Vehicle Dynamics

Braking Performance

Ing. Petr Porteš, Ph.D.

 Braking Performance
Basic equation

−W
M ⋅ax ⋅Dx −Fbf − Fbr − DA − W ⋅sin( Θ )
g

W = vehicle weight
g = gravitational acceleration
Dx = -ax = linear deceleration
Fbf = - Fxf = front axle braking force
Fbr = - Fxr = rear axle braking force
DA = aerodynamic drag
Θ = uphil grade
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 2
 Axle Loads

LA
f

LA
r

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 3

 Braking Performance
Constant deceleration
Fbt −dV
Dx
M dt
Fbt = total longitudinal deceleration force
V = forward velocity

Deceleration from initial velocity, V0 to final

velocity, Vf (for constant Fbt):
Vf Fbt ts
∫
V0
dV = −
M ∫ 0
dt
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 4
 Braking Performance
Deceleration from initial velocity, V0 to final
velocity, Vf (for constant Fbt):
Vf Fbt ts
∫V0
dV = −
M ∫ 0
dt

Relationship between velocity and time

Fbt
V0 − Vf ⋅ts
M
ts = time for the velocity change

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 5

 Braking Performance
Relationship between velocity and distance
dx
V
dt
Vf Fbt X
∫V0
V dV = −
M ∫0
dx

2 2
V0 − Vf Fbt
⋅X
2 M

X = distance traveled during the deceleration

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 6

 Braking Performance
Stopping distance: !
2 2
1 V0 V0
X ⋅
2 Fbt 2 ⋅Dx
M

Time to full stop (Vf=0):

V0 V0
ts
Fbt Dx
M

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 7

 Braking Performance
Deceleration with wind Resistance
2
Fbt + C ⋅V −dV
Dx
M dt

Fbt = total longitudinal deceleration force

C = aerodynamic drag factor
dx
V
dt

−M ⋅V
⋅dV dx
 F + C ⋅V 2
 bt 
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 8
 Braking Performance

V SD
−M∫ dV = ∫ dx
0

V0 Fbt + CV 2 0

Stopping distance with wind Resistance

 F + C ⋅V 2 
M  bt 0
SD ⋅ln
2 ⋅C  Fbt 

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 9

 Braking Performance
1
M ⋅ V0 − Vf 
2 2
Energy Energy
2

ds dA dEk
Power P F ⋅V F⋅
dt dt dt

Energy
• average power absortion: Power
ts

• Passenger car (M=1t, Dx=0.5g, V0=130km/h) -> P=119hp (88kW)

• Truck (M=36t, , Dx=0.5g, V0=100km/h) -> P=3288hp (2452kW)

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 10

 Stopping distance

tr = reaction time (after t the driver begins to apply pedal force)

r

tp = pedal force rise

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 11

 Stopping distance

ta = application time (after ta the brake shoes contact the drum and
deceleration begins)
tb = deceleration rise time
tc = constant deceleration time

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 12

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 13
 Stopping distance
Kinematic variables during reaction and
application time

– Deceleration: Dx 0

– Velocity: V( t) V0 const V1 V0

– Distance: x( t) := V0 ⋅t x1 ( )
V0 ⋅ tr + ta

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 14

 Stopping distance
Kinematic variables during deceleration
rise time tb
t
– Deceleration: Dx( t) Dxmax⋅
tb

⌠ 2
 t t
– Velocity: V( t) V1 −  Dxmax⋅ dt

tb
V1 − Dxmax⋅
2 ⋅tb
⌡ tb
V2 V1 − Dxmax⋅
2

⌠ 2 3
 t t
– Distance: x( t)  V1 − Dxmax⋅
2 ⋅ t
dt V1 ⋅t − Dxmax⋅
6 ⋅tb
 b
2
⌡ tb
⌠
x2 V1 ⋅tb − Dxmax⋅
6
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 15
 Stopping distance
Kinematic variables during constant
deceleration time tc
– Deceleration: Dx( t) Dxmax

⌠ 0 V2 − Dxmax⋅tc
– Velocity: V( t) V2 −  Dxmaxdt V2 − Dxmax⋅t
 V2
⌡
tc
Dxmax

2
tc
V2 ⋅tc − Dxmax⋅
– Distance: ⌠
 V −D
2
t
x3
2
x( t)
 2 xmax⋅t dt V2 ⋅t − Dxmax⋅
2
⌡ 2
V2
x3
2 ⋅Dxmax
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 16
 Stopping distance
Total stopping distance
tb
V2 V1 − Dxmax⋅
2

 V 2 − V ⋅D 1 2 2
2  0 ⋅tb + ⋅Dxmax ⋅tb
x x1 + x2 + x3 x ( )
V0 ⋅ tr + ta + V0 ⋅tb − Dxmax⋅
tb
6
1 
+ ⋅
2
0 xmax
Dxmax
4 

2 2
V0 tb
x
 1
V0 ⋅ tr + ta + ⋅tb +

− Dxmax⋅
 2  2 ⋅Dxmax 24

≈0

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 17

 Stopping distance
Total stopping distance
2
V0
x
 1 
V0 ⋅ tr + ta + ⋅tb +
 2  2 ⋅Dxmax
Total time from the driver reaction to
vehicle stopping 0 V2 − Dxmax⋅tc
tb
V1 − Dxmax⋅ − Dxmax⋅tc
2

 V1 tb  tb V0
tt  tr + ta + tb + − tr + ta + +
Dxmax 2 2 Dxmax
 
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 18
 Stopping distance

tb
tr + ta +
2

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 19

 Stopping distance
Driver reaction time
– 0.32 – 0.55 sec from the time an object has entered a driver’s
peripheral vision to when the eyes are focused on the object
– 0.22 – 0.58 sec from the moment the eyes are focused until the
driver begins to lift the foot off the gas pedal
– 0.15 – 0.21 sec from the moment the foot lifts off gas pedal and
begins to displace the brake pedal
– 0.03 – 0.06 sec is a brake system response (application time) –
time required to bring the shoes or pads in contact with the
drums or discs
– 0.14 – 0.18 sec is deceleration rise time (time during which the
wheel brake torque increase from zero to its maximum values
until brakes are locked or ABS control tire marks appear). Time
depends on vehicle speed and tire road friction

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 20

 Stopping distance
European Safety Standard ECE 13 (předpis EHK 13)
Czech national standard “vyhláška č. 102/1995 Sb.”

2
V0
s 0.1 ⋅V0 +
150

s = stopping distance [m]

V0 = initial velocity [km/h], passenger car 80 km/h
t1= 0.36 s, t2=3.84 s, t=4.2 s, Dx=5.8 m/s2

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 21

 Brakes

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 22

 Brakes
Moments on shoe A

∑Mp e ⋅Pa + n⋅µ ⋅NA − m⋅N A 0

Moments on shoe B

∑Mp −e ⋅Pa + n⋅µ ⋅NB + m⋅N B 0

Pa = Actuation force
e = Perpendicular distance from actuation force to pivot
NA = Normal force between lining A and drum
n = Perpendicular distance from lining friction to pivot
m = Perpendicular distance from the normal force to pivot

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 23

 Brakes
Friction forces

FA µ ⋅N A

FB µ ⋅NB

Brake Factors
self-servo
FB e ⋅µ FA e ⋅µ
Pa m + n⋅µ Pa m − n⋅µ

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 24

 Brakes
Inertia dynamometer torque measurements

Braking torque Tb = f (Pa ,Velocity , Temperature ) ≈ GPa

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 25

 Brakes
Braking force
Tb − IW ⋅α W
Fb
r

When IW is lumped in
with vehicle mass
(αW=ax/r)

Tb G ⋅Pa
Fb
r r

G = torque gain

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 26

 Braking Stability
Rear Wheel Lockup

Fb
Fy

Fb
Fy=0

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 27

 Braking Stability
Rear Wheel Lockup
Fb Fb
Fy Fy=0
ma
α

Fb Fb
Fy Fy=0

UNSTABLE !
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 28
 Braking Stability
Front Wheel Lockup
Fb Fb
Fy=0 ma Fy
α

Fb Fb
Fy=0 Fy

STABLE !
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 29
 Brake Proportioning
Maximum brake force

 h Dx 
– front axle Ffbm µ p ⋅Wf µ p ⋅ Wfs + W ⋅
 L g 

 h Dx 
– rear axle Frbm µ p ⋅Wr µ p ⋅ Wrs − W ⋅ ⋅
 L g 

µp = peak coefficient of friction

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 30
 Axle Loads
Static load and load transfer
1  W 
Wf ⋅ −DA⋅ha − ⋅ax⋅h − Rhx⋅hh − Rhz⋅dh − W ⋅h⋅sin( Θ ) + W ⋅c ⋅cos ( Θ ) − LAf
L g 

1  W 
Wr ⋅DA ⋅ha + ⋅ax⋅h + Rhx⋅hh + Rhz⋅ L + dh + W ⋅h⋅sin( Θ ) + W ⋅b ⋅cos ( Θ ) − LAr
( )
L g 

c h ax h
Wf W ⋅ − W ⋅ ⋅ − W ⋅ ⋅Θ
L L g L

b h ax h
Wr W ⋅ + W ⋅ ⋅ + W ⋅ ⋅Θ
L L g L

static due to due to grade

load acceleration
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 31
 Brake Proportioning
Deceleration

Dx
( Fbmf + Fbr) ( Fbmf + Fbr)
M W
g

Dx
( Fbf + Fbmr) ( Fbf + Fbmr)
M W
g

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 32

 Brake Proportioning
Maximum brake force


µ p ⋅ Wfs +
h
⋅Fbr

Fbmf
 L 
– front axle h
1 − µp ⋅
L


µ p ⋅ Wrs −
h
⋅Fbf

 L 
– rear axle Fbmr
h
1 + µp⋅
L
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 33
 Brake Proportioning

6
m
s
-2
De
ce
le
ra
tio
n

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 34

 Brake Proportioning
Line of maximal front axle brake force
(front lockup) h
µ ⋅ p L
slope
h
1 − µp ⋅
L

Line of maximal rear axle brake force

(rear lockup)
h
−µ p ⋅
L
slope
h
1 + µp⋅
L
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 35
 Brake Proportioning
Origin of each line depends on static axle
load Wfs resp. Wrs
Intersection point for the front and rear
brake boundaries

Fbfi µ p ⋅ Wfs + µ p ⋅W ⋅
h
 L

Fbri

µ p ⋅ Wrs − µ p ⋅W ⋅
h
 L

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 36

 Brake Proportioning
Deceleration line
– Deceleration is proportional to the sum of the front
and rear brake forces
– 45 deg diagonals on the graph
Brake proportioning line
– Relationship between front and rear brake forces
– Constant proportioning is straight line
Triangle bounded by the deceleration line and
the maximum brake force lines

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 37

 Brake Proportioning

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 38

 Brake Proportioning
Optimum Straight Line Braking
Dx
µf µr
g

Dx/g = vehicle deceleration, g-units

µf = front tire-road friction coefficient
µr = rear tire-road friction coefficient

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 39

 Optimum Straight Line Braking
Fbfi

µ p ⋅ Wfs + µ p ⋅W ⋅
h
Wrs
 L  ψ
W

Fbri

µ p ⋅ Wrs − µ p ⋅W ⋅
h h
χ
 L L

Fbfi Dx  Dx 
⋅ 1 − ψ + ⋅χ
W g  g 
Fbri Dx  Dx 
⋅ ψ − ⋅χ
W g  g 

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 40

 Optimum Straight Line Braking

2
Fbri (1 − ψ )  1  Fbfi  1 − ψ  Fbfi
+ ⋅ − −
W
4 ⋅χ
2  χ  W  2 ⋅χ  W

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 41

 Optimum Straight Line Braking

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 42

 Optimum Straight Line Braking

critical
deceleration

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 43

 Brake Proportioning
Brake line pressure limiter valve
Brake line (load sensitive) reducer valve
Deceleration sensitive pressure reducer
valve
Adjustable Step Bore Master Cylinder

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 44

Brake line pressure limiter valve

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 45

 Brake line reducer valve

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 46

 Tire – Road Friction Utilization
the lowest tire-road
friction coefficient with
which the maximum
wheels unlocked
deceleration can be
achieved

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 47

 Tire – Road Friction Utilization
Braking Traction Coefficient

Fb Fb = wheel braking force

µT
W W = dynamic wheel load

– Level of tire road friction needed by the braked tire so that it will
just not lock up.
– In general, the front and rear axle traction coefficients are
different.
– It is not the same as tire-road friction coefficient.
– Numerical values of traction road-tire coefficient and braking
traction coefficient are equal when the tire lock-up.

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 48

 Tire – Road Friction Utilization
brake force Fbr
distribution (brake Φ
balance) ( Fbf + Fbr)
Dx Dx
( 1 − Φ ) ⋅ ⋅W (1 − Φ) ⋅
Front braking Fbf g g
traction coefficient µ Tf
Wf h Dx  Dx 
Wfs + W ⋅ ⋅ 1 − ψ + χ ⋅
L g  g 

Dx Dx
Fbr Φ ⋅ ⋅W Φ⋅
Rear braking g g
µ Tr
traction coefficient Wr h Dx  Dx 
Wrs − W ⋅ ⋅ ψ − χ ⋅
L g  g 

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 49

 Tire – Road Friction Utilization
Braking Efficiency is the ratio of maximum
wheels unlocked vehicle deceleration to
tire-road friction coefficient

Dx
g
ηb
µp

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 50

 Tire – Road Friction Utilization
Braking Dx
efficiency of g Wfs ψ −1
the front axle µf 
W ⋅ 1 − Φ − µ f ⋅
h 1 − Φ − µ f ⋅χ
 L

Braking Dx
Wrs
efficiency of g ψ
µr  h Φ + µ r ⋅χ
the rear axle W ⋅ Φ + µ r ⋅
 L

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 51

 Tire – Road Friction Utilization
Braking efficiency

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 52

 Tire – Road Friction Utilization
Braking efficiency
µ = const

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 53

 Anti-Lock Brake Systems
Braking coefficient
versus slip
V − ω ⋅r
Slip
V

V = Vehicle forward velocity

ω = Tire rotational speed

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 54

 Anti-Lock Brake Systems
Combined braking and cornering

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 55

 Anti-Lock Brake Systems
The objective of the ABS is to keep each tire on
the vehicle operation near of the µ-slip curve
for the tire
ECU monitors vehicle speed and upon brake
application begins to compute an estimate of the
diminishing speed of the vehicle
ECU determines when the wheel is advancing
toward lockup. Excessive
– wheel slip
– deceleration rate of a wheel
ECU send signal to the solenoid to release the
brake pressure
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 56
 Anti-Lock Brake Systems

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 57

 References
Gillespie,T.D. Fundamentals of Vehicle
Dynamics, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1992. ISBN 1-56091-199-9.
Limpert,R. Brake Design and Safety.
Warrendale, SAE 1992. ISBN 1-56091-261-8
Wong,J.Y. Theory of Ground Vehicles. John
Wiley & sons. 2001 (3rd edition). ISBN:
0471354619

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Braking Performance 58