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Kronig-Penney Model

The 1-D potential function can be simplified as a

series of potential barriers with an identical barrier
width and period.

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E-K Diagram in Kronig-Penney Model
To have solutions, we have energy bands and gaps.

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Formation of Energy Bands

In Reg. I,

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General Results from Kronig-Penney model

(1) If potential barrier is strong, energy

bands are narrowed and spaced far apart.
(Corresponds to crystals in which electrons
are tightly bond to ion cores, and wave
functions do not overlap much with adjacent
cores. Also true for lowest energy bands.)

(2) If potential barrier is weak, energy

bands are wide and spaced close together.
(This is typically situation for metals with
weakly bond electrons.)
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Energy Band Formation in Semiconductor Crystals

• When many atoms combine to form a stable CRYSTAL structure a strong MODIFICATION
of the discrete energy levels of the component atoms occurs

* In order to satisfy the exclusion principle these levels SPLIT to form essentially
continuous BANDS

* This process is illustrated schematically below for the case of a SILICON crystal

• THIS FIGURE SHOWS HOW THE OUTERMOST ENERGY LEVELS OF

SILICON VARY AS A FUNCTION OF INTERATOMIC SEPARATION IN
A CRYSTAL COMPOSED OF MANY ATOMS
ELECTRON ENERGY

3p • WITH THE ATOMS FAR APART FROM EACH OTHER THE ATOMIC
LEVELS ARE UNPERTURBED FROM THEIR ORIGINAL FORM
3s
• THE ENERGY LEVELS BROADEN AND EVENTUALLY OVERLAP AS
THE ATOMS ARE BROUGHT TOGETHER HOWEVER

• THE BROADENING EFFECT IS WEAKER FOR THE CORE ELECTRONS

ATOMIC SEPARATION WHICH ARE MORE TIGHTLY BOUND TO THE NUCLEUS AND SO DO
NOT INTERACT SO STRONGLY WITH OTHER ATOMS

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Energy Band Formation in Semiconductor Crystals

• As long as the silicon atoms remain sufficiently FAR apart the upper two energy bands
remain DISTINCT from each other and hold their NORMAL compliment of electrons

* In a system of N atoms, 2N electrons thus occupy the 3s band and a further 2N occupy
the 3p band

* In a silicon CRYSTAL however the equilibrium separation is the atoms is such that the
upper two energy bands strongly OVERLAP

4N STATES • IN THE FIGURE SHOWN HERE THE DASHED LINE

ELECTRON ENERGY

REPRESENTS THE EQUILIBRIUM SEPARATION OF

ATOMS IN A SILICON CRYSTAL
3p
• NOTE HOW AT THIS SEPARATION THE EFFECT OF
3s BAND OVERLAP HAS RESULTS IN THE FORMATION OF
TWO ENERGY BANDS SEPARATED BY AN ENERGY GAP

• EACH OF THE TWO ENERGY BANDS ACTUALLY

4N STATES
CONSISTS OF DENSELY PACKED ELECTRON STATES

ATOMIC SEPARATION

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Energy Band Formation in Semiconductor Crystals

• The filling of electron states in the crystal bands is very DIFFERENT to that in the original
atoms since each of the bands may hold 4N electrons in an N atom crystal

* At LOW temperatures the 4N valence electrons in the crystal FILL the lower band
COMPLETELY and this band is thus referred to as the VALENCE band

* At HIGHER temperatures electrons can be EXCITED from the valence band into the
upper band which we refer to as the CONDUCTION BAND

⇒ For a crystal with PERFECT ordering of its atoms the variation of the band
ENERGIES with DIRECTION can be sketched in the form shown below

ETop
CONDUCTION
BAND
Ec Ec

ENERGY GAP Eg

Ev Ev
VALENCE
BAND SHORTHAND FORM
EBot

POSITION x

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E-K diagram of free electrons

2π 2mE
k= =
λ 

Or

2 2
E= k
2m
E-K diagram described the relationship between
momentum and energy.
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Conduction Bands of Semiconductors

In Reg. I,

In Reg. II, V0 = 2E

The slope of the E-K curve must be zero at the Brillouin

zone edge, unless multiple bands coincide there.
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Valence Bands of Semiconductors

(1). The valence bands are similar for most
semiconductors, consisting three
overlapping bands.

(2). Heavy holes (smaller

curvature), light holes (higher
curvature) have the same
energy maxima at k=0.

(3). The third band, the split-

off band, is due to spin-obit
coupling.

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Simplified Band Diagrams

The top of the valence band and the bottom of the

conduction band are similar parabolic functions.
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Insulators, Semiconductors, Metals

Simplified band structures of insulators, semiconductors,

and metals at 0 K.
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Insulators, Semiconductors, Metals

(1). For a semiconductor, Eg is small enough
that a significant number of electrons can be
excited across the energy gap by irradiation.
(e.g. there are significant number of electrons
at T>0 K.)

(2). For a metal, there are large number of

electrons even at 0K.

(3). For a metal, electrons can move “freely”

under an electric field.
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Direct and Indirect Semiconductors

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Direct and Indirect Semiconductors

(1). Typical direct semiconductors: GaAs, InP, GaN.
(2). Typical indirect semiconductors: Si, Ge, AlAs.
(3). For an optical emission to occur:
(a)An electron must be at an elevated energy
state.
(b) There must be an empty state at a lower
energy for electron to go to;
(c)Energy must be conserved;
(d)K must be conserved.
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Variation of
energy
bands with
alloy
composition

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