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Theory of Metal Cutting
Theory of Metal Cutting
Dr S B Patil
Assistant Professor Mechanical Engineering
College of Engineering, Pune 411005
sbp.mech@coep.ac.in
1
Objectives of machining
2
Classification of manufacturing processes
3
Classification of manufacturing processes
4. Joining processes
-Welding, soldering, brazing, riveting, screwing,
adhesive joining, pressing, coupling, key and cotter
joining, nut and bolts joints
4
Parameters influencing machining
5
Basic elements of machining operation
6
Mechanics of chip formation
Rake
Chip
7
• Chip formation is a complex phenomenon
• When tool is forced against the work piece, the crystals
are elongated
• The surface along which the chip slides is called rake
face
• The surface which is relived to clear the newly machined
surface is known as flank
• The rake face makes an angle (γ) with the normal to the
finished surface is called rake angle
8
Types of metal cutting operations
9
Orthogonal cutting
10
Orthogonal Cutting assumptions
12
Oblique cutting assumptions
1.The cutting edge of the tool always remains inclined at an
acute angle to the direction of tool feed or work feed
2. The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle „β‟
with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The
angle is known as Chip flow Angle.
3. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle „i‟ with
the normal to the direction of work feed or tool feed i.e.,
the velocity Vc.
4. Three mutually perpendicular components of Cutting
Forces act at the cutting edge of the tool.
5.The cutting edge may or may not be longer than the
width of the cut.
13
Principle angles of single point tool
14
Tool signature
15
Chip formation
16
Types of chips
17
Segmental or discontinuous chips
18
Segmental or discontinuous chips…
19
Continuous chips
21
Continuous chips with built up edge
22
Continuous chips with built up edge
• This gives rise to an extensively
high temperature and compressed
metal adjacent to the tool nose
gets welded to it.
23
Continuous chips with built up edge
25
Non homogenous chips
26
Types of chips
27
Cutting ratio or chip thickness ratio
28
Chip thickness ratio
29
Cutting ratio (r)
t1
r …… (1)
t2
30
Chip compression/reduction factor
k= 1/r
• Cutting ratio is always less than unity. If the ratio
(r) is large, the cutting is good. A ratio of 1:2
yields good results.
•
31
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34
35
Velocity relationships
36
37
Velocities in metal cutting
43
Merchant circle
44
45
46
47
Merchant‟s Theory
• For equilibrium, the force R between tool face and chip
and force R‟ between work piece and chip along the
shear plane should be equal.
48
Merchant‟s Theory…
• Fz is the main cutting force and is in the direction of
the tool travel. The feed force FY acts in direction
perpendicular to main cutting force Fz
49
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53
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57
58
Work done and power required in metal cutting
Let
v= cutting speed (m/min)
Fz= cutting force (kgs)
W= total work done in cutting
W= Fz X v ……. (1)
W1 = work done in shear
Fs = Shear force
vs = velocity along shear plane
W1 = Fs X vs …… (2)
59
Work done and power required in metal cutting
W= W1 + W2
Fz X v = Fs X vs + Ft X vc
60
61
Cutting tool materials
• Cutting tool has to be harder than the work material
62
Cutting tool materials…
4. It should be able to withstand high temperatures.
6. The coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool should be as
low as possible in the operating range of speed and feed.
63
Types of Cutting tool materials
1. Carbon tool steel
2. Alloy steel
4. Stellite
5. Cemented carbides
7. Diamonds
64
1. Carbon tool steel
- Plain carbon steels having carbon % as high as 1.5%
are commonly used as tool for general class of work.
65
2. Alloy steel
66
3. High Speed Steel (HSS)
67
3. High Speed Steel (HSS)
68
3. High Speed Steel (HSS)…
69
4. Stellite
• It is a non-ferrous alloy consisting of cobalt, tungsten and
chromium, other elements added in varying proportion
are tantalum, molybdenum and boron.
70
Stellite
• Tools made of stellite are capable of operating at speeds
up to 2 times more than those of common HSS tools
71
5. Cemented or sintered carbides
72
5. Cemented carbides…
73
Properties of cemented carbide tools
74
5. Ceramic tools
• It mainly consists of Al2O3 which is cheaper than any of
the main constitute of cemented carbides.
75
5. Ceramic tools
• These tools have better wear resistance as compared
to cemented carbide tools.
76
5. Ceramics…
78
6. Diamonds
79
6. Diamonds
1. Friction
3. Chip deformation
81
Causes of heat in metal cutting
1. Friction
82
Causes of heat in metal cutting
3. Chip distortion
- In metal cutting, as the cutting proceeds and the chip curl
out, the inside grains of the chip metal are subjected to
compression and tension respectively.
2. Tool-chip interface
85
Sources of heat in metal cutting
86
Sources of heat in metal cutting
2. Tool-chip interface
(Secondary deformation zone)
As the chip slides upward during face of
the tool friction occurs between their
surfaces due to which heat is
generated.
87
Sources of heat in metal cutting
88
Sources of heat in metal cutting
- On an average 70% of the total
heat is carried out by chip, about
15% is transferred to the tool and
remaining 15% to the work piece.
90
Functions of cutting fluids
91
Functions of cutting fluids
2. To provide lubrication
93
Functions of cutting fluids
3. It should be odorless.
95
Desirable properties of cutting fluids…
97
Water based cutting fluids
98
Water based cutting fluids…
99
Straight or neat oil based cutting fluids
1. Mineral oils
2. Straight fatty oils
3. Compounded or blended oils
4. Sulphurized oils
5. Chlorinated oils
100
Straight or neat oil based cutting fluids…
1. Mineral oils
- Used for light machining operations
- machining of free cutting brass and steel
102
Lubricants
103
Selection of cutting fluid
105
Selection of cutting fluid
107
Factors affecting selection of cutting fluid
108
Unsatisfactory cutting
109
Causes of tool failure
2. Mechanical chipping
3. Gradual wear
110
Causes of tool failure
1. Thermal cracking and softening
- Due to heat the tool tip and the area closer to the
cutting edge becomes very hot and the tool starts
loosing its hardness after attaining some temperature.
- After the operating temperature, the tool material starts
deforming plastically at the tip and adjacent to the
cutting edge under the action of the cutting pressure
and the high temperature.
- Thus the tool loses its cutting ability and is said to have
failed due to softening.
- Factors responsible: high values of cutting parameters,
smaller nose radius and selection of wrong tool material
111
Causes of tool failure
112
Causes of tool failure
2. Mechanical chipping
- Mechanical chipping of the nose
and/or the cutting edge of the tool
are commonly observed.
- Chipping occurs due to high cutting
pressure, mechanical impact,
excessive wear, high vibration and
weak tip and cutting edge etc.
- Chipping is more pronounced in carbide tipped and
diamond tools due to their high brittleness.
113
Causes of tool failure
3. Gradual wear
- Loss of mass from tool is
due to wear
- Two types of wear
generally found in
cutting tools
1. Crater wear
2. Flank wear
114
Crater wear
115
Crater wear
116
Crater wear
117
Crater wear
119
Flank wear
121
Flank wear
122
Flank wear
123
Flank wear
124
Effect of cutting speed on flank wear
125
Effect of cutting speed on flank wear
126
Wear mechanism
127
Wear mechanism- Abrasion
128
Wear mechanism- Abrasion
129
Wear mechanism- Adhesion
131
Wear mechanism- Adhesion
132
Wear mechanism- Diffusion
• Solid state diffusion, which consists of transfer of atoms
in a metal crystal lattice, is another cause of wear.
• This transfer of atoms takes places at elevated
temperature from the area of high concentration to that
of low concentration.
• The favourable condition for diffusion is provided by the
rise in localized temperature over the actual contract
area between the chip underside and the tool faces.
133
Wear mechanism- Diffusion
• In such a condition, the tool material to the chip material
at the points of contact.
• This weakens the surface structure of the cutting tool
and may ultimately lead to tool failure.
• The amount of diffusion depends upon:
134
Wear mechanism- Chemical wear
• This type of wear occurs when such a cutting fluid is
used in the process of metal cutting which is chemically
active to the material of the tool.
• This is clearly the result of chemical reaction taking
places between the cutting fluid and the tool material,
leading to a change in the chemical composition of the
surface material of tool.
135
Machinability
136
Machinability evaluation
1. Rate of metal removal per tool grind
7. Power consumed
137
Machinability index
138
Economics of metal cutting
141
Relation between cutting speed, production rate
and cost
142
Relation between cutting speed, production rate
and cost
144
Tool Life
145
Methods of expressing Tool Life
147
Tool Life- Volume of material removed
148
Taylor‟s Tool Life equation
149
Factors Affecting Tool Life
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed and depth of cut
3. Tool geometry
4. Tool material
5. Work material
6. Nature of cutting
7. Rigidity of machine tool
8. Use of cutting fluid
150
1. Effect of cutting speed
151
2. Feed and depth of cut
152
3. Tool geometry- Rake angle
153
3. Tool geometry- Clearance angle
154
3. Tool geometry- End cutting edge angle
155
3. Tool geometry- Side cutting edge angle
156
3. Tool geometry
157
5. Work material
158
5. Work material
159
6. Nature of cutting
160
7. Rigidity of Machine tool
• If not, vibration will take place and then the cutting tool
will be subjected to intermittent loads and hence results
in shorter tool life.
161
Tool life- Use of cutting fluids