Chapter 4: Chemical

Composition in a Cell

Group 1: Sophia Aryna, Alison

Chua, Vinaay, Sam & Everne
Introduction
Living organisms are composed of about 25 chemical elements.
An element is a pure substance that only contains one atom.
4 elements in particular make up most of the human body weight,
the 4 being Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N)
taking up 65%, 18.5%, 9.5% and 3.3% respectively.
These elements are important in synthesis of organic compounds such a
lipids, proteins etc
 These chemical compounds can be combined in fixed ratios to form compounds.
Compounds are substances which consists of two or more elements chemically
combined in a fixed ratio

i.e: Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium Chloride

Na + Cl = NaCl2

Chemical compounds can be classified into organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
The difference between them are organic compounds contains carbon (C) and hydrogen (H)
while inorganic compounds don't
Let us explore the organic compounds present in our cells
Organic
compounds

Water H, O
H: Hydrogen
O: Oxygen
Carbohydrate C, H, O (O>H)
C: Carbon
N: Nitrogen
Protein C, H, O, N, S, P
S: Sulphur
P: Phosphorus
Lipids C, H, O, (H>O)

Nucleic acids C, H, O, N, P
4.2: Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds found in living organisms with elements of

carbon, hydrogen & oxygen

There are three main types of carbohydrates:

1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides
Basic building blocks (monomers) of carbohydrates
Also known as simple sugars

Three types: Characteristics

Glucose Fructose Galactose

Soluble in water Benedict's test is

used to detect the
Sweet presence of
(In grapes (In fruits (Product of All are reducing sugars reducing sugars
& onions) & honey) digestion of
milk sugar)
Disaccharides Three types:
1. Maltose
Two molecules of glucose
Complex sugars
2. Sucrose
Consists of two
One glucose molecule & one fructose molecule
monosaccharide
3. Lactose
molecules combined
One glucose molecule & one galactose molecule
together chemically
through condensation.
In this process, a Maltose
Condensation
molecule of water is
formed. Glucose + Glucose Maltose + Water
Glucose + Fructose Sucrose + Water Sucrose

Glucose + Galactose Lactose + Water

Lactose
Disaccharides can be broken down into haracteristics
C
monosaccharide molecules through
hydrolysis.
Soluble in water
This requires a molecule of water
Sweet
All are reducing sugars
Hydrolysis except for sucrose (non-
reducing sugar)
Maltose + Water Glucose + Glucose
Sucrose + Water Glucose + Fructose
Lactose + Water Glucose + Galactose
 Polysaccharides
Large complex sugars, not soluble in water
Consists of many glucose (monomer) molecules joined
together through condensation to form a long chain of
simple sugars, which is polymer

Types Description Structure

Carbohydrate stored
Starch Spiral shaped
in plant cells

Carbohydrate stored
Glycogen Highly branched
in animal cells

Component of cell
Cellulose Linear to form fibers
wall in plant cells
 || Formation of Polysaccharides ||

Polysaccharides are formed from chains of monosaccharides

through the glycosidic bond
Example: Formation of Glycogen

Condensation Condensation

Glucose

Monosaccharide Disaccharide

Polysaccharide
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis

Glycogen
To provide energy -
Energy is released when To form external
glucose is broken down skeletons
during respiration (chitin) of insects

Importance of
Carbohydrates
in a cell
To build cell walls in Act as energy storage
plants using cellulose glycogen in the
liver & muscle cells
starch in plant
cells
 4.3 PROTEINS
Protein is a complex compound composed of:

Carbon
, Hydrogen
, Oxygen
, Nitrogen
,

,
Sulphur Phosphorus
FOODS RICH IN PROTEINS: Fish, meat, milk, beans and eggs

All proteins are composed of one or more polymers known as

polypeptides
Polypeptides = monomers or amino acids
Dipeptides = 2 amino acids linked together by a peptide bond
IMPORTANCE OF PROTEIN
Build new cells
Repair damaged tissue
Synthesis of enzymes, hormones, antibodies,haemoglobin
Form building blocks such as keratin in the skin, collagen in bones and
myosin in muscle tissue
Breakdown of proteins or polypeptides by digestive enzymes gives us
energy to carry out our daily activities
4.4 LIPIDS

-naturally occurring hydrophobic founds in

plant and animal tissues.

Types of Lipids:

-fats
-waxes
-phospholipids
-steroids
 FATS:
-triglycerides
-type of ester formed from the condensation of one glycerol molecule with three
molecules of fatty acids
-can be hydrolysed again into fatty acid and glycerol through the reaction of
hydrolysis
 Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats
-fatty acids only have -fatty acids have at least
single bonds between one double bonds
carbon between carbon
-do not form chemical -double bonds can still
bonds with additional receive one or more
hydrogen atoms additional hydrogen
because all bonds atoms because carbon
between carbon atoms atoms are unsaturated
are saturated -exist in liquid form at
-Exist in solid form at room temperature
room temperature
WAX
contains one molecule of alcohol that combines with another
molecule of fatty acid and is waterproof

PHOSPHOLIPID
a major component of plasma membranes and are made up of
one molecule of glycerol that combines with two molecules of
fatty acid and one group of phosphate
STERIODS
lipids that do not contain fatty acids
 By Sophia
4.5 Nucleic Acids
Made up of one or two polymer chains comprising of nucleotide monomers
formed from the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus

Nucleotide consists

of a pentose sugar
(5-carbon sugar), a
nitrogenous base
and a phosphate
group that combines
together through
condensation
process
1. Pentose sugar 2. Nitrogenous base
Ribose Adenine-forming nucleotides
-sugar that is naturally produced by Guanine-involved in signaling inside the cell
the body from food Cytosine-coding genetic information
Deoxyribose Thymine-helps stabilize nucleic acid structure
-derived from ribose by lose of an Uracil-helps carry out synthesis of enzymes
oxygen atom
 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID

D -Deoxyribonucleic acid -Ribonucleic acid contains R

N N
contains deoxyribose sugar ribose sugar
-It has double stranded of -It has a single stranded of

A A
polynucleotide chains polynucleotide chain
Structure of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) (b) The sugar and phosphate
chain forms the backbone
(a) its made up of millions of nucleotides of DNA
joined together to form a polynucleotide

The (c) Two polynucleotide chains

nucleotides intertwined in the opposite
are joined by a direction (anti-parallel) to
bond between form a double helix structure
the sugar of
one nucleotide
and the (d) They are joined together by a hydrogen bond
phosphate between paired nitrogenous bases:
group of Adenine can only be paired with thymine
another Guanine can only be paired with cytosine
nucleotide
Structure of ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
(a) RNA molecules consists of many
nucleotides joined together to form one
long polynucleotide chain

(b) RNA is made up of a single stranded of

polynucleotide and is shorter than DNA

(c) The nitrogenous bases : adenine,

guanine, cytosine and uracil (instead of
thymine)
 Importance of Nucleic
Acids in a Cell
Importance of DNA
DNA carries genetic information in the form of
genetic code to synthesis proteins which
determine the characteristics to be inherited
such as eye colour or height.
The genetic code is the sequence of nitrogenous
bases in the DNA
Three nitrogenous bases form a codon , which
code for a specific amino acid
All the amino acids are then joined together to
form a polypeptide molecule The amino acids have bonded and
The sequence of amino acids determines the form a type of polypeptide.Hence
type of polypeptide formed and hence the type protein!
of protein
 Importance of RNA
In the nucleus, genetic There are three types of RNA:
messenger (mRNA) - Used as template to make proteins
information from DNA is
transfer RNA (tRNA) - Matches amino acids to mRNA to help make
copied onto mRNA
proteins
(Transcription) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - Makes up ribosomes
All of this are involved in the synthesis of proteins

In the cytoplasm, the process of making

proteins called translation occurs:
1. rRNA in ribosomes reads the genetic
code on the mRNA
2. tRNA brings the specific amino acid
based on the codon to the
ribosomes. the amino bonded with
the growing amino acid to form a
polypeptide molecule, which
modified into a specific protein
 Formation of
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are formed from DNA
polynucleotide chains that are wound
around a protein called histone
Histone do not carry genetic
information but provides structural
support for the chromosome

DNA molecules combine with histone

proteins to form nucleosomes
Then, nucleosomes are intertwined
to form the chromosome structure
 Conclusion
Water Carbohydrates Proteins
-Water polarity -Monosaccharide
-Specific heat capacity glucose | fructose | galactose Amino acids
-Adhesive force -Disaccharide ↓
-Cohesive force maltose | sucrose | lactose Dipeptides
-Polysaccharide ↓
starch | glycogen | cellulose Polypeptides
 Lipids Nucleic Acids
Fats | Wax Consists of pentose sugar | nitrogenous base
Phospholipids | Steroids | phosphate group |

Saturated fats VS Unsaturated fats Two types: RNA | DNA

These are all chemical compositions in a cell that helps us sustain

life, therefore it is important we understand their characteristics so
we have a clear understanding of living beings in our world.