Part 1:Design for Flexure-Outline

• Simple Vertical Bending • Two-way Bending

 Behaviour  Behaviour
 Design Procedure  Design Procedure
 Worked Example  Worked Example
• Simple Horizontal
Bending
 Behaviour
 Design Procedure
 Worked Example

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 Lateral Load Failures
• Lateral load governs for
most masonry walls in
Australian buildings
• Behaviour is not
completely understood
• Design methods have
been an issue
worldwide for at least
30 years

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 One-way Bending
• One way bending is defined as either
horizontal or vertical

VERTICAL HORIZONTAL
 Part a) Vertical Bending
• Vertical Bending
• Simple spanning between top
and bottom supports results in
Line of horizontal elastic brittle behaviour
support
 This is the simplest bending
Line of vertical behaviour occurring in
support
masonry
• The stress-strain relationship is
Failure linear until failure
on bed
joints • The section is uncracked until
Wind
the extreme fibre tensile
strength is reached – failure
VERTICAL then takes place suddenly
 Simple Vertical Bending

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 Typical Load-Deflection Plot for
Vertical Bending
9.0

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0
Load (kN)

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
Deflection (mm)

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 Simple Vertical Bending Behaviour
• Bond wrench testing is used to determine the
ultimate flexural tensile capacity
 The characteristic flexural tensile strength is denoted
f'mt
• It is assumed that vertically-spanning sections
wider than one masonry unit fail when the
extreme fibre tensile stress reaches the average
flexural tensile strength across the section
• A simple bending formula is used by AS 3700 for
design

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 Bond Wrench Testing

Moment
applied to
top joint

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 Design for Vertical Bending using
AS3700
Section 7.4 AS3700
Design criterion (Cl 7.4.2)

M dv  M cv
 Mdv = the design vertical bending moment
 Mcv = the vertical bending moment capacity
 Simple Vertical Bending Moment
AS3700 Design Procedures
i) Where f 'mt > 0, M cv is lesser of

M cv   f 'mt Z d  f d Z d
or

M cv  3.0 f 'mt Z d

ii) For f 'mt = 0:

Mcv  fdZ d
Where fd is not > 0.36 Mpa (*A second equation limits the effect of fd)

Where –
 = Capacity reduction factor (0.6 for bending)
f mt = The characteristic flexural tensile strength of the masonry
Zd = The section modulus of the bedded area
fd = The compressive stress due to superimposed vertical load
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 Simple Vertical Bending Moment
AS3700 Design Procedures (cont)

f mt is the characteristic flexural tensile strength of the masonry

can be taken from Section 3.3.3 AS3700

Under actions resulting from wind, earthquake loads and similar

forces of a short term, transient nature, and where any
simultaneous force due to vertical loads Fd,

f mt = 0.20 MPa for clay, concrete & calcium silicate masonry.
Note: Live loads should be considered as short term transient nature.

Other cases, f mt = 0

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 Simple Vertical Bending Moment
AS3700 Design Procedures (cont)
f d , Minimum design compressive stress on the bed
joint at the cross section in a member under
consideration,
For example, live load = 5 kN/m and dead load = 10
kN/m & height of wall is 2.4 m
f d = 0.8 ( [(H/2)*brick density] + [dead load/t] )
= 0.8 ([(2.4/2)*19 kN/m 3] + [10kN/m / 0.11 m])
fd
= 90.96 kPa = 0.091 MPa
 Simple Vertical Bending Moment
AS3700 Design Procedures (cont)
• section modulus of bedded area btb
2
Zd 
• tb = bedded thickness (Cl 4.5.4) 6
 Affected by depth of raking of mortar joints.
Bedded thickness if
DOR  3 mm

Bedded thickness if
Depth of Raking DOR > 3 mm
 Part b) Horizontal Bending
Vertical Bending
• Sections of wall supported only
Failure on bonded
at the sides resist lateral load by
perpend joints
horizontal bending
• Distribution of stresses between Line of
masonry units and mortar joints vertical
support
is complex Line of
vertical
• A typical load-deflection plot support
shows distinct changes of slope
as cracks develop in the Wind
perpends Wind

HORIZONTAL
 Simple Horizontal Bending

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 Typical Load-Deflection Plot for
Horizontal Bending
12

10

8
Load (kN)

0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
Deflection (mm)

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 Simple Horizontal Bending
Modes of Failure
• There are two modes of
failure for horizontal
bending –
 Toothed Failure: Stepped
failure line confined
to the mortar joints (occurs
when the units are strong
relative to the bond strength)
 Vertical Line Failure: Failure
line through the
perpend joints and fracturing
of the masonry units (occurs
when the units are weak
relative to the bond strength)

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 Simple Horizontal Bending Behaviour

• Lateral modulus of rupture is the measure of unit

strength for failure through the units

• For the stepped mode of failure the torsional

shearing action on the bed joints where units
overlap is critical and -
 depends on the extent of overlap; and,
 is enhanced by any superimposed vertical compressive
stress

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 Design for Horizontal Bending using
AS3700
• Design criterion (Cl 7.4.3)
M dh  M ch
 Mdh = the design horizontal bending moment
 Mch = the horizontal bending moment capacity in
N.mm per metre length
 Horizontal Bending Design Procedure
• Moment of resistance (for other than AAC units): (Cl. 7.4.3.2),

Mch is the least of These two equations are

 fd  derived empirically and
(i) Mch  2.0kp f'mt  1  Z d apply mainly to stepped
 f'mt  bond (toothed) failure
(ii) Mch  4.0kp f'mt Z d
(iii) Mch  0.44f'ut Zu  0.56f'mt Zp  This apply mainly to failure
line through the
perpend joints and units
(vertical line failure)

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 Horizontal Bending Design Procedure
(cont)
(i) First equation:

 fd 
Mch  2.0kp f'mt  1  Z d
Where –  f'mt 
 = Capacity reduction factor (0.6 for bending)
kp = Perpend spacing factor - see below
(1 for traditional stretcher-bonded brickwork)
f mt = Characteristic flexural tensile strength of the masonry = 0.2 MPa
Zd = Section modulus of the bedded area
fd = Compressive stress due to superimposed vertical load

Units are MPa for fd and f 'mt, mm3 per metre for Zd, and N.mm per metre for Mch

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 Horizontal Bending Design Procedure
(Continued)
(ii) A second equation limits the effect of fd :
Mch  4.0kp f'mt Z d
Where –
 = Capacity reduction factor (0.6 for bending)
kp = Perpend spacing factor - see below
(1 for traditional stretcher-bonded brickwork)
f mt = Characteristic flexural tensile strength of the masonry = 0.2 MPa
Zd = Section modulus of the bedded area

Units are MPa for fd and f 'mt, mm3 per metre for Zd, and N.mm per metre for
Mch

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 Terminology
• Bond – Interlocking between units.
 Types: English, Flemish, Stretcher

24
 Perpend Spacing Factor kp (Cl. 7.4.3.4)
• The Perpend spacing
Sp
factor kp shall be the
least of: hu
(a) sp / hu ,
(b) sp / tu
(c) 1
Note: tu is the thickness of the
unit through the wall

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 Horizontal Bending Design Procedure
(Continued)
(iii) Third equation models failure through perpends and

M ch   0.44 f 'ut Z u  0.56 f 'mt Z p 

units:

Where:
f 'ut = lateral modulus of rupture (0.8 in the absence of test data)
Zu = section modulus of the units
Zp = section modulus of the perpends
f mt= Characteristic flexural tensile strength of the masonry = 0.2
MPa
• The lowest value from the three equations is used for the
design moment of resistance
• If the joints are raked or not completely filled, Zp < Zu

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 Part c) Two-Way Bending Overview
• Elastic plate theory and the conventional yield-line
method do not work for masonry walls
• An earlier Strip Method was easy to apply but has
serious drawbacks
• The Virtual Work Method has major advantages:
 Greater accuracy across a range of shapes
 Caters for more wall configurations
 Caters for walls with openings
 Reduces emphasis on lateral modulus of rupture and
places more emphasis on torsional resistance of the bed
joints
 Applies equally for both solid and hollow units

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 Two-Way Bending Wall Test

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 Two-Way Bending Typical Crack
Patterns

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 Behaviour of Crack Lines
• Horizontal cracks do not have residual
moment capacity
• The angle of diagonal cracks is dictated by the
unit proportions
• Vertical cracks form when the bending
moment equals the horizontal capacity
• The moment on a diagonal crack is related to
a shear/torsion action between the units

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 Two-way Bending Design Procedure using
AS3700
Design criterion (Cl 7.4.4)
wd ≤ w

• General equation for the Virtual Work method (applying to other

than AAC units):
2a f
wd  2 (k1M ch  k 2 M cd )
Ld
Where –
wd = design lateral load on the wall (wind, earthquake or similar
pressure)
af = aspect factor
Ld = design length
k1 = coefficient for horizontal bending
k2 = coefficient for diagonal bending
Mch = horizontal moment capacity (as for simple horizontal bending)
Mcd = diagonal bending moment capacity
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 Design Length and Height

• Design Length Ld =
 full length;
 half length; or,
 distance to edge of
opening
• Design Height Hd =
 full height; or,
 half height
Note: Shaded area at
edge of wall indicate
edge support

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 Geometric Factors
2hu  t j 
• Slope of assumed crack line: G
Where – lu  t j
hu=height of unit
lu = length of unit
tj=thickness of mortar joints

GLd
• Slope factor:   H
d

• The aspect factor af and coefficients k1 and k2 are

defined in terms of these geometric factors and the
restraint factors for the side supports (see AS3700-
2011 Table 7.5)

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 Diagonal Bending Moment Capacity
Mcd   f't Z t Cl. 7.4.4.3

Where –
 = capacity reduction factor (0.6 for bending)
ft = equivalent characteristic torsional strength
Zt = equivalent torsional section modulus
measured normal to the diagonal crack line
• Torsional strength:
f 't  2.25 f 'mt  0.15 f d

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 Diagonal Bending

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Two-way Bending

36
 Equivalent Torsional Section Modulus

• Zt is based on an equivalent
B

section with width B

h u + tj
(l u + t j) / 2

• Equations for Zt are given in AS 3700 Clause

7.4.4.2(b) (and see the worked example following)

• Torsional height factor: hu  t j

B
1  G2
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 Part 2) Masonry Design for Shear -
Outline
• Shear action in masonry
• Behaviour of masonry walls
in shear
 Overturning and sliding
 Shear failure in the wall
 Compression failure at the toe
 Tension cracking at the heel
• Design of masonry in shear
 Sliding and shear failure (wind
loading)
 Sliding and shear failure
(earthquake loading)
 Local failure (heel and toe)
 Worked example

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 Failure in Shear

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 Shear Wall Action

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 Horizontal (In-Plane) Shear

Load from above

Lateral load
(wind or
Shear
earthquake)
Wall
Shear

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 Horizontal (Out-of-Plane) Shear

Wind or
earth pressure

Infill or
Retaining
Wall

Shear

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 Vertical Shear
Lateral wind load

Shear

Wall With Returns or

Diaphragm Wall
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 Behaviour of Masonry Shear Walls
• Overturning
• Overall sliding
• Local failure
 Shear failure within the wall caused by principal
tensile stresses
 Compression at the toe causing crushing and
spalling
 Tensile stresses at the heel causing cracking

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 Shear Wall Behaviour
Vertical Load
Racking
Force

Diagonal
Diagonal
Tension
Tension Failure
Failure

Tension cracking
Tension cracking Biaxial
Biaxial compression
at the heel failure at the toe
at the heel compression
failure at the toe

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Design of Masonry in Shear to AS 3700
• Overturning
 Not specifically referred to in AS 3700 but should always be
checked
 Resisted by bonding to other walls, tying to the structure
or a combination of self-weight and loads from above
• Sliding and shear failure
 Shear capacity under wind loading (Clause 7.5.1)
 Shear capacity under earthquake loading (Clause A8.3)
 Include checks on membranes and damp-proof courses
• Local failure at the heel and toe

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 Other Shear Actions
• Shear on vertical planes (Clause 7.5.2)
 Covered by the overall requirement for bonding
and tying
• Shear connectors (Clause 7.5.3)
 Connectors across mortar joints
 Connections to other masonry members and
supporting structures

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 Part a) Sliding and Shear Failure
(Wind Loading)
• Shear capacity (masonry other than AAC) (Clause 7.5.4)
 Shear resistance , Vd ≤ V0 + V1
Vo   f 'ms Ad
V1  kv f d Ad
V0 is the shear bond strength
V1 is the shear friction strength
Where –
 = Capacity reduction factor (0.6 for shear in unreinforced masonry)
f ms = Characteristic shear strength of the masonry (refer to AS3700 Clause 3.3.4)
Ad = Bedded area
kv = Shear factor (0.3 for mortar joints)
fd = Simultaneously acting design compressive stress on the bed joint (not greater than
2 MPa)
48
= 0.9 G for non-earthquake loads
 Shear Factors, kv (taken from AS3700
Table 3.3)
Location Material Shear Factor
Bed joints Clay, concrete, calcium silicate 0.3

AAC 0.12

Embossed polythene or
DPC & flashing 0.3
bitumen-coated Al
Al with polythene & bitumen
0.15
coating

Interfaces Masonry & concrete 0.3

Masonry & steel 0.2

Other 0

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 Part b) Stability against overturning
For a wall to be able to resist overturning,

Moment causing overturning ≤ Moment resisting overturning

Where,

Moment causing overturning = Wind load (in kN) X Height of wall

Moment resisting overturning = 0.9 X (Brick density x H x L x t) X (L/2)
Where, H= height of wall
L = Length of wall
t =thickness of wall

50
 Crushing at toe & Tension at heel
• Shear wall stresses
 T1 = Tension stress due to lateral load
 C1 = Compressive stress due to lateral load
 Cd = Compressive stress due to vertical dead load
For safe design:
T1  C1  0
(assuming compressive stresses are positive)
Lateral wind
load

Fixed base T1 C1 Cd Cd
Shear wall Stresses due to Stresses due to
51
lateral load dead load
 Part c) Local Failure at the Toe
(Compression)
• Compression stress at the toe consists of two
parts:
 Compression from vertical load, based on the most
adverse load combination
o 1.2G + 0.4Q (for wind load)
o G + 0.4Q (for earthquake)
 Compression stress from wall overturning
o based on overturning moment / wall section modulus (in the
direction of overturning)
• Stress must not exceed the basic compression
capacity of the masonry (F0)
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 Design of Masonry in Shear
Crushing at toe
• Crushing under compressive stresses can be
checked using the basic compressive strength
capacity, Fo (Cl 7.3.2)

Fo  f m Ab

Fo
 f m f m  kh f mb

Ab
For a standard unit of 76 mm height with 10 mm mortar thickness,
kh = 1.0 (Table 3.2)

For a standard clay unit (f’uc = 20 MPa) with M2 mortar (full

bedded), f’mb = 5 MPa (Table 3.1) 53
 Design of Masonry in Shear
Crushing at toe
• Compression stress at the toe is calculated by
combining the direct stress from the vertical
load with the bending stress from the
overturning moment caused by the horizontal
force.
FVertical M
 Toe(Wind)  
Ab Z

FVertical  1.2G  0.4Q AS1170.1

54
 Part d) Local Failure at the Heel
(Tension)
• Stress at the heel consists of two parts:
 Compression from vertical load, based on the most
favourable load combination
o 0.9G (for wind load)
o G + 0.4Q (for earthquake)
 Tension stress from wall overturning
o based on overturning moment / wall section modulus (in the
direction of overturning)
• Net tension stress must not exceed the basic
flexural tensile capacity (f´mt) unless –
o a crack can be tolerated
o tying or reinforcement is added

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 Design of Masonry in Shear
Tension at heel
• For the tension stress at the heel, the vertical
load is based on the most adverse load
combination for this action:
Fvertical M
 Heel  
Ab Z

Fvertical  0.9G AS1170.1

56
 References
• Think Brick Australia
Masonry Teaching Package
• AS3700

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