-a) = 0.

6. Distributive law
• If * and • are two binary operators on a set
S, * is said to be distributive over •
whenever: x*(y • z) = (x*y) • (x*z)
 Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure
defined on a set of elements B together with
two binary operators + and • provided the
2.2 Axiomatic following (Huntington) postulates are
satisfied:
Definition of 1. (a) Closure with respect to the operator +.
Boolean (b) Closure with respect to the operator.
Algebra 2. (a) An identity element with respect to +,
designated by 0: x + 0 = 0 + x = x.
(b) An identity element with respect to •,
designated by 1: x 1 = 1 • x = x.
 3. (a) Commutative with respect to +: x + y = y +
x.
(b) Commutative with respect to : x y = y • x.
4. (a) • is distributive over + : x • (y + z) = (x • y)
2.2 Axiomatic + (x • z).
Definition of (b) + is distributive over: x + (y • z) = (x + y) •
(x + z).
Boolean 5. For every element x ∈ B, there exists an
Algebra element x′ ∈ B (called the complement of x)
such that: (a) x + x′= 1 and (b) x • x′ = 0.
6. There exists at least two elements x, y ∈ B
such that x != y.
 A two-valued Boolean algebra is defined on a set of two
elements, B = {0, 1}, with rules for the two binary operators +
2.2.2 Two-Valued and • as shown in the following operator tables (the rule for
Boolean Algebra the complement operator is for verification of postulate 5):
 These rules are exactly the same as the AND, OR,
and NOT operations, respectively, defined in Table
1-6. We must now show that the Huntington
postulates are valid for the set B = {0, 1} and the
2.2.2 Two- two binary operators defined above.
1. Closure is obvious from the tables since the
Valued result of each operation is either 1 or 0 and 1,
Boolean 0 ∈ B.
2. From the tables we see that: (a) 0 + 0 = 0, 0 +
Algebra 1=1+0=1
(b) 1 • 1 = 1 ,1 • 0 = 0 • 1 = 0 which establishes
the two identity elements 0 for + and 1 for • as
defined by postulate 2.
 3. The commutative laws are obvious from the
symmetry of the binary operator tables.

4. (a) The distribute law x • (y + z) = (x • y) + (x

2.2.2 Two- • z) can be shown to hold true from the
Valued operator tables by forming a truth table of all
possible values of x, y, and z. For each
Boolean combination, we derive x • (y + z) and
Algebra show that the value is the same as (x • y) + (x
• z).
(b) The distributive law of + over • can be
shown to hold true by means of a truth table
similar to the one above.
2.2.2 Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
 2.2.2 Two-Valued Boolean Algebra

5. From the complement table it is easily shown that: (a) x + x′ = 1,

since 0 + 0′ = 0 + 1 = 1 and 1 + 1′ = 1 + 0 = 1 (b) x • x′ = 0,
since 0 • 0′ = 0 • 1 = 0 and 1 • 1′ = 1 • 0 = 0 which verifies postulate 5.

6. Postulate 6 is satisfied because the two-valued Boolean algebra has

two distinct elements 1 and 0 with 1 != 0.
2.3 Basic 2.3.1 Duality
Theorems
and 2.3.2 Basic Theorems
Properties 2.3.3 Operator Precedence
of Boolean
2.3.4 Venn Diagram
Algebra
2.3.1 Duality

This important property of Boolean algebra

is called the duality principle. It states that
every algebraic expression deducible from
the postulates of Boolean algebra remains
valid if the operators and identity elements
are interchanged. In a two-valued Boolean
algebra, the identity elements and the
elements of the set B are the same: 1 and 0.
The duality principle has many applications.
If the dual of an algebraic expression is
desired, we simply interchange OR and AND
operators and replace 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s
2.3.1 Duality
2.3.2 Basic Theorems
2.3.2 Basic Theorems
2.3.2 Basic Theorems
2.3.2 Basic THEOREM 3: (x′)′ = x.
Theorems From postulate 5, we have x + x′ = 1 and
x • x′ = 0, which defines the
complement of x. The complement of x′
is x and is also (x′)′. Therefore, since the
complement is unique, we have that
(x′)′ = x.
 =

2.3.2 Basic
Theorems
THEOREM 6(b): x(x + y) = x by duality.
The first De Morgan’s theorem (x + y)′ = x′ y′
 The operator precedence
for evaluating Boolean
2.3.3 expressions is
Operator • Parentheses
Precedence • NOT
• AND
• OR.
 EXAMPLE 2-1: Using basic Boolean theorem prove:
(a) (x + y)(x + z) = x + yz
Soln: (x + y) (x + z)
2.3.3 =x⋅x+x⋅z+y⋅x+y⋅z since
x.x = x
Operator = x + xz + yx + yz

Precedence = x (1 + z) + yx + yz
since (1 + z) = 1

(Example) = x + yx + yz
= x (1 + y) + yz
since (1 + y) = 1
= x + yz (Proved)
2.3.4 Venn
Diagram
A helpful illustration that may
be used to visualize the
relationships among the
variables of a Boolean
expression is the Venn diagram.
Distributive law
x(y + z) = xy + xz
(Venn Diagram)
2.4 Boolean
Functions
2.4 Boolean Functions (continued)
2.4 Boolean Functions (continued)
2.4 Boolean Functions (continued)
2.4 Boolean
Functions
(continued)
2.4.1 Algebraic
Manipulation
Example: Simplify the following
Boolean functions to a minimum
number of literals.
1. x + x′ y
= (x + x′)(x + y)
= 1 • (x + y)
=x+y
 Example: Simplify the following Boolean functions to
2.4.1 a minimum number of literals.
2. x (x′ + y)
Algebraic = xx′ + xy

Manipulation = 0 + xy
= xy
2.4.1 Example: Simplify the following Boolean functions to
a minimum number of literals.

Algebraic 3. x′ y′ z + x′ yz + xy′
= x′ z(y′ + y) + xy′
Manipulation = x′ z + xy′
 Example: Simplify the following Boolean functions to
a minimum number of literals.
2.4.1 4. xy + x′ z + yz

Algebraic = xy + x′ z + yz(x + x′)

= xy + x′ z + xyz + x′ yz
Manipulation = xy (1 + z) + x′ z (1 + y)
= xy + x′ z
 Example: Simplify the
following Boolean functions to
a minimum number of literals.
2.4.1
Algebraic
Manipulation
5. (x + y) (x′ + z) (y + z)
= (x + y) (x′ + z) by duality from
function 4.
2.4.2 Complement of a Function
(A + B + C)′
= (A + X)′ let B + C = X
= A′ X′ by theorem 5(a) (De Morgan)
= A′ • (B + C)′ substitute B + C = X
= A′ • (B′ C′) by theorem 5(a) (De Morgan)
= A′ B′ C′ by theorem 4(b) (associative)
2.4.2 Complement of a Function (Example)
EXAMPLE 2-3: Find the complement of the functions F1 = x′ yz′ + x′ y′ z and
F2 = x (y’z’ + yz).
Applying De Morgan’s theorem as many times as necessary, the
complements are obtained as follows:
F′ 1 = (x′ yz′ + x′ y′ z)′
= (x′ yz′)′(x′ y′ z)′
= (x + y′ + z)(x + y + z′)
F′ 2 = [x (y′ z′ + yz)]′
= x′ + (y′ z′ + yz)′
= x′ + (y′ z′)′ • (yz) ′
= x′ + (y + z)(y′ + z′)
2.5 2.5.1 Minterms and Maxterms

Canonical 2.5.2 Sum of Minterms

and 2.5.3 Product of Maxterms

Standard 2.5.4 Conversion between Canonical Forms

Forms 2.5.5 Standard Forms

2.5.1 Minterms and Maxterms
f 1 = x′y′z + xy′z′ +
xyz
= m1 + m4 + m7
f 2 = x′yz + xy′z +
xyz′ + xyz
= m3 + m5 + m6 +
m7
2.5.2 Sum of
Minterms
2.5.3 Product
of Maxterms
 2.5.4
Conversion • F(A,B, C) = ∑(1,4,5,6,7)
• F′(A, B, C) = ∑ (0, 2, 3) = m0 + m2 + m3
between • F = (m0 + m2 + m3 )′ = m′ 0 .m′ 2 .m′ 3
Canonical = M0 M2 M3 = ∏ (0, 2, 3)
Forms • M′ j = Mj
Note: To convert from one canonical form to
another, interchange the symbols ∑ and ∏ and list
those numbers missing from the original form.
 • There are two types of standard forms: the sum
of products and product of sums.
• The sum of products is a Boolean expression
containing AND terms, called product terms, of
2.5.5 Standard one or more literals each.
Forms F1 = y′ + xy + x′yz′
• A product of sums is a Boolean expression
containing OR terms, called sum terms. Each
term may have any number of literals.
F2 = x(y′ + z)(x′ + y + z′ + w)
 • When the binary operators AND and OR are placed
between two variables x and y, they form two
Boolean functions x ⋅ y and x + y, respectively.
• Each of the functions in Table 2-6 is listed with an
2.6 Other accompanying name and a comment that explains the
function in some way. The 16 functions listed can be
Logic subdivided into three categories:

Operations 1. Two functions that produce a constant 0 or 1.

2. Four functions with unary operations
complement and transfer.
3. Ten functions with binary operators that
define eight different operations AND, OR,
NAND, NOR, exclusive-OR, equivalence,
inhibition, and implication.
 2.7.1 Extension to Multiple Inputs

2.7 Digital
Logic Gates
2.7.1 Extension to Multiple Inputs
 The difficulty is that the NAND and NOR operators are not
2.7.1 associative, i.e., (x ↓ y) ↓z ≠ x ↓ (y ↓ z), as shown in Fig. 2-6
and below:
Extension to (x ↓ y) ↓z = [(x + y)′ + z]′ = (x + y)z′ = xz′ + yz′

Multiple x ↓ (y ↓ z) = [x + (y + z)′]′ − x′(y + z) − x′y + x′z

To overcome this difficulty, we define the multiple NOR (or
Inputs NAND) gate as a complemented OR (or AND) gate. Thus, by
definition, we have:
x ↓ y ↓ z = (x + y + z)′
x ↑ y ↑ z = (xyz)′
F = [(ABC)′(DE)′]′ = ABC + DE
2.7.1
Extension to
Multiple
Inputs
2.7.1 Extension to Multiple Inputs
 TTL Transistor-transistor logic

ECL Emitter-coupled logic

2.8 IC
Digital Logic MOS Metal-oxide semiconductor

Families CMOS Complementary metal-oxide

semiconductor

I 2 L Integrated-injection logic
2.8.1 Positive and Negative Logic
2.8.1 Positive and Negative Logic
Thank You