See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/305485835

Food formulation and not processing level: Conceptual divergences between

public health and food science and technology sectors

Article  in  Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · July 2016

DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1209159

CITATIONS READS

25 5,444

3 authors:

Raquel Braz Assunção Botelho Wilma Maria Coelho Araújo

University of Brasília University of Brasília
118 PUBLICATIONS   1,501 CITATIONS    64 PUBLICATIONS   738 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Lívia de Lacerda de Oliveira Pineli

University of Brasília
23 PUBLICATIONS   542 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Development of a tool for quality control audits in hospital enteral nutrition View project

Instrumento de Avaliação de Sustentabilidade para Unidades de Alimentação e Nutrição: Construção e Validação View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Wilma Maria Coelho Araújo on 11 January 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

ISSN: 1040-8398 (Print) 1549-7852 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/bfsn20

Food formulation and not processing level:

conceptual divergences between public health and
food science and technology sectors

R. Botelho, W. Araújo & L. Pineli

To cite this article: R. Botelho, W. Araújo & L. Pineli (2016): Food formulation and
not processing level: conceptual divergences between public health and food
science and technology sectors, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, DOI:
10.1080/10408398.2016.1209159

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2016.1209159

Accepted author version posted online: 20

Jul 2016.
Published online: 20 Jul 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 7

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=bfsn20

Download by: [189.61.87.159] Date: 26 July 2016, At: 07:31

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Food formulation and not processing level: conceptual divergences between public health and

food science and technology sectors

R. Botelho*, W. Araújo, L. Pineli

Nutrition Department; University of Brasilia; Brasilia- DF; Brazil.

*
To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: raquelbabotelho@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Observed changes in eating and drinking behaviors in economically developing countries is

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

associated to the increase of obesity and related chronic diseases. Researchers from Public

Health (PH) field have attributed this problem to food processing and have created new food

classification systems to support their thesis. These classifications conceptually differ from

processing level concepts in Food Science and states to people that food processing is directly

related to nutritional impact of food. Our work aims to compare the concept of food processing

from the standpoints of Food Science and Technology (FST) and of PH as well as to discuss

differences related to formulation or level of processing of products and their impact on

nutritional quality. There is a misconception among food processing/unit operation /food

technology and formulation or recipes. For the PH approach, classification is based on food

products selection and the use of ingredients that results in higher consumption of sugar, sodium,

fat and additives, whereas in FST, processing level is based on the intensity and amount of unit

operations to enhance shelf life, food safety, food quality and availability of edible parts of raw

materials. Nutritional quality of a product or preparation is associated to formulation/recipe and

not to the level of processing, with few exceptions. The impact of these recommendations on the

actual comprehension of food processing and quality by the population must be considered.

1
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Key words

industrialized food, food processing, formulation, nutritional quality; food classification

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

2
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Introduction

Observed changes in eating and drinking behaviors in economically developing countries are

associated with the increase of obesity and related chronic diseases ( PAHO/WHO, 2015).

Recently, researchers have attributed this problem to food processing and have created food

classification systems to support their research, especially in epidemiological field (Monteiro et

al., 2016; Monteiro et al., 2011; Monteiro et al., 2010; Louzada et al., 2015; Canella, et al., 2014;

Moubarac et al., 2012; Moubarac et al., 2014a; Moubarac et al., 2014b).

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Their most recent classification system of foods identifies four groups: a) unprocessed foods and

minimally processed foods; b) culinary ingredients; c) processed products; and d) ultraprocessed

products. This new classification on food processing has since been adopted in PH and Nutrition

fields, with the recommendation to reduce the consumption of processed, and to avoid

ultraprocessed food (Monteiro et al., 2016; Monteiro et al., 2011; Monteiro et al., 2010; Louzada

et al., 2015; Canella, et al., 2014; Moubarac et al., 2012; Moubarac et al., 2014a; Moubarac et al.,

2014b). According to PAHO (2015), ultraprocessed foods and drinks are the major drivers of

growing rates of overweight and obesity in Latin America.

On the other hand, FST classifies processing according to the types of unit operations leading to

physical, chemical or biological transformations of raw material and/or strategies of preservation

related to temperature, water activity or other physical procedures to eliminate microorganisms

and/or to inactivate enzyme activity. According to the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee

(2010) and the US Food and Drug Administration (2011), food processing is defined as any

procedure that modifies food from its natural state. The level of a process should be indicated by

3
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

its intensity and, consequently, by the extent of changes it is made on raw material. Regarding

thermal processing, from blanching (not a thermal treatment by definition, but a thermal

procedure, previous to drying, sterilization or freezing of vegetables) to sterilization, there are

different time-temperature binomials resulting in different impacts. It goes from enzymatic

inactivation and slight decrease of microbial contamination or elimination of pathogens and

moderate decrease of decay microorganisms, until the destruction of spores of the most

thermoresistant microorganism that could contaminate a certain kind of food, leading to very

extensive shelf-life. Similarly, the impact of cold treatments on enzymes and microbials vary
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

from refrigeration to ultrafreezing (Fellows, 2009; Rahman, 2007).

In nutritional terms, food formulation is most striking than processing itself, being more

important to consider the addition of some nutrients to evaluate nutritional adequacy.

Adjustments recommended in processed foods for nutritional adequacy involve changes in

formulation, particularly with regard to sodium, sugar and saturated and trans fatty acids, and not

in the level of processing.

Therefore, the hypothesis is that the terms minimally processed / processed / ultraprocessed are

errouneously applied in the proposed classification, as they are based on formulation and

ingredients and do not properly describe the impact of food processing on health. Moreover, the

direct association between processing and chronic diseases may compromise the comprehension

by population with regards of the main role of processing on food security, food safety and food

quality.

We aimed to compare food processing concepts from the standpoints of FST and of PH and to

discuss the impacts of processing or formulation on nutrition.

4
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

History of food processing

Food Processing is directly related to food transformation, like cooking to make food more

palatable, and to storage and preservation necessities in agricultural societies to prevent

postharvest losses; it evolved according to humanity needs. As stated by Dennis and Richard

(1997), the need of achieving and maintaining food safety as well as the interest of extending

shelf-life of seasonal commodities led to most developments in food processing. Food processing
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

enables maintenance of international commerce, assuring safe, palatable and nutritionally

adequate products, besides reducing food losses, which is strategic for food secutity.

Fermentation, drying, salting, baking as well as techniques to obtain derivative food like flour,

sugar cane and soy sauces, pasta and curds are very old operations, most aged before Christi and

quite prior to Industrial Revolution (Fellows, 2009; Floros et al., 2010). In the 18th century,

scientific discoveries and advances in physics and chemistry contributed to improve empirically

used techniques.

Appertization can be recorded as the first new processing technique to pack and preserve meat

and vegetables by using thermal treatment. Heat was also applied to milk before feeding infants

as well as to produce condensed milk, when associated to vaccum and the addition of sugar for

preservation, in 19th century, just preceding Pasteur contributions (Holsinger et al., 1997). In this

same century, the development of refrigeration and caning equipments and the use of live steam

in pressure cooking retort led to rapid expansion of the food industry (Fellows, 2009).

5
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The rapid spread of electricity installed in the 20th century, enabled the installation of large

machinery also leading to increased scale. Technological development can be perceived by the

high number of patents and inventions, launching products and ingredients such as hydrogenated

vegetable fat in 1903 (Normann, 1903) and monosodium glutamate in 1908 (Sand, 2005).

These knowledges enabled the development of meals used for astronauts in spatial journeys, as

well as, the production of infant formulas, enteral nutrition, food with nutrient restriction, food

added of essential nutrients, and others. In addition, the sector stablished procedures to guarantee

the production of safe products, like the application of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Points (HACCP), a quality assurance tool adapted from safety procedures of military systems,

the Failure Mode and Effect Analysis – FMEA (Mortimore and Wallace, 1998). FDA adopted

HACCP documents for food safety regulation and staff training.

The responsiveness of food industries in relation to the role of some nutrients on health has lately

been tested. The advances in Nutrition sciences revealed in the end of 20th century the negative

impact of trans fat acids, an ingredient developed by food industry, on coronary heart diseases.

Technological alternatives, such as interesterification and fat fractionation emerged as processing

techniques to replace fat hydrogenation (O‘Brien, 2008), making possible for food industry to

adapt to new food regulation such as FDA determination to cut artificial trans fat acids from

processed food (FDA, 2015a).

Currently, the focus of new technologies of food processing are mostly related to reduce the

impact of processing on nutritional and sensory characteristics of the product, keeping as much

as possible the original quality of raw material at the same time, it prevents the decay from

microbial and enzymatic sources and eliminates pathogens. Examples are non-thermal methods

6
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

such as high hydrostatic pressure and high electric field pulses (Fellows, 2009; Butz and

Tauscher, 2002).

Food and food processing definition – PH and FST approaches

The consumption of both foods and nutrients is considered to be an important health indicator.

Classification of foods and food composition tables are important coding systems to evaluate the

quality of food and preparations, processed at home, in foodservices or in industries (Ireland et

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

al., 2002). Comparison of population-based dietary studies is a hard task because of differences

in food classifications systems and definitions of food groups. According to Mann et al., (2006),

it is crucial to examine food groups classification to identify the true source of nutrients.

Food classification systems that include a small group of food, such as basic foods, present

limitations to estimate the real intake of nutrients. Similarly, the increasing in groups and

subgroups in a food system classification leads to an excessive broad range of categories with

narrow content that difficults comprehension and nutritional evaluation (Mann et al., 2006).

For decades, researchers look for food classification systems as well as standardized systems to

food composition because this information is fundamental for epidemiological studies to guide

the population on the effects of food choices (Table 1).

Food groups and food lists are usually created for the purpose of the assessment of food and

nutrient intakes. They are constructed according to the field of work or to facilitate management

of collected data. During consumptions studies, there are not fixed groups and subgroups

because the lists are country specific and context-specific in most cases. However, it is necessary

7
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

to create rules to improve the comparability of the collected data among countries and to

harmonize them (EFSA, 2011), but information on food attibutes and preparation‘s recipes are

essential.

Ireland et al. (2002) compared some of the existing classification systems and demonstrated

difficulties in finding common grounds for food classification. They show classifications as the

one from FAO based on food balance sheet classification, trade balance of food and agricultural

commodities (www.fao.org/es/ess/list.htm) or the WHO GEMS/FOODS (World Health

Organization Global Environmental Monitoring System and the GEMS/Food Regional Diets,
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

1998 that record consumption at the commodity level to estimate intake of pesticide residues.

Also there is the DAFNE (Data Food Network) system for classification of foods in Europe

based on the European Household Budget Surveys that emphasizes ingredients and foods as

purchased.

The majority of the food classification systems is country-specific and includes national or

regional databases with very specific food groups. National legal aspects and traditions, besides

the economic and cultural importance of foods, lead to these differences (Ireland et al., 2002).

Authors also identified that comparions among food intake studies in Europe were feasible only

when results are expressed at the raw ingredient level.

Mourabac et al. (2014) conducted a systematic review on food classification and identified five

food classification systems that attempt to categorize foods in terms of food processing. For

these authors, this European system is partially specific and coherent. It does not include a

definition of industrial food processing. It establishes a rather incomplete distinction between

domestic and industrial processing and the criteria to define degree of processing are unclear.

8
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

They considered that this classification system concerns industrial processing, but makes no

distinction between industrial processing and artisanal-domestic methods of processing and

preparation. So it is partially specific. It is partially coherent, for it does not follow a logical

order. It lacks a definition of industrial food processing, and the distinction between

industrialized and local foods is the form and scale with which they are marketed rather than

their properties and nature. The distinction between methods of industrial and artisanal-domestic

processing is not complete.

For the food system classification in Guatemala, Mourabac et al. (2014) also showed that the
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

classification system is partially specific, lacking a definition of industrial processing, and not

making a clear distinction between industrial and domestic methods of processing. The criteria

for classification are unclear according to the authors.

Mourabac et al. (2014) still described classification of food based on epidemiological studies

conducted in the last quarter of the twentieth century, proposed by Monteiro et al. (2010). They

consider that industrial food processing is now the main shaping force of the global food system,

and the main determinant of nature of diets and related states of health and well-being. This

classification was previously based on three groups: a) unprocessed foods and minimally

processed foods; b) processed products, sub-divided into culinary ingredients and ready to

consume products; c) ultra-processed products. Monteiro et al. (2016) revised the classification,

calling it NOVA, with four groups, thus separating culinary ingredients and processed food. They

also made some changes in defintions, making the role of ingredients and formulation on

classification more evident (Table 1).

9
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

On the other hand, for Codex Alimentarius, since the 1960‘, food means any substance, whether

processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption, and includes drink,

chewing gum and any substance which has been used in the manufacture, preparation or

treatment of ―food‖ (WHO and FDA, 2015b). Food and food processing in modern society are

concepts closely related as we can see in the current definitions of important national,

international organisms and institutes on this field.

"Processed food" means any food other than a raw agricultural commodity and includes any raw

agricultural commodity that has been subject to processing, such as canning, cooking, freezing,
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

dehydration, or milling (Truswell, 1991). ―Food processing‖ is defined as the treatment of food

substances by changing their properties to preserve it, improve its quality or make it functionally

more useful (INFOODS, 2015).

In FST fields, food processing classification is related to the types of unit operations leading to

physical transformation of raw material and/or strategies of preservation related to thermal

energy, water activity, pressure or others. Food technology lies on two principles: preservation

and/or delay of microbial decomposition, and preservation and/or delay of self-decomposition of

the food (Fellows, 2009; Rahman, 2007). Prevention of microbial decay is essential once foods

deteriorate because of microorganism‘s presence or contamination, or intrinsic enzymes and plant

and animal metabolisms. Besides, it is important to inactivate microorganisms and their

pathogenic spores, as well as toxins produced by them. Likewise, technologies are used to destroy

or inactivate enzymes and to prevent chemical reactions (van Boekel et al., 2010). In this context,

food processing is strategic to prevent postharvest and post- slaughter losses, and to full use raw

10
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

materials and by-products (Parfitt et al., 2010; Ockerman and Hansen, 2000; Schieber et al.,

2001).

Since food products are constituted by only one raw material or more complexes formulations, in

other words, ingredients from different raw materials, the International Network of Food Data

Systems (INFOODS) developed flowcharts to describe both types of products. Simple foods are

the ones that attend the following criteria: (a) food in their natural status, being removed non-

edible parts or rejected ones, for example fruit pulps, fresh fruits and vegetables; (b) food which

one edible part has been removed during processing, as skimmed milk, white wheat flour; (c)
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

food with a single main ingredient, dehydrated or added water, as dried fruits, cooked rice, teas,

fruit juices, concentrated or diluted, fruit nectars; (d) food with a single main ingredient, added of

other ingredients in quantities that not significantly impact on energetic value; (e) food that has

been processed with or without removal of edible parts, with or without addition of small amount

of other ingredients, such as fortified corn flakes, cheese and others. Composed foods are the

ones in which other ingredients are added (Truswell, 1991; FAO/INFOODS, 2011;

FAO/INFOODS, 2012). Considering these concepts, FST has clear definitions and

classifications of processed foods, contrary to observations described in the literature (Monteiro

et al., 2016; Monteiro et al., 2011; Monteiro et al., 2010; Louzada et al., 2015; Canella, et al.,

2014; Moubarac et al., 2012; Moubarac et al., 2014a; Moubarac et al., 2014b).

Processing of animal or vegetable raw material uses specific technologies that consider

biological, biochemical, physical, nutritional and chemical aspects. Perishability and intrinsic

factors related to microbial growth such as pH, water activity and enzymes that impair sensory

and nutritional stability are examples of factors that are analysed to define type and intensity of

11
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

processing, aiming at food safety and prevention of food losses (Fellows, 2009, Rahman, 2007;

Fennema, 1996). Indeed, a misconception among food processing/operation units/food

technology and formulation/recipes is observed in classification systems out of FST context.

In order to demonstrate the conceptual differences between food processing for PH and FST,

Figure 1 compares milk and yoghurt processings in both classifications. According to PH

classification, crude to sterilized milks are classified in the same level of processing along with

plain yoghurt, without added sugar. Yoghurt passes to a higher processing level if sugar is added

and it is ultraprocessed if sugar and other additives compounds the formulation. For FST,
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

processing levels increase from crude to sterilized milk and yoghurt has the same level of

processing independently of other ingredients added.

FIGURE 1

Besides, according to Codex Alimentarius (2011), yoghurt is a milk product obtained by

fermentation of whole milk, skimmed or standardized, by the action of suitable microorganisms

(Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus) and resulting in

pH reduction with or without coagulation (iso-electric precipitation). These starter

microorganisms shall be viable, active and abundant in the product to the expiry date.

Fermentation is a process in which chemical exchanges occur in an organic substrate by enzyme

action produced by bacterias, molds or yeasts. Chemical composition of food is modified and,

therefore, its nutritional value. Under the technological view, operations involved to produce

yogurt include at least pasteurization, fermentation, packing and cold storage. That is to say, it

involves proper technologies to food transformation/processing. On the other hand, according to

12
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

FST experts, the key point of minimal processing is the maintainance of active metabolism

despite physical modifications in vegetables (Table 2).

Fruits can be consumed in their natural state, or can be minimally processed when washed, cut,

stored and maintained in refrigeration for their conservation. In this state, fruit tissues are

metabolically active and still breathe. Freezed or dried fruits require other technologies and result

in metabolically inactive plant tissues, therefore they show extended shelf life and cannot be

classified as minimally processed.

The same approach is relevant on eggs, teas, coffee, herb infusions processing. Eggs processing
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

can lead to fresh, liquid or powder products by spray drying. For coffee processing, roasting is

one of the steps that changes the chemical compositions of the beans because thermal treatment

gives flavor to the product. Beans are heated to temperatures from 180 to 240ºC/8 to 15 minutes,

according to the level of desirable roasting. Besides, it can be moistened and submitted to drying

in fluidized-bed in a technique called granulation, agglomeration or instantanization (Silva and

Taranto, 2015). Thus, it is not correct to classify coffee or meat or frozen meat based

preparations, yoghurts, and others as minimal processed (Table 2), from the processing point of

view.

For the FST approach, processing includes all the classified foods according to the public health

criteria (Monteiro et al., 2016; Monteiro et al., 2011; Monteiro et al., 2010; Louzada et al., 2015;

Canella, et al., 2014; Moubarac et al., 2012; Moubarac et al., 2014a; Moubarac et al., 2014b).

From the nutritional point of view, differences related to nutritional value are due to

formulation/culinary recipes/technical preparation files used in industries, foodservices and at

home. Few processes are known to result in changes in the contents of macronutrients, such as

13
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

milk standardization (Tamime, 2009), osmotic dehydration by sugar (Rastogi et al., 2002), or salt,

concentration and conventional dehydration (Fellows, 2009), but they are not related to

―ultraprocessed‖ foods, according to PH classification.

Food products, recipes and formulations

In the same way as food products, recipes or food formulas are ancient. Before, only a list of

ingredients; today, formula or food formulation is a group of instructions to prepare a certain

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

product. Therefore, to elaborate food preparations, it is necessary a precise register of all the

ingredients, their proportions and the sequence of operation.

Regardless of production site, domestic or industrial, empirical or scientific comprehension, the

basic principle of processing or the culinary technique is fundamental to obtain good products.

At home kitchens, variants depend on ingredients availability, equipments, manual skills and

transmission of this knowledge to other generations. Thus, basic recipes were developed for

many food and beverages, alcoholic or not, that are currently present for the people. Sensory

characteristics were improved for better acceptance of the products. There was not an accurate

standardization of the ingredients‘ quantities (McGee, 2004).

This way, culinary recipe books arisen. They are a collection of domestic recipes that describe

how these products should be prepared, showing tips and suggestions, as well as including

personal experiences related to preparation and tasting of the dishes. One of the oldest books was

written by Marco Gávio Apício, romaine cook from first century named De re coquinaria.

14
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

With the advances that characterized the XX century, food services emerged. In these

environments, the need to continuously produce products with the same quality and to guarantee

the amount of food produced, recipes started to be written as an instrument called Technical

Preparation File (TPF) (Akutsu et al., 2005).

TPFs are instruments of operational help used in Food services to help menu planning. They

include information like gross and net weight of ingredients, correction factor, per capita, total

cost, portion, energetic value, preparation order, total production time, being an indirect indicator

of complexity of preparations (Akutsu et al., 2005). Important differences can be identified

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

among recipe books and TPFs: quantity precision, portioning, nutritional value, method and

production time, and others.

Industrial processing of food involves a combination of procedures to achieve the desireable

modifications of raw materials (Fellows, 2009). In this area, formulation is always a customized

recipe, developed to a specific stablishement with the available equipments to sell for a

population sector. Therefore, formulations differ among different producers. They are used to

control not only quality parameters (physical, chemical, sensory, nutritional, hygienical and

legal), but also rigorous control of production yield.

Thus, recipes, TPFs and industrial formulations are ways to describe products or preparations

components, independently of the types of ingredients and the processes used. When products

are considered from the nutritional standpoint, more important than knowing the type of

processing, it is to know the ingredients used and their quantities.

Every food process involves a combination of procedures to achieve desirable modifications in

raw materials, as well as at home or foodservice units. These combinations are categorized as

15
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

unit operations. Each one has a specific effect, identifiable and predictable on food, nutritionaly

or sensorialy. These unit operations are grouped to form a process (Fellows, 2009).

Therefore, products are available in the market such as pasteurized milks, juices, nectars, freezed

meats, ready-to-eat food, baking products, beverages, diet food, baby food, and many more.

Among industries, foodservices and domestic kitchens, the operational difference, besides the

size of the equipments, is due to formulations, TPFs or culinary recipes that produce food with

higher or lower energetic values, sugar level, complex carbohydrates, fat, sodium, and other

nutrients.
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

In other words, nutritional quality of a product or preparation is associated to formulation/recipe

and not to the level of processing (Table 3). The selected process to preserve food, or an adopted

technology to produce derivatives, depends on physical-chemical characteristics that will

determine higher or lower susceptibility to decay reactions.

In nutritional terms, food formulation is most striking than processing itself, being more

important to consider the addition of some nutrients, such as sodium, fat and sugars to evaluate

nutritional adequacy (Neal et. al., 2013). Moreover, adjustments recommended in processed

foods technically involve formulation modifications, particularly with regard to sodium, sugar

and saturated and trans fatty acids, and not the level of processing.

Considering the misunderstanding in regards to the comprehension of these concepts, it is

important to comprehend that the nutritional value of a certain food/preparation, usually, is the

consequence of its formulation/TPF/recipes and, it does not depend on the operation unit

involved on the process. Freezing, for example, as an operation unit, is used to increase shelf life

of a preparation like beef stroganoff, but its formulation can be the same one as stroganoffs

16
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

produced and consumed at home. More important, if it can present low or high sodium content, it

is up to formulation.

Frozen food is the one that has been exposed to temperatures equal or lower than 18ºC negatives

to promote water holding in food, to lower water activity and to delay all chemical and

biochemical changes. By the same principle, meat is freshly freezed or in a preparation (Table 3).

Nutritionally, the benefit comes from the choice of ingredients and culinary techniques to

compose the preparation.

On food category called ―processed‖, there are all the refrigerated, dehydrated, canned, cooked,
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

freezed and milled products (FDA, 2010), independently of their formulations. The used

technological principle is the same with variations on the operational conditions. Thus, frozen

meat preparations produced at home, foodservices or meals produced in the industries are

classified as processed food (Table 3). Food categorization must be related to the selected

principle of increasing shelf life and elimination of patogens without comprimising nutritional

and sensory qualities.

Recently, Monteiro et al. (2016) have reported the NOVA food classification, as a new system to

categorise foods ―according to the extent and purpose of food processing, rather than in terms of

nutrients‖. However, this classification is adapted from the current one on ultraprocessing

concept and presents ultraprocessed food as ―formulated from industrial ingredients and contain

little or no intact foods‖. It is clear that processing level is not the central point in the definition,

once the words ―formulated‖, ―ingredients‖ and ―contain‖ are more associated to formulation

than to processes or unit operations involved.

17
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Differences of certain products obtained by a same process is presented from group 1 (minimally

processed) to 4 (ultraprocessed food) and they are related to the addition of sugar, salt or oil, as

described for yoghurts and nuts and oil seeds, at the same time classification denominations

claim to be supported by processing level and not by nutrients (Table 2).

Although it is recognizable that foods listed as ultraprocessed may be indeed related to obesity, it

is not understandable how processing techniques, cited as exclusive of ultraprocessed food

(extrusion, moulding and pre-treatments to frying), are the main drivers of the unhealthy profiles

of these food products. For example, extrusion is recognized as an operation that can enhance
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

protein digestibility (Ruiz-Ruiz et al., 2008; Batista et al., 2010), nutrients and bioactive

compounds‘ bioavailabilites and bioacessibilities (Gu et al., 2008; Dehghan-Shoar et al., 2011).

It increases soluble fibers (Singh et al., 2007), inactivate undesirable enzymes and some

antinutritional factors (Singh et al., 2007; Kelkar et al., 2012) and none of the harmful

ingredients (salt, sugar and oils or fats) are required to extrude flour, but water. Thererefore, the

drawback of current industrialized expanded products, classified as ultraprocessed, is associated

to their formulation, and it is clear that food industry can improve nutritional quality of these

products by adjusting ingredients, not processing level. A pre-treatment before potato frying is

blanching and it is stated that this operation results in starch gelatinization, contributing to trap

water and prevent the exchange of water for oil during the frying of potatoes. Also additives such

as calcium chloride and carboxymethyl cellulose derivatives, can be used in pre-treatment with

the same objective (Rimac-Brncic et al., 2004), resulting in less absortion of oil in comparison

with homemade fresh fried potatoes.

18
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Neal et al. (2013) stated that products delivered by the industries are considered less healthy, but

scientifically studies have difficulties to relate the harms caused by these products because of an

absence of data to adequately define the extent of the problem and the actions that might be take

it.

It is necessary to systematize a food classification system because, until today, criteria of the

different proposals can lead to diverse interpretations and misunderstandings to evaluate the

impact of feeding in health. As an example, we can present a study conducted in Austrália named

National Nutrition Survey (NNS) of 1995 that determined the contribution of defined food
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

groups to the total fat and fat type consumed by male subjects. Their diets were analyzed using

three different food group classification systems. The focus was mainly discussed about the meat

group and meat, meat products and meat dishes were either combined or analyzed separetly.

Later, authors evaluated the same diets using a modification of the original classification system

(RMIT) and data demonstrated different conclusions whether using one system or another. It all

depended on how food groups were divided for analysis and the levels of complexity of the

groups (Mann et al. 2006).

Eicher-Miller et al. (2012) stated the all categories of processed foods are important to American

diets and make major contributions to the nutrient and energy intake. Processing level may

contribute or not on nutrients‘ intake, sometimes it is necessary to encourage and other times to

limit. Enrichment and/or fortification of processed food improved Americans intake of several

nutrients. However, other operations may lead to a potential loss of nutrients and other beneficial

constituents such as bioactives, or to antinutrients inactivation.

19
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

A study conducted by Poti et al. (2015) with the objective to determine the contribution of

processed and convenience food categories by US households showed that there is a great

variability in nutrient content within each category of processing. However, saturated fat, sugar,

and sodium content were associated with types of processing.

Weaver et al. (2014) showed that processed foods are nutritionally important to Americans not

only for food security (ensuring sufficient food), but also for nutrition security (ensuring food

quality with nutrient needs). If more nutrient-dense foods are selected, more likely Americans

will meet recommendations despite if they are processe or not. All types of produced foods if
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

consumed inappropriately or at inordinately high proportions can be harmful. Dwyer et al.

(2012) already emphasized that there should be closer collaboration between the nutritional and

the food science and technology áreas because nutrtion practice depends on good food

composition data.

Food industrialization is an irreversible process. Government actions to industrialized food

regulation and legislation are encouraged for nutritional adequacy of the products in any part of

the world. To highlight, international initiatives are conducted to reduce sodium intake arising

from industrial products as well as simuntanious campaigns to promote healthy eating habits to

control chronic diseases related to feeding (Trieu et al., 2015)

Conclusions

The food classification system proposed by PH researchers differ from FST concepts on its

essence as assigned by the definitions of minimally processed, processed and ultraprocessed

20
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

food. It is interesting to observe that ultraprocessed food are products with high energy density

derived from sugar and fat content as well as food with high sodium content, and not food

subjected to processing of high intensities.

Indeed, the list and ingredients proportions stablished on formulations, on technical preparation

files or on culinary recipes significantly influence on the nutrient content and the energetic value.

The role of industrialized food and new eating habits on obesity is well stablished and, certainly,

solution lies partially on food industry responsibilities. Nutritional adequacy of industrialized

food can be achieved by changes in formulation and not in processing level. The
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

recommendations regarding the ―ultraprocessed‖ classification system may impair the

comprehension about food processing and quality by the population in a scenario in which food

processing plays an important role to food supply, food security and food safety, making the

suppression of processed food in dietary reccomendations a very hard task that does not

necessarily meet the solution for the challenges in public health related to nutrition.

21
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

References

1. Akutsu, R.C., Botelho, R.A., Camargo, E.B., Sávio, K.E.O., Araújo, W.M.C. (2005). A

ficha técnica de preparação como instrumento de qualidade na produção de refeições.

Revista de Nutrição. 18(2): 277-279. DOI: org/10.1590/S1415-52732005000200012.

2. Batista, K.A., Prudencio, S.H., Fernandes, K.F. (2010). Changes in the biochemical and

functional properties of the extruded hard-to-cook cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp).

Int J Food Sci Technol. 45:794–99.

3. Butz, P., Tauscher, B. (2002). Emerging technologies: chemical aspects. Food Research
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

International. 35(2-3), 279-284.

4. Brussaard, J. H., Löwik, M. R. H, Steingrimsdóttir, L., Møller, A., Kearney, J., De

Henauw, S., Becker, W. (2002). A European food consumption survey method—

conclusions and recommendations. Eur. J. Clin Nutr. 56(2): S89 – S93.

5. Canella, D.S., Levy, R.B., Martins, A.P.B., Claro, R.M., Moubarac, J.C., Baraldi, L.G.,

Cannon, G., Monteiro, C.A. (2014). Ultra-Processed Food Products and Obesity in

Brazilian Households (2008-2009). Plos One. 9(3): e92752.

6. Codex Alimentarius. (2011). World Health Organization Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations. Milk and milk products. Codex Stan 243-2003.

Second edition.

7. Dauthy, M. E. (1995). Fruit and vegetable processing. FAO AGRICULTURAL

SERVICES BULLETIN No.119. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations. Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/v5030e/V5030E00.htm

22
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

8. Dehghan-Shoar, Z., Mandimika, T., Hardacre, A.K., Reynolds, G.W., Brennan, C.S.

(2011). Lycopene Bioaccessibility and Starch Digestibility for Extruded Snacks Enriched

with Tomato Derivatives. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59: 12047–12053.

9. Dennis, R.H., Richard, W. (1997). Process for Converting Unsaturated Fatty Acids or

their Glycerides into Saturated Compounds. Available at:

http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=gb&NR=190301515&KC

=&FT=E&locale=en_EP

10. Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. (2010) Report of the Dietary Guidelines
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010, to the Secretary of

Agriculture and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Washington (DC): US

Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service.

11. Dwyer, J.T., Fulgoni III, V.L., Clemens, R.A., Schmidt, D.B., Freedman, M.R. (2012). Is

―processed‖ a four-letter word? The role of processed foods in achieving dietary

guidelines and nutrient recommendations. Adv Nutr. 3(4): 536–48.

12. EFSA - European Food Safety Authority, Parma, Italy. (2011). Report on the

development of a Food Classification and Description System for exposure assessment

and guidance on its implementation and use. EFSA Journal. 9 (12): 2489.

13. Eicher-Miller, H. A., Fulgoni III, V. L., Keast., D. R. (2012). Contributions of Processed

Foods to Dietary Intake in the US from 2003–2008: A Report of the Food and Nutrition

Science Solutions Joint Task Force of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American

Society for Nutrition, Institute of Food Technologists, and International Food Information

Council. J. Nutr. 142 (18): 2065S–2072S.

23
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

14. FAO/INFOODS. (2011). Food and Agricultural Organization/ International Network of

Food Data Systems. INFOODS Guidelines for Food Matching. version 1.1, FAO, Rome,

Italy.

15. FAO/INFOODS. (2012). Food and Agricultural Organization/ International Network of

Food Data Systems. FAO/INFOODS Guidelines for Checking Food Composition Data

Prior to the Publication of a User Table/Database. version 1.0, FAO, Rome, Italy.

Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/ap810e/ap810e.pdf. Acessed 12/02/2015.

16. FAO (2016). Food and Agricultural Organization/ International Network of Food Data
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Systems. Available at: www.fao.org/es/ess/list.htm. Acessed 22/06/2016.

17. FDA. (2010). Food and Drug Administration. Available at:

https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title21/html/USCODE-2010-title21-

chap9-subchapII.htm. Accessed 14.05.15.

18. FDA. Food and Drug Administration. (2015). Available at:

https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2010-title21/html/USCODE-2010-title21-

chap9-subchapII.htm. Accessed in may 2015.

19. FDA (2015b) FDA Cuts Trans Fat in Processed Foods. Available:

http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/UCM451467.pdf

Acessed in18 jun 2016.

20. Fellows, P.J. (2009). Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice. Woodhead

Publishing.

21. Floros, J. D., Newsome, R., Fisher, W., Barbosa-C´anovas, G. V., Chen, H., Dunne, J.

German, B., Hall, R. L., Heldman, D.R., Karwe, M. V., Knabel, S. J., Labuza, T. P.,

24
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Lund, D. B., Newell-McGloughlin, M., Robinson, J. L., Sebranek, J. G., Shewfelt, R. L.,

Tracy, W. F., Weaver, C. M., Ziegler, G. R. (2010). Feeding the World Today and

Tomorrow: The Importance of Food Science and Technology An IFT Scientific Review.

Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and FoodSafety. 9: 572-599.

22. Gu, L., House, S.E., Rooney, L. W., Prior, R. L. (2008). Sorghum Extrusion Increases

Bioavailability of Catechins in Weanling Pigs. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56, 1283–1288.

23. Holdsworth, S. D., Simpson, R. (2016). Thermal Processing of Packaged Foods. 2nd

edition. Springer.
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

24. Holsinger, V.H., Rajkowski, K.T., Stabel, J.R. (1997). Milk pasteurization and safety: a

brief histoy and update. Rev.Sci. Tech. Off.Int.Epiz. 16(2):441-451.

25. IFPA. (1999). INTERNATIONAL FRESH CUT PRODUCE ASSOCIATION. Fresh-cut

produce handling guidelines. 3. ed. Produce Marketing.

26. INFOODS. (2015). International Network of Food Data Systems. International food

composition table/database directory. Available at:

http://www.fao.org/infoods/infoods/tables-and-databases/en/. Acessed 01 Mar. 2015.

27. Ireland, J., van Erp-Baart, A.M.J., Charrondie`re, U.R., Møller, A., Smithers, G.,

Trichopoulou, A. (2002). Selection of a food classification system and a food

composition database for future food consumption surveys. European Journal of Clinical

Nutrition. 56,2: S33–S45.

28. Kelkar, S., Siddiq, M., Harte, J.B., Dolan, K.D., Nyombaire, G., Suniaga, H. (2012). Use

of low-temperature extrusion for reducing phytohemagglutinin activity (PHA) and

25
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

oligosaccharides in beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cv. Navy and Pinto. Food Chemistry.

133: 1636–1639.

29. Lagiou, P.,Trichopoulou, A., the DAFNE contributors. (2001). The DAFNE initiative:

the methodology for assessing dietary patterns across Europe using household budget

survey data. Public Health Nutrition: 4(5B), 1135-1141.

30. Louzada, M.L.C., Martins, A.P.B., Canella, D.S., Baraldi, L.G., Levy, R.B., Claro, R.M.,

Moubarac, J.C., Cannon, G., Monteiro, C.A. (2015). Ultra-processed foods and the

nutritional dietary profile in Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública. 49: 1-8.

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

DOI:10.1590/S0034-8910.2015049006132.

31. Mann, N., Ashton, Y., O‘Connell, S., Sinclair, A. Kelly, F. (2006). Food group categories

used in dietary analysis can misrepresent the amount and type of fat present in foods.

Nutrition & Dietetics. 63: 69–78.

32. McGee, H. (2004). On food and cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Scribner;

Rev Upd edition. 896pp.

33. Monteiro, C.A., Cannon, G., Levy, R., Moubarac, J.C., Jaime, P., Martins, A.P. et al.

(2016) Food classification. Public health. World Nutrition. 7: 1-3.

34. Monteiro, C.A., Levy, R.B., Claro, R. M., De Castro, I.R., Cannon, G. (2011) Increasing

consumption of ultra-processed foods and likely impact on human health: evidence from

Brazil. Public Health Nutrition. 14(1): 5–13. DOI:10.1017/S1368980010003241

35. Monteiro, C.A., Levy, R.B., Claro, R. M., De Castro, I.R., Cannon, G. (2010). A new

classification of foods based on the extent and purpose of their processing. Cadernos de

Saúde Pública. 26: 2039-2049. DOI.org/10.1590/S0102-311X2010001100005.

26
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

36. Mortimore, S., Wallace, C. (1998). HACCP: A Practical Approach, Practical Approaches

to Food Control and Food Quality Series (Book 1). Springer; 2nd edition.

37. Moubarac, J..C, Parra, D.C., Cannon, G., Monteiro, C.A. (2014a). Food Classification

Systems Based on Food Processing: Significance and Implications for Policies and

Actions: A Systematic Literature Review and Assessment. Current Obesity Reports. 3:

256-272.

38. Moubarac, J.C., Batal, M., Martins, A.P.B., Claro, R., Levy, R.B., Cannon, G., Monteiro,

C.A. (2014b). Processed and Ultra-processed Food Products: Consumption Trends in

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Canada from 1938 to 2011. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research. 75: 15-

21.

39. Moubarac, J.C., Martins, A.P.B., Claro, R.M., Levy, R.B., Cannon, G., Monteiro, C.A.

(2012). Consumption of ultra- processed foods and likely impact on human health.

Evidence from Canada. Public Health Nutrition. 16(12): 2240-2248.

DOI:10.1017/S1368980012005009.

40. Neal, B., Sacks, G., Swinburn, B., Vandevijvere, S., Dunford, E., Snowdon, W., Webster,

J., Barquera, S., Friel, S., Hawkes, C., Kelly, B., Kumanyika, S., L‘Abbé, M., Lee, A.,

Lobstein, T., Ma, J., Macmullan, J., Mohan, S., Monteiro, C., Rayner, M., Sanders, D.,

Walker, C. (2013). Monitoring the levels of important nutrients in the food supply.

Obesity reviews .14(1): 49–58.

41. Normann, (1903). Process for Converting Unsaturated Fatty Acids or their Glycerides

into Saturated Compounds. Patent number 1515, British Patent Office.

27
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

42. O‘Brien, R.D. (2008). Fats and Oils: formulating and processing for applications. CRC

press London; Third Edition.

43. Ockerman, H.W., Hansen, C.L. (2000). Animal By-Product Processing & Utilization.

CRC Press London.

44. PAHO/Pan American Health Organization/WHO. (2015). Ultra-processed food and drink

products in Latin America: Trends, impact on obesity, policy implications. Washington

D.C. Available at:

http://iris.paho.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/7699/9789275118641_eng.pdf.
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Accessed in May 20, 2015.

45. Parfitt, J., Barthel, M., Macnaughton, S. (2010). Food waste within food supply chains:

quantification and potential for change to 2050. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 365: 3065–3081.

46. Poti, J. M., Mendez, M. A.,Wen Ng, S., Popkin. B. M. (2015). Is the degree of food

processing and convenience linked with the nutritional quality of foods purchased by US

households? Am J Clin Nutr. 101:1251–62.

47. Rahman, M.S. (2007). Handbook of food preservation. 2nd ed. CRC Press. 1088p.

48. Rastogi, N. K., Raghavarao, K.S.M.S., Niranjan, K., Knorr, D. (2002). Recent

developments in osmotic dehydration: methods to enhance mass transfer. Trends in Food

Science & Technology. 13(2): 48-59.

49. Rimac-Brncic, S., Lelas, V., Rade, D., Simundi, B. (2004). Decreasing of oil absorption

in potato strips during deep fat frying. Journal of Food Engineering. 64: 237–241.

28
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

50. Ruiz-Ruiz, J., Martinez-Ayala, A., Drago, S., Gonzalez, R., Batancur-Ancona, D., Chel-

Guerrero, L. (2008). Extrusion of a hard-to-cook bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, L.) and

quality protein maize (Zea mays, L.) flour blend. Food Sci Technol. 41:1799–807.

51. Sand. J. (2005). A short history of MSG Good Science, Bad Science and Taste Cultures.

Gastronomica: the journal of food and culture. 5(4):38-49.

52. Silva, C. A. M., Taranto, O. P. (2015). Real-Time Monitoring of Gas–Solid Fluidized-

Bed Granulation and Coating Process: Evolution of Particle Size, Fluidization Regime

Transitions, and Psychometric Parameters. Drying Technology: An International Journal.

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

33(15-16) : 1929-1948.

53. Singh, S., Gamlath, S., Wakeling, L. (2007). Nutritional aspects of food extrusion: a

review. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 42: 916–929.

54. Tamime, A. Y. (2009). Milk Processing and Quality Management. Wiley-Blackwell,

344p.

55. Trieu, K., Neal, B., Hawkes, C., Dunford, E., Campbell, N., Rodriguez-Fernandez, R., et

al. (2015). Salt Reduction Initiatives around the World – A Systematic Review of

Progress towards the Global Target. PLoS ONE. 10(7): e0130247.

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130247.

56. Truswell, A.S. (1991). INFOODS Guidelines for Describing Foods: A Systematic

Approach to Describing Foods to Facilitate International Exchange Food Composition

Data. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 4: 18 – 38.

57. US Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services. (2011).

Title 21—Food and Drugs; Chapter 9—Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 21 U.S.C.

29
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

58. van Boekel, M., Fogliano, V., Pellegrini, N., Stanton, C., Scholz, G., Lalljie, S. et al.

(2010). A review on the beneficial aspects of food processing. Molecular Nutrition Food

Research. 54: 1215–1247.

59. Weaver, C. M., Dwyer, J. Fulgoni III, V. L., King, J. C., Leveille, G.A., MacDonald, R.S.

Ordovas, J., Schnakenberg, D. (2014). Processed foods: contributions to nutrition. Am J

Clin Nutr. 99:1525–42.

Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

30
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 1: Studies relating food and food classification systems from 2001 until 2016.

Authors Objectives Purpose Conclusions/observaions

Lagiou, The DAta Food The DAFNE food The group concluded that
Trichopoulou NEtworking classification system the databank is a valuable
and the (DAFNE) created grouped food in: cereals tool to identify groups
DAFNE in 1980s had the and cereal products; meat related to disease risk and to
contributors. objective to assess and meat products; red help planning food and
(2001). dietary patterns in meat; offals; canned meat nutrition policies in Europe.
Europe using data and meat products; meat
from dishes; fish and seafood;
householdbudget milk and milk products;
surveys (HBSs). eggs; lipids of animal
origin; lipids of vegetable
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

origin; potatoes and other

starchy roots; pulses;
vegetables; fresh
vegetables; processed
vegetables; nuts; fruits;
fresh fruits processed
fruits; sugar and sugar
products; non-alcoholic
beverages; stimulants;
mineral water; soft drinks;
alcoholic beverages.
Brussaard et They had the Discussion groups based The group established
al. (2002). objective of on prior experiences like European Nutrient Database
developing a DAFNE, EPIC, FLAIR (ENDB) for conversion of
method for a Eurofoods Enfant project, foods to nutrients making
European food and COST Action 99. dietary intake evaluation
consumption Final document was comparable among
survey with approved in plenary countries.
internationally sessions.
comparable data.
Ireland, et al. They had the The groups established a EFG system can be used, but
(2002). objective of Euro Food Groups (EFG) it is not concluded. Their
gathering food classification system with intetion is to have a sofware
classification and four food groups, for that enables food conversion
food composition making food consumption as consumed into raw edible
databases, data comparable across level.
allowing countries.
comparability of

31
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

food and nutrient

levels in Europe.

Monteiro, et They had th The group created a new Authors discuss that group 3
al. (2011). objective of classification of food products shows high energy
developing a based on extent and density and are nutritionally
classification to purpose of food not healthy. They indicate
food purchases processing. The groups that governments and health
made by Brazilian are: authorities should work on
households and to unprocessed/minimally strategies to encourage more
explore the processed foods (Group consumption of minimally
potential impact on 1); processed culinary processed foods and
the overall quality ingredients (Group 2); or processed culinary
of the diet. ultra-processed ready-to- ingredients.
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

eat or ready-to-heat food

products (Group 3).
Eicher-Miller, They had the Authors created food Authors conclude that
Fulgoni III, objective of categories based on processing level is a minor
Keast. (2012). developing food various USDA determinant to nutrients
categories by level composition table. The contribution to the diet.
of processing to categories are: minimally
determine the processed, foods processed
contribution of for preservation, mixtures
processed food to of combined ingredients,
total intake on ready-to-eat processed
daily dietary foods, or prepared
intakes de foods/meals. The
nutrientes. ‗‗mixtures of combined
ingredients‘‘ category was
separated into 2
subcategories: ‗‗packaged
mixes and jarred sauces‘‘
and ‗‗mixtures probably
home prepared.‘‘ ‗‗Ready-
to-eat processed foods‘‘
category was separated
into 2 subcategories:
‗‗packaged ready-to-eat
foods‘‘ and ‗‗mixtures
possibly store prepared‖.
Weaver, et al., They had the The group used categories Authors discuss that
(2014). objective of of processed foods as Americans can have better
analyzing the proposed by the diets if nutrient-dense foods

32
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

contribution of International Food are selected, either

processed food in Information Council. The processed or not.
the American diet categories are: Foods that Professionals in the area can
and reviewing require processing or help to improve the diets by
emerging production (also called providing a nutritious food
technologies and ―minimally processed‖); supply.
the research Foods processed to help
needed for a better preserve and enhance
understanding of nutrients and freshness of
the role of foods at their peak; Foods
processed foods in that combine ingredients
a healthy diet. such as sweeteners, spices,
oils, flavors, colors, and
preservatives to improve
safety and taste and/or add
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

visual appeal; ―Ready-to-

eat‖ foods needing
minimal or no preparation;
Foods packaged to stay
fresh and save time.
Moubarac, et It was a systematic Three mais groups are Authors present different
al. (2014). review with the identified: ―non-processed categorizations and discuss
objective of foods‖ consumed raw the groups of each article of
evaluating food without any further the systematic review.
classification processing;
systems as ―modestly/moderately
follows:<break/>In processed foods‖, sub-
Europe, divided into industrial and
International commercial foods that are
Agency for consumed with no further
Research on cooking and foods
Cancer (IARC) processed at home and
used a prepared/cooked from raw
methodology foods or moderately
devised for the processed foods;
European ―processed foods, sub-
Prospective divided into ―staple/basic
Investigation into foods‖ and ―highly-
Cancer and processed foods‖.
Nutrition (EPIC)
study.

33
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

In the US, the Foods and products are

International Food classified as ―minimally
Information processed‖; ―foods
Council processed for
Foundation (IFIC) preservation‖; ―mixtures
of combined ingredients‖;
―ready-to-eat processed
foods‖; and ―prepared
foods/meals‖.
In Mexico, Three caegories are used
National Institute to describe food:
of Public Health in ―industrialized modern
Mexico: it foods‖, ―industrialized
distinguishes traditional foods‖ and
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

between ―non-industrialized foods‖,

industrialized and sub-divided into ―modern
local food and and traditional
products, and preparations made out of
between modern the home‖, ―traditional
and traditional preparations made at home
foods and or artisanally‖, and
products. ―unprocessed foods‖.
In Guatemala, the Three food categories are
International Food identified: ―unprocessed
Policy Research foods‖, ―primary or
Institute (IFPRI). partially processed foods‖,
and ―highly-processed
foods‖, defined as having
undergone ―secondary
processing‖ and ―likely to
contain added sugars,
hydrogenated fats (trans-
fatty acids), and-or salt‖.
In Brazil, new Three groups were
classification of proposed:
foodstuffs based unprocessed/minimally
on extent and processed foods (Group
purpose of food 1); processed culinary
processing. ingredients (Group 2); or
ultra-processed ready-to-
eat or ready-to-heat food
products (Group 3).

34
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Poti, et al. They had the Four categories were A great variability withing
(2015) objective of created based on the category requires choices
determining 2000– degree of industrial food from different groups for
2012 trends in the processing: Unprocessed better diet. However, Highly
contribution of and minimally processed; processed food may have
processed and Basic processed; higher saturated fat, sugar,
convenience food Moderately processed; and sodium content than less
categories by US Highly processed. Three processed foods.
households categories were also
comparing demonstrated based on
saturated fat, product convenience.
sugar, and sodium
content.
PAHO (2015). They had the PAHO recommendstThe They suggest the need of
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

objective of NOVA system: 1. local food systems in order

showing trends in Unprocessed or minimally to protect public health in
the sales of ultra- processed foods; 2. Latin America.
processed food and Processed culinary
drink products in ingredients; 3. Processed
13 Latin American foods; 4. Ultra-processed
countries food and drink products.
(Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil,
Chile, Colombia,
Costa Rica,
Dominican
Republic, Ecuador,
Guatemala,
Mexico, Peru,
Uruguay, and
Venezuela).

35
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 2 Comparisons between the definitions of processing levels according to Public Health -

PH (Monteiro et al., 2010) and Food Science and Technology - FST (IFPA, 1999; Rahman,

2007) sectors

Public health Food Science and Technology

Unprocessed and minimally processed food Minimally processed food a, b

Definition Examples Definition Examples

Unprocessed foods are of plant Fresh, chilled, frozen, Also called in Ready-to-eat or
origin (leaves, stems, roots, tubers, vacuum-packed fruits, English as read to use fruit
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

fruits, nuts, seeds), or animal vegetables, fungi, roots "Fresh-cut" and vegetables.
origin (meat, other flesh, tissue and tubers; grains minimally
and organs, eggs, milk), shortly (cereals) in general; processed is
after harvesting, gathering, fresh, frozen and dried defined as any
slaughter or beans and other pulses fresh fruit or
husbanding.<break/>Minimally (legumes); dried fruits vegetable or any
processed foods are unprocessed and 100% unsweetened combination
foods altered in ways that do not fruit juices; unsalted thereof that has
add or introduce any substance, nuts and seeds; fresh, been physically
but that may involve subtracting dried and chilled frozen altered from its
parts of the food in ways that do meats, poultry and fish; original form,
not significantly affect its use. fresh and pasteurized but remains in a
Minimal processes include milk, fermented milk fresh state.
cleaning, scrubbing, washing; such as plain yoghurt; Regardless of
winnowing, hulling, peeling, eggs; teas, coffee, herb commodity, it
grinding, grating, squeezing, infusions, tap water, has been
flaking; skinning, boning, carving, bottled spring water trimmed, peeled,
portioning, scaling, filleting; washed and cut
drying, skimming, fat reduction; into 100%
pasteurization, sterilizing; chilling, usable product
refrigerating, freezing; sealing, that is
bottling (as such); simple subsequently
wrapping, vacuum and gas bagged or
packing. Malting, which adds prepackaged to
water, is a minimal process, as is offer consumers
fermenting, which adds living high nutrition,
organisms, when it does not convenience and
generate alcohol. value while still
maintaining

36
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

freshness. The
key point of
minimally
processed fruit
and vegetables
are their active
metabolism and
respiratory rate
in spite of
physical
changes.

Processed products
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Culinary Plant oils; animal fats; Processed food Milk and dairy
ingredients<break/>Processed sugars and syrups; means any food products
culinary ingredients are food starches and flours, other than a raw (pasteurized,
products extracted and purified by uncooked ‗raw‘ pastas agricultural UHT, low fat
industry from constituents of made from flour and commodity and milk , skimmed
foods, or else obtained from water, includes any raw milk, added of
nature, such as salt. Specific salt.<break/>Canned or agricultural vitamins and
processes include pressing, bottled vegetables and commodity that minerals,
milling, pulverizing. Stabilizing or legumes (pulses) has been subject without lactose,
‗purifying‘ agents and other preserved in brine; to processing, dried,
additives may also be peeled or sliced fruits such as canning, evaporated,
used.<break/>Ready-to-eat preserved in syrup; cooking, condensed,
products<break/>Processed food tinned whole or pieces freezing, cheese, light
products<break/>Manufactured by of fish preserved in oil; dehydration, or cheese, cream
adding substances like oil, sugar salted nuts; un- milling. cheese, light
or salt to whole foods, to make reconstituted processed Processing cream cheese,
them durable and more palatable meat and fish such as inactivates dairy desserts,
and attractive. Directly derived ham, bacon, smoked metabolism, yogurts, dairy
from foods and recognizable as fish; cheese. changes may be beverages, and
versions of the original foods. related to others), non-
Generally produced to be enzymatic alcoholic
consumed as part of meals or and/or microbial beverages
dishes, or may be used, together activities over (juice, water,
with ultra-processed products, to food nutrients. nectars, etc.);
replace food-based freshly Extent of refrigerated
prepared dishes and meals. processing goes meat, frozen,
Processes include canning and is intensity and salty, smoked,
bottling using oils, sugars or duration with maturated,
syrups, or salt, and methods of different sausage meat,

37
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

preservation such as salting, salt consequences wheat flour in

pickling, smoking, and curing. (from enzymatic different
and/or pathogen technological
inactivation until grades, pasta,
spores cereals
destruction for a (varieties
commercialy different from
sterile food), or rice and corn)
food changes and legumes
similar to (beans,
culinary soybean), oils
processes, and fats, coffee,
whose extent is tea, bakery
derived from the products
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

number of unit (breads, cakes,

operations or cookies, etc.),
steps necessary sugary food,
to obtain the salty food, non-
final product. dairy desserts,
jelly, juices,
pulps, canned
vegetables,
frozen
vegetables,
sugar, starch,
modified starch,
extruded
products

Ultraprocessed food

Formulated mostly or entirely Cake mixes, ‗energy‘ No definition

from substances derived from bars; ‗instant‘ packaged
foods. Typically contain little or soups and noodles;
no whole foods. Durable, many types of
convenient, accessible, highly or sweetened breads and
ultra-palatable, often habit- buns, cakes, biscuits,
forming. Typically not pastries and desserts;
recognizable as versions of foods, chips (crisps); and very
although may imitate the many other types of
appearance, shape and sensory sweet, fatty or salty
qualities of foods. Many snack products; sugared
ingredients not available in retail milk and fruit drinks,

38
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

outlets. Some ingredients directly soft drinks and ‗energy‘

derived from foods, such as oils, drinks; pre-prepared
fats, flours, starches, and sugar. meat, fish, vegetable or
Others obtained by further cheese dishes, pizza
processing of food constituents. and pasta dishes,
Numerically the majority of burgers, French fries
ingredients are preservatives; (chips), and poultry and
stabilizers, emulsifiers, solvents, fish ‗nuggets‘ or
binders, bulkers; sweeteners, ‗sticks‘ (‗fingers‘);
sensory enhancers, colors and bread and other cereal
flavors; processing aids and other products; hot dogs and
additives. Bulk may come from other products made
added air or water. Micronutrients with scraps or remnants
may ‗fortify‘ the products. Most of meat; preserves
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

are designed to be consumed by (jams), sauces, meat,

themselves or in combination as yeast and other
snacks. They displace food-based extracts; ice-cream,
freshly prepared dishes, meals. chocolates, cookies
Processes include hydrogenation, (biscuits), candies
hydrolysis; extruding, molding, (confectionery);
reshaping; pre-processing by margarines; canned or
frying, baking. dehydrated soups; and
infant formulas, follow-
on milks and baby
products.
a
IFPA (1999)
b
Rahman (2007)

Terms in black are highlighted to identify “ingredient” aspects of proposed food

processing classification by PH.

39
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 3 Formulation and processing of some food/preparations elaborated at home, in

foodservices and in industry

Sector Formulation (F) and Processing (P)

Grape juice<break/>Domestic F: 100% grapes with or without added sugar<break/>P:
a
production washing, sanitization and crushing
Grape juice<break/>Food servicea F:100% grapes with or without added sugar<break/>P:
washing, sanitization and crushing
Grape juice<break/>Industrial F: 100% grapes with or without added sugar and
b
production preservatives;<break/>P: washing, sanitization, crushing,
pasteurization and storage
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

Grape nectar<break/>Industrial F: 50% grape juice, potable water with or without added
productionb sugar and preservatives<break/>P: washing, sanitization,
crushing, pasteurization and storage

Grape refreshment Domestic F: grape juice or grape pulp, potable water with or without
production added sugar (concentrations may vary)<break/>P: washing,
sanitization, crushing

White rice with broccoli Domestic F: Rice, broccoli, oil, salt, garlic and onions<break/>P:
productiona, f washing, sanitization, boiling cooking

White rice with broccoli – Food F: Rice, broccoli, oil, salt, garlic and onions, it can be added
servicea, f of industrialized stock<break/>P: washing, sanitization,
boiling cooking

Pre-cooked rice with broccoliR F: Rice, dried broccoli, granulated onion, granulated garlic,
<break/>Industrial productiond, g parsley flakes, monosodium glutamate<break/>P: Rice –
preboiling cooking, dehydration; other ingredients –
washing, sanitization, dehydration

Beans<break/>Domestic F: Beans, oil, salt and seasonings like onion, garlic, with or
productiona, h without sausage or dried meat;<break/>P: washing, soaking,
pressure cooking

Beans<break/>Food servicea, h F: Beans, oil, salt and seasonings like onion, garlic, with or
without sausage or dried meat;<break/>P: washing soaking,
pressure cooking

Pre-cooked canned F: Water, cooked beans, oil, salt<break/>P: washing

beans<break/>Industrial soaking, Sterilization

40
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

production

White cake<break/>Domestic F: White wheat flour, sugar, butter or margarine, egg, milk,
a,g
production leaving agents, salt<break/>P: Baking

White cake<break/>Food service a, F: White wheat flour, sugar, butter or margarine, egg, milk,
g
leaving agents, salt<break/>P: Baking

White cake<break/>Industrial F: White wheat flour, sugar, egg, inverted sugar, vegetable
productiond, g fat, milk whey, soy flour, leaving agents, salt, sorbitol,
glicol, calcium propionate, citric acid, moistener<break/>P:
Baking

Chicken stroganoff Domestic F: Breast Chicken, milk cream, ketchup, white wheat flour,
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

productiona Worcester sauce, champignon, oil, salt, pepper,

cognac<break/>P: Cooking

Chicken stroganoff Food servicea F: Breast Chicken, milk cream, ketchup, white wheat flour,
Worcester sauce, champignon, oil, salt, pepper,
cognac<break/>P: Cooking

Freezed Chicken F: Breast Chicken, milk cream, ketchup, natural seasonings,

stroganoff<break/>Industrial champignon, margarine, modified starch, bacon, salt,
productiond,k pepper, cognac, meat broth;<break/>P: Packing (can or
retort pouche), Cooking/Thermal processing and Cooling
a
Botelho and Camargo (2012)
b
Daulthy, (1995)
d
formulations and processing based on food labels
e
Fellows (2010)
f
Juliano (1993)
g
McGee (2004)
h
Barhans (2000)
i
Anvisa (2014)
j
Struble and Struble (1941)

41
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

k
Rahman (2007)
l
Holdsworth and Simpson (2016).
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

42
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figure 1. Food Processing Levels by Public Health and Food Science and Technology.
Downloaded by [189.61.87.159] at 07:31 26 July 2016

43
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
View publication stats