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Cambridge IGCSE™
for this forthcoming title.
Chemistry
Fourth edition
Bryan Earl
Doug Wilford
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Chemistry
Fourth Edition
Bryan Earl
Doug Wilford
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First published in 2002
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Contents
How to use this book
Scientific Enquiry
1 States of matter
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
3 Bonding and structure
4 Stoichiometry
5 Electricity and chemistry
6 Chemical energetics
7 Chemical reactions
8 Acids, bases and salts
9 The periodic table
10 Metals
11 Chemistry of the environment
12 Carbon dioxide
13 Organic chemistry 1
14 Organic chemistry 2
15 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis
Theory exam-style questions
Practical exam-style questions
Alternative to practical exam-style questions
Periodic table
Glossary
Index
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
FOCUS POINTS
★ How are elements, molecules, ions, compounds and mixtures different from each other?
★ How do the properties of the particles in an atom lead to an atom’s structure?
★ What do oxidation and reduction mean?
★ What is an isotope?
In Chapter 1 you saw that all matter is made up of should be able to write a simple word or symbol
particles. In this chapter you will look closely at equation to represent a reaction.
these particles and see that they are made up of
You will see that although atoms are the smallest
atoms. Atoms are the smallest part of elements.
part of an element that shares the chemical
An element is made up of one type of atom and
properties of that element, they are made from
can be either a metal or a non-metal. Metals and
even smaller particles. By learning about the
non-metals have different properties.
properties and behaviour of these smaller
You will look at how atoms of different elements particles (electrons, protons and neutrons) you
can combine to form substances called will be able to see how they affect the chemical
compounds, and how this combining occurs in a properties of elements and compounds.
chemical reaction. By the end of the chapter you
The universe is made up of a very large number of In 1803, John Dalton suggested that each
substances (Figure 2.1), and our own part of the element was composed of its own kind of particles,
universe is no exception. When we examine this vast which he called atoms. Atoms are much too small to
array of substances more closely, we find that they be seen. We now know that about 20 × 106 of them
are made up of some basic substances which were would stretch over a length of only 1 cm.
given the name elements in 1661 by Robert Boyle.
Elements
As well as not being able to be broken down into a
chemically simpler substance, each element is made
up of only one kind of atom. The word atom comes
from the Greek word atomos meaning ‘unsplittable’. For
example, aluminium is an element which is made up
of only aluminium atoms. It is not possible to obtain
a chemically simpler substance from the aluminium
atoms. You can only combine it with other elements
to make more complex substances, such as aluminium
oxide, aluminium nitrate or aluminium sulfate.
So far, 118 elements have been identified, of
which 114 have been given proper names. Twenty-
seven of these do not occur in nature and have
▲ Figure 2.1 Structures in the universe, such as stars, been made artificially by scientists. They include
planets and meteorites, are made of millions of
elements such as curium and flerovium. Ninety-one
substances. These substances are mostly made from just
91 elements, all of which occur naturally on Earth of the elements occur naturally and range from some
4
Elements
very reactive gases, such as fluorine and chlorine, to The elements have different properties that we can
gold and platinum, which are unreactive elements. measure, and we can classify elements according to
A physical property is any characteristic of a their properties. A simple way to do this is to classify
substance that we can measure. them as metals or non-metals (Figures 2.2 and 2.3).
5
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
Table 2.1 shows the physical property data The elements also have chemical properties,
for some common metallic and non-metallic which are characteristics or behaviours that
elements. You will notice that many metals have may be observed when the substance undergoes
high densities, high melting points and high a chemical change or reaction. The chemical
boiling points, and that most non-metals have low properties of some metals and non-metals are
densities, low melting points and low boiling points. discussed in Chapters 9 and 10.
6
Elements
natrium for sodium and plumbum for lead. A list of The complete list of the elements with their
some common elements and their symbols is given corresponding symbols is shown in the Periodic
in Table 2.4. Table on p.350.
▼ Table 2.4 Some common elements and their symbols. Molecules
The Latin names of some of the elements are given in
brackets
The atoms of some elements are joined together
in small groups. These small groups of atoms are
Physical state at room called molecules. The atoms of some elements
Element Symbol temperature and pressure are always joined in pairs, for example, hydrogen,
Aluminium Al Solid oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and
Argon Ar Gas iodine. They are known as diatomic molecules. In
chemical shorthand, the molecule of chlorine shown
Barium Ba Solid
in Figure 2.4 is written as Cl 2. The atoms of some
Boron B Solid other elements, such as phosphorus and sulfur, join
Bromine Br Liquid in larger numbers, four and eight respectively, which
Calcium Ca Solid we write as P4 and S8.
The gaseous elements helium, neon, argon,
Carbon C Solid
krypton, xenon and radon (which are all gases at
Chlorine Cl Gas 0 °C at sea-level and atmospheric pressure) are
Chromium Cr Solid composed of separate, individual atoms. When an
Copper (Cuprum) Cu Solid element exists as separate atoms, the molecules are
Fluorine F Gas
said to be monatomic. In chemical shorthand these
monatomic molecules are written as He, Ne, Ar, Kr,
Germanium Ge Solid
Xe and Rn respectively.
Gold (Aurum) Au Solid
Helium He Gas Cl Cl
7
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
Compounds
Compounds are pure substances which are formed
when two or more elements chemically combine
together. A pure substance is a material that has
a constant composition (is homogeneous) and has
consistent properties throughout. Water is a simple
compound formed from the elements hydrogen and
oxygen (Figure 2.5). This combining of the elements
can be represented by a word equation:
hydrogen + oxygen → water
H
O O
H ▲ Figure 2.6 Magnesium burns brightly in oxygen to
H O O H produce magnesium oxide
H H O
O H
H
When a new substance is formed during a chemical
H
H O H H reaction, a chemical change has taken place.
H
H H O
H
O O magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
H
H
H O H O
When substances such as hydrogen and magnesium
H H
H H combine with oxygen in this way they are said to have
been oxidised. This process is known as oxidation.
Hydrogen: Oxygen: Hydrogen and Water: Reduction is the opposite of oxidation. In this
a pure
element
a pure
element
oxygen mixed
together
a pure
compound
process, oxygen is removed rather than added.
formed from
hydrogen
burning in Key definitions
oxygen Oxidation is gain of oxygen.
▲ Figure 2.5 The element hydrogen reacts with the element Reduction is loss of oxygen.
oxygen to produce the compound water
Any chemical process that involves reduction and blast furnace using carbon monoxide. The
oxidation is known as a redox reaction. iron(iii) oxide loses oxygen to the carbon monoxide
For example, to extract iron from iron(iii) and is reduced to iron. Carbon monoxide is the
oxide the oxygen has to be removed. The reducing agent.
reduction of iron(iii) oxide, can be done in a
8
Compounds
In the reaction, carbon monoxide is oxidised For a further discussion of oxidation and reduction
to carbon dioxide by the iron(iii) oxide. In this see Chapter 3 and Chapter 5.
process, the iron(iii) oxide is the oxidising agent.
We can write the redox reaction as: Key definitions
iron(iii) carbon carbon Redox reactions involve simultaneous oxidation and
+ monoxide→
oxide iron + dioxide
reduction.
A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another
Test yourself substance and is itself oxidised.
An oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises another
7 Write the word and balanced chemical equations
substance and is itself reduced.
for the reactions which take place between:
a calcium and oxygen
b copper and oxygen.
Practical work
For safe experiments/demonstrations related Mass of copper = ________ g
to this chapter, including further questions,
Mass of crucible + contents after heating = 14.30 g
please refer to Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry
Practical Skills Workbook 2nd edition that is Colour of contents after heating = black
also part of this series. 1 Draw a labelled diagram of the experimental
Heating copper set-up used in this experiment.
2 What safety precautions should the student
A student wanted to find out what happens when take to carry out the experiment?
copper is heated in air. To do this, they carried 3 Calculate the change in mass that has taken
out the following experiment and recorded their place during the heating.
results. 4 Explain what has caused the change in mass.
l First, they found the mass of an empty crucible. 5 What is the black substance left on the copper
l They added a piece of copper to the crucible after heating?
and found the mass again. 6 Write a word and balanced chemical equation
l They then heated the crucible strongly for to show the process that has taken place.
approximately two minutes. 7 How could you modify the experiment to
l They allowed it to cool, then found the mass ensure there was no loss of substance during
after heating. the heating process.
8 Predict what would happen, in terms of mass
Mass of crucible = 12.90 g change and colour change, if calcium was
Mass of crucible + copper = 14.18 g heated in air in the same way as the copper was.
10
Mixtures
Going further
Instrumental techniques Infrared spectroscopy is used in the pharmaceutical
industry to identify and discriminate between drugs
Elements and compounds can be detected and identified
that are similar in structure, for example penicillin-type
by a variety of instrumental methods. Scientists have
drugs. Used with both organic and inorganic molecules,
developed instrumental techniques that allow us to
this method assumes that each compound has a unique
probe and discover which elements are present in the
infrared spectrum. Samples can be solid, liquid or
substance as well as how the atoms are arranged within
gas and are usually tiny. However, Ne, He, O 2 , N 2 or H 2
the substance.
cannot be used.
Many of the instrumental methods that have been
This method is also used to monitor environmental
developed are quite sophisticated. Some methods are
pollution and has biological uses in monitoring tissue
suited to identifying elements. For example, atomic
physiology including oxygenation, respiratory status
absorption spectroscopy allows an element to be
and blood flow damage.
identified and also allows the quantity of the element
that is present to be found. Forensic scientists make use of both these techniques
because they are very accurate, but they only require
Some methods are particularly suited to the
tiny amounts of sample – often, only small amounts of
identification of compounds. For example, infrared
sample are found at crime scenes. Other techniques
spectroscopy is used to identify compounds by showing
used are nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and
the presence of particular groupings of atoms.
ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy.
11
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
▼ Table 2.12 Electronic structure of the first 20 elements You will notice from Table 2.12 that the elements
helium, neon and argon have completely full outer
Element Symbol Proton Number of Electron
number electrons structure
shells. In Chapter 9 we will see that the number
of outer shell electrons is related to an element’s
Hydrogen H 1 1 1
position in the Periodic Table and that elements
Helium He 2 2 2
with a full outer shell are known as noble or inert
Lithium Li 3 3 2,1
gases and are generally very stable and unreactive.
Beryllium Be 4 4 2,2
When elements react to form compounds, they do so
Boron B 5 5 2,3
to achieve full electron shells; this idea is the basis
Carbon C 6 6 2,4 of the electronic theory of chemical bonding, which
Nitrogen N 7 7 2,5 we will discuss further in the next chapter.
Oxygen O 8 8 2,6
Fluorine F 9 9 2,7
Neon Ne 10 10 2,8 Test yourself
Sodium Na 11 11 2,8,1 17 How many electrons may be accommodated in
Magnesium Mg 12 12 2,8,2 each of the first three energy levels?
Aluminium Al 13 13 2,8,3 18 What is the same about the electron structures of:
Silicon Si 14 14 2,8,4 a lithium, sodium and potassium?
Phosphorus P 15 15 2,8,5 b beryllium, magnesium and calcium?
Sulfur S 16 16 2,8,6
Chlorine Cl 17 17 2,8,7
Argon Ar 18 18 2,8,8
Potassium K 19 19 2,8,8,1
Calcium Ca 20 20 2,8,8,2
Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 2 you should be able to: ✔ Calculate the relative atomic mass (Ar) of an
✔ Describe the differences between elements, element from given data of the relative masses
compounds and mixtures. and abundance of the different isotopes.
✔ Describe the structure of the atom as a central
nucleus containing neutrons and protons ✔ Interpret and use symbols for given atoms.
surrounded by electrons in shells. ✔ State the formulae of the elements and
✔ State the relative charges and relative masses of a compounds you have dealt with.
proton, a neutron and an electron. ✔ Define the molecular formula of a compound as the
✔ Define proton number and atomic number as well number and type of different atoms in one molecule.
as mass number and nucleon number. ✔ Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the
✔ Determine the electronic configuration of elements relative numbers of atoms present in a model or a
with proton number 1 to 20. diagrammatic representation of the compound.
✔ State that noble gas electronic configurations have ✔ Construct word equations and symbol equations to
a stable outer shell. show how reactants form products, including state
✔ Describe the formation of positive ions, known as symbols.
cations, and negative ions, known as anions. ✔ Define redox reactions as involving both oxidation
✔ State what isotopes are. and reduction.
✔ Define oxidation as oxygen gain and reduction as
✔ State that isotopes of the same element have oxygen loss.
the same electronic configuration and so have ✔ Identify redox reactions as reactions involving gain
the same chemical properties. and loss of oxygen.
✔ Define an oxidising agent and a reducing agent.
12
Exam-style questions
13
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