CHapter 2 Mr. Ho

• Views of Islamic Philosophers
Views Of Philosophers
• Views of Western Philosophers
From Islamic, Western &
• Views of Eastern Philosophers
Eastern Towards Source of
• Source of knowledge
Knowledge & Education
1
COPYRIGHT©H2O2T/PHILO-EDU/082022
LO
2
• Explain the views of Islamic,

Western and Eastern
philosophers regarding source
of knowledge and education
Views of Islamic
Philosophers 3
Islamic philosophy of education
1. Philosophy which is based on the teaching of Islam or revealed knowledge
(obtained from the holy book, al-Quran and As-Sunnah)
2. The role of Islamic Philosophy is to explain the relationship between man and 4
his Creator (Allah), between man and man, and between man and his
environment.
Islamic Philosophy of Education
3. Islamic education is a process which educate and trains the human mind,
body, soul & emotion, guides educators to mould students based on the
teachings of Islam. 5
4. This is achieved through revealed knowledge (al-Quran), the amal (practices)

of the Prophet Muhammad S.A.W (Sunnah) & his companions, & through the
experiences of Salaf al-Salih & other prominent educators.
5. Therefore a Muslim is one who :

✓ Believes in Allah
✓ Is knowledgeable 6
✓ Of good character & personality

✓ Performs good deeds
✓ Put in continuous effort to equip himself with necessary knowledge & skills
✓ Responsible servant of Allah & a pious leader
6. Hence Islamic education is to educate students to (BPG, 2002):

✓ be of good behaviour
✓ achieve perfection in their soul 7
✓ do good and noble deeds

✓ practice refined culture
✓ maintain cleanliness, sincerity & good practices
7. Mohammad Qatb – education aims at developing a person holistically and

well balanced – attain perfection intellectually, physically, emotionally
and spiritually. 8
8. Dr Mohd Athiyah al-Abrasyi – religious education is to develop a person

with good behaviour, good morals
9. Al- Ghazali – education should include physical education and

behaviour moulding. Aims – the individual should be highly respected and
brave. 9
10. Hamka – education aims at developing good behaviour, courageous,

humility, patience and respectful of others.
Abdul Halim El-Muhammady (1993)
i. Islamic education is a process that educates and trains the mind and the
physical, spiritual and emotional domains of human beings grounded on the
Revelations, The Holy Quran and Sunnah (way or deeds of the Holy Prophet
Muhammad), the experiences of the venerable ancestors (Salaf Al-Salih) and 10
the knowledge of the muktabar.

ii. The purpose of education is to produce righteous individuals who are willing
to take on the responsibility of the Caliphs entrusted by Allah to lead us to
happiness in this world and in the next
Abd Halim Hj. Mat Diah (1989)
• Islamic education is a process for all the purposeful guidance of educators who
will shape Muslims based on the teaching of Islam.
11
Aims of Islamic Education
i. To inculcate a noble character
ii. To educate the soul to be refined and perfect
12
iii. To teach students to do good, respectful and noble deeds
iv. To train students to be courteous and be good human beings
v. To inculcate cleanliness, purity and sincerity as well as noble practices in
students
Goals of Islamic Education
1. To shape and develop human beings to become knowledgeable, faithful and
trustworthy, righteous and noble Muslims in addition to being responsible as
god loving and god fearing followers and Caliphs of Allah 13
2. To develop human beings who are obedient to Allah, live in peace and
harmony in society and so enjoy tranquility and protection in the hereafter
(Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1997)
• Islamic Philosophy of Education is a continuous effort to deliver knowledge and

skills of Islam based on the Holy Quran and Sunnah to shape one’s attitude,
character and worldview as servants of Allah who are responsible for the
betterment of self, society, surroundings and country as well as the achievement 14
of goodness in this life and everlasting happiness in the world after
Views of Islamic Philosophers
1. Ibnu Rushd (1126 - 1198)
2. Al Ghazali (1058-1111)
15
3. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)
4. Al-Farabi (870 – 950)
Views of Eastern
Philosophers 16
Principles of Eastern philosophy of education
1. Eastern philosophy emphasizes moral values coupled with the roles
of super deity in shaping human behavior
2. “Eastern philosophies, unlike west, are more empirical philosophies, 17
stress intuition, inner peace, tranquility, attitudinal development, and

mysticism”. Education aims to avail information that would enable
learners to appreciate and understand the forces of nature in a
better way (Ozmon & Craver, 2013)
Principles of Eastern philosophy of education
4. Schools deserve to teach what is observable or what can be
experienced in real life. This implies that education should have
the capacity to prepare students to seek solutions to such crises 18
as they emerge in the future
5. Every human beings want to achieve wisdom and Nirvana
6. Good life if human beings are willing to change
7. Happiness is determined by attitude towards life
Eastern Philosophy of Education - Confucius
1. Confucianism focuses on thinking, upholding the truth and belief in

goodness ( jen)
2. The importance of education emphasizes on the changing of human 19
behaviour in order to become a citizen of :

➢ Noble character
➢ Law-abiding
➢ Loyal to authority and love his country
Confucius on Education
3. Education should seek to produce virtuous individuals
4. By raising moral standard, society will become more virtuous and the country
will be well-governed and its citizens law-abiding. 20
Virtues of Confucius teaching
i. filial piety (xiao) viii. altruism
ii. respect for the elderly ix. kindness
iii. loyalty x. frugality
21
iv. respectfulness xi. tolerance
v. magnanimity xii. wisdom
vi. fidelity xiii. courage
vii. diligence
Against favouritism/feudalism
The main emphasis of the curriculum

should be moral education and the
Teaching of imparting of knowledge.
22
Confucius Teacher must have good mastery of

knowledge to impart
Teachers must understand their students
Eastern Philosophy of Education - Rabindranath
Tagore
i. Famous for his socio-religious and cultural innovations
ii. Education should aim for the all-round development of the individual
23
iii. Not only intellectual development
iv. But aesthetic development (music, art, literature, drama, dance)
Tagore
v. Interact with the environment
✓Classes held outdoor
✓Gather knowledge from different sources of nature (surrounded with fields, 24
trees, plants)
✓Learning takes place in a natural setting/real world
✓Against bookish learning
✓Nature walks and excursions are part of the curriculum
Tagore
vi. Schools should be made more lively and enjoyable.
vii. Emphasis on self-motivation rather than on discipline
viii. foster intellectual curiosity. 25
ix. Education should break down social and religious barriers.

x. The curriculum was flexible.
xi. Mixture of traditional and contemporary literature or eastern and western
thoughts
Views of Western
Philosophers 26
Five major
educational philosophies
Traditional schools of thought

27
• Perennailism
• Essentialism
Contemporary schools of
thought
• Progressivism
• Existentialism
• Reconstructionism
Influence of these philosophies on
1. Educational purposes
2. Curriculum
28
3. Method
4. Effects on the role of teachers and role of the schools
Important to note..
✓ No one philosophy is not better than another
✓ No philosophy is right for everybody
✓ Each philosophy has its own good and bad points 29
✓ To be an effective teacher, examine each of these philosophies and develop

and refine your own EP
Perennialism
✓Based on realism shools of thought
✓Individual is both rational and spiritual being
Robert M. Hutchins (1936): 30
“Education implies teaching. Teaching implies

knowledge. Knowledge is truth. The truth is
everywhere the same. Hence education should be
everywhere the same”
Perennialism
P
Helps student
u Truth is universal and
constant
uncover and
internalize truth
r 31
p Training of the Character training is

intellect to uncover important to develop
o truth one’s spiritual being
s
Training of both the
e intellect and the
spirit are integral
Perrenialism
i. Subject-centered
Curriculum
ii. Study of literature, maths, languages, humanities, history
and
32
iii. Liberal education
Method
iv. Knowledge can be attained by reading great books
Perennialism
i. Teacher Role
• Master of the discipline of
• Authority in the field Teacher 33
• Knowledge and expertise cannot be

and
questioned
School
ii. School
• Training intellectual elites to know truth
and to pass them down to the new
generation
Perennialism
S
Education is a process to seek the truth and spread the truth.
u
Greatly influenced by Plato and Aristotle (idealism).
34
m
Main reason is to shape the individuals’ rational potential or ability.
m There are two types of education; secular and religious.
a Religious and humanity knowledge should be taught first before teaching
science or secular knowledge.
r Teaching is an art
y
Perennialism
S Basically, it is about rational and thinking logically.
u The teacher will decide your (or the students’) choice.

35
m
Teacher-centred learning process.
m
Students are encouraged to read a lot.
a
Mental discipline and emotional discipline as well as individuals’
r cognitive potential must be developed.
y
Perennialism
S
u The main reason of getting an education are; to shape moral values, to
learn the right way to learn, to train or develop the skills of reading,
36
m writing, and arithmetic (3Rs), and lastly to stress on life and humanity.
m
Students need to learn and analyse traditional great work.
a
r
y
Drawn upon the idealism and realism
schools of thought
William C. Bagley was regarded the

Essentialism father of essentialist educational
philosophy
37
School should assist students in learning

only the basic factual information (the
essentials) necessary for them to adjust
to and compete in a democratic society
Essentialism
Purpose i. Learn the essential elements of an
education
38
▪ cultural and historical heritage
▪ appropriate knowledge, skills, attitudes
and values
Essentialism
i. Mastery of basic facts and concepts of essential Curriculum
disciplines as essential foundation for the general
education necessary to living a fulfilling life and Method
39
ii. Subject centered
iii. Elementary schools
▪ Reading, writing, mathematics
iv. Secondary schools
▪ Focus on the study of maths, science, humanities,
language and literature
Essentialism
Teacher
Role of • Similar to perennialist philosophy
Teacher • Master of a particular subject field
and School • A model worthy of imitation
• Authority in areas of knowledge 40
School
• Conserve and transmit cultural and
historical heritage of traditional
disciplines
• Students learn knowledge, skill,
attitudes and values necessary to make
him a contributing member of society
Essentialism
Summary
41
Influenced Essentialism is Examples of Focus on

and rooted in all about the basic skills essential skills
both idealism basics. “Don’t are the 3Rs. and academic
and realism. give them subjects
fish, but teach
them how to
fish.”
Essentialism Teacher-centred.
Summary
Teachers are always right.
42
Teacher is in authority.
Students are passive learners.
Humans actually have the natural tendencies of goodness

and are actually influenced by all good values.
Essentialism
Summary To gain prosperous and perfection is based on mental and
intellectual readiness.
Teacher is a role model in the teaching and learning processes. 43
Initiative in education is on the shoulder of the teacher or

educator
Interest or enthusiasms is not the key to success, but true and

genuine effort is.
Essentialism
Summary
▪ Essentialism stresses that teachers and schools should refer to
the needs and the value of the community;
▪ During the primary school period, students must be taught the
44
reading, writing and arithmetic (3Rs) first, then followed by
other subjects, and then followed by the least important
subject.
▪ Community values such as social, cultural, politics and writing
skills are important too.
The most prominent
Related to
American scholar
pragmatist
was John Dewey
philosophy
(1859 - 1952)
Progressivism Viewed school as a

Students learn skills
necessary to live in 45
democratic society
a democracy
View reality/world No need to focus

as constantly upon a fixed body
changing of knowledge
Education should be life itself and not a
preparation to living
Learning should be directly related to the

interests of the child
Learning through problem solving should be

Progressivism more important than learning subject matter
46
Teacher’s role is not to direct but to advise
School should encourage cooperation rather

than competition
Progressivism
Purpose i. Student learn the necessary skills to help them
interact with a constantly changing environment
ii. Learn problem-solving skills 47
iii. Learning process focuses on cooperative behaviours

and self-discipline
Progressivism
Curriculum i. Built around personal and social experiences of the
students
and ii. Learners are capable of thinking and exploring their own
needs and interests
method 48
iii. Interdisciplinary in nature

▪ Communication skills
▪ Mathematical processes
▪ Scientific inquiry
iv. Books are viewed as tools in learning process rather than
sources of ultimate knowledge
v. Methodology: scientific inquiry, problem solving
Progressivism
Roles i. Guide students in their problem learning activities
of ii. Help students define problems, locate data, interpret

and evaluate data, make conclusions
teacher 49
iii. Patient, interdisciplinary, creative, intelligient
Progressivism
i. Viewed as a microcosm of the large society
Role of
ii. School is a living learning laboratory
the school
iii. School is a working model of democracy
50
Progressivism
1. This school of thought advocates that truth is determined by
function.
2. Learning is active. S
3. This is because truth changes. u 51
4. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning. m

5. Curriculum should be interest driven. m
6. Teachers should provide both skills and knowledge. a
7. This school of thought also emphasis on problem solving and
analysis. r
8. Human’s experiences are foundations to acquire and learn y
knowledge
Progressivism
S 9. Knowledge is assumed to be a tentative explanation at the time it is
discovered or learned, but it will not stay truth forever. It may
u change as time passes by.
m 10. Schools should play its role to get the students ready to adapt the
52
ever-changing society, surroundings and environment.
m 11. Teacher facilitates students or learners in the changing environment
a shall any problem arises.
r 12. Progressivism exposed the student to social experiences, social
experiments, projects, and other experiments that is learned
y through scientific approach or method.
13. Education is life and not just a readiness to live.
Existentialism
1. Focuses on individualism and self-fulfillment

2. View each individual as unique and fully responsible for his or her own fate
3. Enable each individual to develop his or her fullest potential for self-fulfillment
53
4. Antithesis of reconstructionism
Existentialism
1. Generally there is no prescribed

✓ Curriculum curriculum
and 2. Because each individual has specific
needs and interests related to his
method fulfillment
3. Individual learners draws upon their
experiences, subject matter fields 54
and intellectual skills necessary to

attain fulfillment
4. Process of reflective thoughts are
generally emphasized
5. Humanities and arts often viewed as
appropriate subject areas
Existentialism
1. Guide students on how to

stimulate reflective thoughts
through probing questions
2. An individual is solely responsible
to himself, and is free thus free to
determine goals & make decisions 55
✓ Roles of teacher without referring to any outside

authori
Existentialism
✓ Roles 1. School should be a forum where

students are able to engage in
of dialogue with other students and
teachers to help them clarify their
school progress toward self-fulfillment
2. The school cannot impose the goals 56
of education on the students.
Summary of Existentialism
1. Focus is on the learners or the students.

2. The learner will decide his or her choice or choices.
3. All human have his or her own responsibility to shape 57
himself or herself; or simply letting anyone else to shape him

or her, and he or she has the rights to choose what he or she
wants to be.
4. The teacher is to expose and explain all force and culture in
a society that tries to destroy or depletes the humanistic
values.
Summary of Existentialism
5. Existentialism is about free choice. This is opposite of realism.
6. Teachers should respect the freedom of his students and support
their students to know, use and fulfil their freedom with all 58
goodness and positive values.
7. Education is not only to sharpen our minds, but we should also
focus on behaviour, feelings, values, and other subjective
components.
8. The teacher should also play his role to help his students to
succeed in their search for self-awareness.
Reconstructionism
1. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction
against the realities of World War II.
2. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human
cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion 59
C O P Y R I G H T© H 2 O 2 T/ P H I LO -
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Reconstructionism
3. Paulo Freire (1921 - 1997), a Brazilian educator/philosopher whose experiences living in
poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change, saw
teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the
world. 60
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Reconstructionism
4. Also referred to as social reconstructionism

5. Grew out of progressive movement in education which
blame the progressivists for not going far enough to 61
improve society as they only focus on the problems of the

society
6. Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the
addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better
society and worldwide democracy.
Reconstructionism
7. What is needed in this age of rapid technological

advancement is reconstruction of society
8. Creating a new world order/society committed to 62
eradicating poverty, war, racism

9. Create an interdependent global society
10.Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that
highlights social reform as the aim of education.
Social reconstructionists,
believe that systems must be
changed to overcome
oppression and improve
human conditions.
Reconstructionism 63
To do so requires dialog and

critical consciousness, the
development of awareness to
overcome domination and
oppression.
Reconstructionism
1. Raise the consciousness of

students regarding social,
economic and political problems
facing mankind
64
✓ Purpose 2. Learn the necessary skills to solve

these problem
Reconstructionism
✓ Curriculum &1. Design based on social, economic,

political problems
method 2. Uses the social-science disciplines
3. Uses the processes of scientific inquiry 65
to solve problems
4. Curriculum focuses on student
experience and taking social action on
real problems, such as violence, hunger,
international terrorism, inflation, and
inequality.
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Reconstructionism
✓ Roles 1. Give awareness of problems facing

mankind
of
2. Impart necessary skills to solve problems
teacher 66
3. Help students deal with controversy and

change
4. Encourage divergent thinking as an
alternative to solving problems
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Reconstructionism
✓ Roles 5. Strategies for dealing with controversial

issues (particularly in social studies and
of literature), inquiry, dialogue, and
teacher multiple perspectives are the focus.
67
6. Community-based learning and bringing

the world into the classroom are also
strategies.
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Reconstructionism
1. Agent for social, economic

✓ Roles of
and political change in
school
society
2. Develop citizens whose
68
purpose is to radically alter

the face of contemporary
and future society
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Summary of Reconstructionism
1. This school of thought is based on pragmatism.

2. Reconstructivism proposes to improve and reconstruct the 69
society.
3. Reconstructivism says that to get truth, it will depend on
scientific approach.
4. Truth will change as time change and truth change when
new solutions towards the problems are discovered.
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Summary of Reconstructionism
5. The role of schools is to get the
student ready for any changes and
to reconstruct the society so that
students can adapt the changed 70
environment.
6. Stresses on active learning and
problem solving techniques.
7. The right way to know a social
problem is by discussion
techniques and using the creative
and critical thinking skills
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Self-assessment
Which educational philosophy is most
compatible with your beliefs? 71
Why?
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Applying Educational Philosophies
Philosophy Aim of Key Teaching Teacher Role
(Proponents/ Education Points Strategies
dates)
Existentialism
72
Progressivism
Reconstructionism
Perrenialism
Essentialism
E D U / 0 8 20 2 2
Source of knowledge
What is knowledge?
While agreement with the definition isn’t universal, The definition
involves three conditions and philosophers say that when a person 73
meets these three conditions:

1.The person believes the statement to be true
2.The statement is in fact true
3.The person is justified in believing the statement to be true
What is knowledge?
The real knowledge

is to know the extent of one’s ignorance 74
Confucius
Source of knowledge
1. Revelation
2. Intuition
75
3. Empirical
4. Authority
5. Rational
Revelation
1. When senses, reason and intuition fail to give us the solutions of all
problems we human beings are facing on this planet, we need
super knowledge to make our life successful. Here divine power 76
directly involves to guide us. Revealed knowledge is the highest

form of knowledge.
2. The knowledge is based upon relevation from a supernatural being.
This type of knowledge is commonly known as religious knowledge
Intuition
1. Knowledge acquired without the involvement of conscious mind is
called intuitive knowledge, thus is not involving any rational
process. Intuition is higher than reasoning and sensation. 77
2. When we gain knowledge via intuition, it means that we have

knowledge of something without being consciously aware of
where the knowledge came from.
Intuition
3. Intuitive knowledge can be based on faith, belief, culture, etc and is
beyond intellect.
78
4. Examples of intuition:
• You have probably heard people say things like “I don’t know, it’s just
a gut feeling” or “I don’t know, it just came to me, and I know it’s
true.”
Empirical
1. Knowledge via empiricism involves gaining knowledge through
objective observation and the experiences of your senses - is
obtained through objective observations or direct experience of 79
real-world perception
2. Empiricism represents a collection of facts. For these facts to be
useful, we need to organize them, think about them, draw meaning
from them, and use them to make predictions. In other words, we
need to use rationalism together with empiricism to make sure that
we are being logical about the observations that we make.
Empirical
3. It is the knowledge that tells us what the world is like, what things
exist, and what their characteristics are
80
4. It is essential for the emergence of the notion of science and
scientific thought, as opposed to religious and philosophical
knowledge.
Authority
1. When we accept information from respected individual, expertise,
scholars, trusted organization, etc, we are gaining knowledge via
authority.
81
2. You may have gained much of your own knowledge through

authority figures. As you were growing up, your parents or teachers
provided you with information that, for the most part, you did not
question, especially when you were very young. You believed that
they knew what they were talking about, and thus you accepted the
answers they gave you.
Authority
3. When you viewed someone or body as authority figures, at times
blindly accepting what they said as truth. Most people tend to
accept information imparted by those they view as authority 82
figures.
4. Thus, we need to question “authoritative” sources of knowledge
and develop an attitude of skepticism so that we do not blindly
accept whatever is presented to us.
Rationalism
1. Gaining knowledge via rationalism involves logical reasoning. With
this approach, ideas are precisely stated and logical rules are
applied to arrive at a logically sound conclusion 83
2. Rational ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism.
Rationalism
3. For example:
“All humans are mortal;
84
I am a human;
Therefore, I am mortal.”
• This conclusion is logically derived from the major and minor
premises in the syllogism.
Rationalism
4. Consider, however, the following syllogism:
“Attractive people are good;
85
Nellie is attractive;
Therefore, Nellie is good.”
Rationalism
5. This syllogism should identify for you the problem with gaining
knowledge by logic. Although the syllogism is logically sound, the
content of both premises is not necessarily true. If the content of 86
the premises were true, then the conclusion would be true in

addition to being logically sound
Rationalism
6. However, if the content of either of the premises is false (as is the
premise “Attractive people are good”), then the conclusion is
logically valid but empirically false and therefore of no use to a 87
scientist. Logic deals with only the form of the syllogism and not its
content. Obviously, researchers are interested in both form and
content.

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• Views of Islamic Philosophers

• Explain the views of Islamic,

4. This is achieved through revealed knowledge (al-Quran), the amal (practices)

5. Therefore a Muslim is one who :

✓ Of good character & personality

6. Hence Islamic education is to educate students to (BPG, 2002):

✓ do good and noble deeds

7. Mohammad Qatb – education aims at developing a person holistically and

8. Dr Mohd Athiyah al-Abrasyi – religious education is to develop a person

9. Al- Ghazali – education should include physical education and

10. Hamka – education aims at developing good behaviour, courageous,

the knowledge of the muktabar.

• Islamic Philosophy of Education is a continuous effort to deliver knowledge and

of goodness in this life and everlasting happiness in the world after

stress intuition, inner peace, tranquility, attitudinal development, and

1. Confucianism focuses on thinking, upholding the truth and belief in

behaviour in order to become a citizen of :

The main emphasis of the curriculum

Confucius Teacher must have good mastery of

Teachers must understand their students

ix. Education should break down social and religious barriers.

Traditional schools of thought

✓ To be an effective teacher, examine each of these philosophies and develop

Robert M. Hutchins (1936): 30

“Education implies teaching. Teaching implies

p Training of the Character training is

• Knowledge and expertise cannot be

u The teacher will decide your (or the students’) choice.

William C. Bagley was regarded the

School should assist students in learning

Influenced Essentialism is Examples of Focus on

Students are passive learners.

Humans actually have the natural tendencies of goodness

Teacher is a role model in the teaching and learning processes. 43

Initiative in education is on the shoulder of the teacher or

Interest or enthusiasms is not the key to success, but true and

Progressivism Viewed school as a

View reality/world No need to focus

Learning should be directly related to the

Learning through problem solving should be

Teacher’s role is not to direct but to advise

School should encourage cooperation rather

iii. Learning process focuses on cooperative behaviours

iii. Interdisciplinary in nature

of ii. Help students define problems, locate data, interpret

iii. Patient, interdisciplinary, creative, intelligient

4. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning. m

1. Focuses on individualism and self-fulfillment

1. Generally there is no prescribed

and intellectual skills necessary to

1. Guide students on how to

✓ Roles of teacher without referring to any outside

✓ Roles 1. School should be a forum where

of education on the students.

1. Focus is on the learners or the students.

himself or herself; or simply letting anyone else to shape him

4. Also referred to as social reconstructionism

improve society as they only focus on the problems of the

7. What is needed in this age of rapid technological

eradicating poverty, war, racism

To do so requires dialog and

1. Raise the consciousness of

✓ Purpose 2. Learn the necessary skills to solve

✓ Curriculum &1. Design based on social, economic,