J. ugric. Engng Res.

(1968) 13 (1) 49-63

Predicting the Performance of Wheel Tractors in

Combination with Implements
A. GRE~ENKO*

The main operational features of a tractor-implement combination may be predicted with

reasonable accuracy. Users and designers of agricultural machinery are thus offered a basis for
estimating the field performance of the particular combination. The main features considered
in the paper are the range of drawbar pulls, speed range, drawbar horsepower, slip, fuel con-
sumption, tractive efficiency, rate of work and fuel consumption per unit of area worked,
manoeuvrabihty, stability and the loading of the tractor tyres.
The performance and fuel economy are influenced by the tractive efficiency and the relation-
ship between the tractor or combination design and the tractive efficiency is .discussed.
A suitable method to demonstrate the characteristics of a tractor-implement combination is a
traction characteristic that may contain all above operational features and thus enable a detailed
analysis of the combination. Certain aspects of this analysis are discussed with an emphasis on
establishing the potential reserves in the combination’s performance. The feasibility of an ideal
combination is mentioned in conclusion.

1. Introduction
A tractor combined with an agricultural implement or machine represents a productive unit.
Users and designers require information about the performance of such a unit. Tests offer a
direct means of establishing the required properties. However, the use of certain results from
tractor drawbar tests carried out on hard-surface tracks are of doubtful value. These tests have
another purpose. A suitable source of information may be a specialized measurement in the field.
If desired, the measurement may be extended to several alternatives of tractor-implement com-
bination and perhaps to various soil conditions. But the measurement itself cannot usually
provide a definite answer to the question of whether the properties of the tractor-implement
combination could not be further improved by some modification and what kind of change
would be the most effective.
The possible improvement of properties of a tractor-implement combination may be assisted
by a suitable performance analysis. Similarly to the engineering practice of computing, producing
and testing various machine elements, the basic operational features of the combination are first
to be computed and then where necessary proved by experiments.
A reliable theoretical solution reduces considerably the risk in developing new machinery.
It may be used to estimate the characteristics of very unorthodox combinations. On the other hand,
unlike a measurement, the theoretical analysis provides results as computed from the original
equations and with an accuracy depending on the quality of the input information.
A suitable method of computation is not of much use unless it is associated with an adequate
knowledge of the principal relationships between the design of a tractor or combination and the
relevant operational features, e.g. working speed, fuel consumption, tractive efficiency, steerability,
rate of work, etc.
The traction characteristic may be considered a suitable means to demonstrate graphically the
operational features. This characteristic presents in essential the curves of drawbar performance,
forward speed, slip and specific fuel consumption (per unit of time and per hp) as functions of
the drawbar pull for the gears of interest. The computed traction characteristic interpreted
formerly the results of tractor drawbar performance tests carried out with the engine governor
control in fully open position. Such was the conception of Lvov’ and others. The evolution of
* Katedra TraktorO a Automobil& Fakulta Mshanisace, Vysoka Skola Zem5ddlska v Praze, Praha-Suchdol, Czechoslovakia
49
D
50 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF WHEEL TRACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH IMPLEMENTS

KEY TO SYMBOLS
B, = total working width of an imple- Q zzz load capacity of a tyre, kp
ment, m r xzz
effective radius of the tractor driving
c = soil cohesion, kp/cm2 wheels, m
D, = horizontal component of the draw- R = rolling resistance, kp
bar pull, kp V = working speed, km/h
f = coefficient of rolling resistance = v, = non-slip velocity, km/h
NW w= weight of the tractor, kp
f. = coefficient of rolling resistance of WB = static loading of the rear driving
the front wheels wheels, kp
gd = specific fuel consumption, g/D.B.hph w, = weight of the implement, kp
ge = engine specific fuel consumption, y, = normal reaction on the front wheels
glbhph from the ground, kp
G = fuel consumption per unit of time, Yl< = normal reation on the rear wheels
kg/h from the ground, kp
H = gross thrust force, kp K ZZZimplement draught per unit of
i = working width, kp/m
slip, %
parameter expressing the tractor
z, = horizontal component of the imple- lb =
weight distribution= W,/ W
ment draught, kp I
(simplified) distance between the
j,f = real or fictitious horizontal soil ” = centre of draught of the implement
deformation when the shearing and the axis of the tractor driving
strength is reached, cm wheels in relation to the tractor base
k = ratio expressing the steerability = thrust coefficient= H/ YI,
P
=YA/w
L(m = maximum value of the thrust
ki = parameter of the binomic slip coefficient
equation p* = ratio of the lateral force acting on a
kl = ratio expressing the loading of the wheel to the vertical load on this
driving wheels = Y,/2Q wheel
1 = length of the tyre-ground contact tractive efficiency = P,/P,
qd =
area, cm net tractive efficiency =: Pd/(P,.r,)
qdn =
Mm = rated torque of the engine, kpm transmission efficiency
5% =
P = overall gear ratio
Lu = average angle of turning the front
Pd = drawbar horsepower, hp wheels, deg
P, = engine effective power, hp Q = fuel consumption per unit area
P, = engine rated power, hp worked, kg/ha
Pp = potential power, hp 7t = rate of work, ha/h
qs = mean ground contact pressure, v, = angle of internal friction in the soil,
kp/cm2 deg
A. GREEENKO 51

ideas and practice has led towards the understanding of the traction characteristic as an area,
since a tractor engine can operate consistently in different speed and torque ranges. This way of
thinking has been mentioned for instance by Manby.?
The reliability of the computed traction characteristic depends considerably on the accuracy
of the predicted relation between slip and drawbar pull. This constituted formerly a serious
handicap. The binomic slip-thrust equation, introduced in 1958, was evidently a progress on the
way to solve this problem. It has introduced the thrust-coefficient as a generalizing argument.
This equation has later been perfected by applying the principles of terramechanics so that the
physical nature of all the quantities became apparent.
The fundamentals of the improved computation method and of plotting the traction characteris-
tic were published4 but the characteristic has been further improved with a view to predicting the
different performance aspects of the tractor-implement combination. The present state of this
theory is discussed in this paper.

2. Fundamental quantities related to the operational features of the tractor-implement combination

An agricultural tractor may be used
(i) for pulling implements;
(ii) for pulling a trailer;
(iii) for pulling and driving agricultural machines through the power take-off;
(iv) for driving stationary machines;
(v) for operating loaders and earth moving machinery.
Each of these combinations emphasizes certain specific, often conflicting claims. This paper is
intended at discussing the tractive combination of a wheeled tractor with implements, which is
very common and important.
The quantities that express the main properties of the tractive combination are
(9 the component of the resultant drawbar force acting on the tractor in the direction of
motion D,;
(ii) the forward speed V;
(iii) the drawbar horsepower P,,, equal to the product
P,,=D, V/270 ;
(iv) the tractive efficiency qd stating what portion of the effective engine power P, is available
as the useful drawbar power

The term “tractive efficiency” has sometimes been used to denote the ratio of the drawbar
horsepower to the power available at the driving wheels of a tractor. In the present paper
this kind of efficiency will be designated as “net tractive efficiency” because it expresses
only the power loss between the wheels and the ground. The relation of the net tractive
efficiency ‘;ld,,to the tractive efficiency includes the efficiency of the transmission Q:

(4 the specific fuel consumption g, is affected by the fuel consumption per unit of time G and
the drawbar horsepower in the following way
g,=looO - G = _. ge
p, qd l;ld

Few other quantities have still to be mentioned. The driving wheels of a tractor exert the gross
thrust force H which compensates for the rolling resistance R of all the wheels and for the drawbar
pull D,. The slip i equals the ratio of the speed loss to the forward speed of the tractor moving
without slip V,
i= -
v,- v -2.:1 - -V
Vt Vt
52 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF WHEEL TRACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH IMPLEMEN-TS

When estimating the properties of the combination, the following operational features are
emphasized :
(a) Performance 7t in terms of ha/h and fuel consumption Q in terms of kg/ha.
(b) Steerability or stability.
(c) Load carried by the tyres of the driving wheels.
If it is to be effective a tractor-implement combination must comply with the requirements of all
above features.
The performance of the combination in terms of area per unit of time is proportional to the
product of the total implement working width B, and the working speed, neglecting working
time losses
n=O.l x B, I’.
This equation indicates that the combination will have a certain performance in case the tractor
is able to develop the required speed. Another form of this equation introduces the draught of
the implement per unit of its working width K

For a tractor combination with a plough, the volume of the inverted soil per unit of time 7c,.is
probably a more general criterion of the performance.
The fuel consumption of the combination per unit area worked 52, neglecting working time
losses, is defined by the equation

Again for a tractor-plough combination, the quantity of fuel consumed when inverting unit soil
volume Q, may be preferred. The fuel costs, indeed, represent only a portion of the total costs.
Where necessary, the total costs must be considered to assess a particular combination.
The last two equations mentioned have a common feature in that they include the tractive
efficiency. A better tractive efficiency means improved performance. This fact leads to an import-
ant conclusion: a tractor would fail in practice in spite of a good engine (P,; gJ if it was badly
designed or badly matched to the implement, so that its tractive efficiency under normal soil
conditions would be insufficient.
The tractive efficiency will be discussed in greater detail in Section 3.
The laws of mechanics enable the limits of stability to be accurately defined. These designate a
critical condition when some of the tractor wheels lose contact with the ground. The steerability
of a tractor, on the other hand, is to a certain extent a subjective concept. It may be explained as
a tractor’s ability to keep or change the desired direction of motion according to the will of the
tractor driver. This ability may be defined better if the physical basis of the problem is considered,
i.e. the influence of lateral forces mainly on the tractor steering wheels resulting in their drifting
from the desired direction of motion. Differential tolerance by tractor drivers to drift remains as a
subjective element.
For a combination of the tractor with mounted implements the analysis points out the require-
ments on steerability of a tractor when working and on stability when transporting the implement.
If the front, steering wheel of a tractor is turned a certain angle cu from the original direction,
a lateral force from the ground starts acting on it. The same force may originate also for other
reasons, The ratio of this force to the normal reaction from the ground, acting on the wheel,
determines the coefficient p*. On the other hand, this coefficient is related to the drift angle a of
the wheel. A tractor may be steered safely as long as the angle w exceeds several times the angle a.
The conditions of steerability may thus be defined by means of a proper combination of the
desired angle w and the coefficient p*, representing the angle a. 4s5 Characteristic values for a
compact agricultural top soil for instance are cc)== 10-20” and ~*=0.3 -0.5. Transforming the
A. GKE?ENKO 53

experimental results by Taylor and Birtwistle6 enables the corresponding range of the drift
angles a ==3 --6” to be estimated. If the front wheels are turned a smaller angle than a well-chosen
angle co, the tractor is always safely steerable.
The static stability may be evaluated under an assumption that the tractor must be able to
travel or work with a desired safety factor on a certain characteristic slope, e.g., 10-15”.
The requirements of steerability may be formulated appropriately by means of the ratio k of
the minimum admitted vertical reaction on the front wheels Y, to the tractor weight W
+!.

For the important case of steerability of a wheeled tractor with mounted or semi-mounted
implements (with the centre of draught in the longitudinal axis of the tractor) an approximate
equation has been derived5 demonstrating the influence of different factors
AZ1tan w D,
k=
p*-fxf tancu x W’
Ratio k is thus a variable depending for instance linearly on the value of the drawbar pull D,
that may be for this case supposed equal to the draught of an implement (Eg. 1).

0.3 -

Fi,. I. Requirements of steerability for a mounted implement

The average load supported by a rear tyre Y,/2 must not exceed the load capacity Q of this
tyre
kl= Y,/2Q<l.
If this loading is checked for a horizontal plane taking into account the work expected of a
tractor with a given implement, up to a slope of 15”, it is advisable to allow a coefficient k, not
greater than 0.91.’

3. Tractive efficiency of a tractor-implement combination

The relation between the tractive efficiency and the drawbar pull D, has the characteristic
form shown in Fig. 2. The tractive efficiency curve has two zero values for D,=O and D,= D,i (i=
100 %). Between them its maximum value qd _ is situated and corresponds to the tractive force
D x opl. With respect to the tractive efficiency the combination works satisfactorily within a certain
range of forces designated AD, and characterized by the minimum required tractive efficiency
54 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF WHEEL TRACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH IMPLEMtNTS

Fig. 2. Tractive efficiency as a function qf drawbar pull (wheel tractor)

Q min. The Vahe Of qd min is a matter of experience and convention. On soils where a good wheeled
tractor is able to exceed the 60% maximum tractive efficiency it is usual to require a 50% mini-
mum tractive efficiency. Tractors attain different drawbar pull ranges AD, for the given yldmin
according to their design and the way in which they are combined with the implement. Thus the
maximum value of the tractive efficiency and the effective drawbar pull range may serve as
criteria of the quality of a tractor-implement combination.
A conventional two-wheel drive tractor may reach the maximum tractive efficiency of about
62 % on a fairly cohesive loam soil (predominantly frictional character with a perceptible cohesion)
for an optimum drawbar pull equal to 33 % of the tractor weight. The effective pull range would
be about 42 % of the tractor weight assuming a 50 % minimum tractive efficiency.
Such practical values do not allow any general conclusion to be drawn upon the influence of
the tractor design and combination with implements on the tractive efficiency. Yet the relevant
detailed analysis has been worked out4 and provides a reasonably exact answer.
The tractive efficiency is influenced by the transmission efficiency of the tractor and by the
interaction of the tractor wheels with the soil. The first factor will not be discussed. The inter-
action results in the kinematic and dynamic phenomena leading to losses. The loss of velocity due
to the tyre-soil horizontal deformation is expressed by the slip and may be supposed to be a
certain function of the drawbar pull. The loss of pull is due to the rolling resistance which depreci-
ates the effect of the available gross thrust force on the driving wheels.
The tractive efficiency is thus defined in this way

~l~=s(l -i> & =f(Dx)

This efficiency is improved by reducing the slip or rolling resistance. The rolling resistance is
still often expressed by the product of the coefficient of rolling resistance f and the normal reaction
on the wheel. Since the load fluctuations on the tractor wheels are relatively small the coefficient
f may be supposed to be a constant. The coefficient of rolling resistance influences considerably
the portion of the qd curve between D,=O and D,.,, (Fig. 2). The rest of the efficiency curve
depends essentially on slip of the tractor.
When analysing the properties of complicated tractor-implement combinations, the introduc-
tion of the thrust-coefficient ,Uhas proved to be very effective. This coefficient is defined by the
ratio of the gross thrust force to the normal reaction on the driving wheels
jt=H/YB
A. GREEENKO 55

The thrust coefficient enables the effect of an arbitrary drawbar pull acting on the tractor to be
transformed to the fundamental problem of the thrust properties of the driving wheels and thus
to find the slip. A reverse procedure has also proved useful.
ln this theory, the slip is defined by the binomic equation3

i=- kl x 3PPWP-W
4 Pm-P
The meaning of the parameters ki and ,u,,, is as follows:
k,,!& .
pm= k +tan v,
’ ~Prn’
The slip depends partly on the soil values c, q, j,, and partly on the values of the tyre-ground
contact area I and qs. The shape of the i=flp) curve is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Slip curve representing the binomic slip equation

If the tractive efficiency is expressed in terms of the thrust coefficient, the effect of the important
design parameters of a tractor-implement combination on this efficiency becomes apparent. The
relation i=f(p) already took into account at least the shape of the tractor wheels. The influence
of other parameters follows from the expression D,/(D,+R) if D, is formulated in terms of the
thrust coefficient (see also Section 4).
It may be demonstrated fundamentally that appropriate modifications to a tractor or changes
in position of the resultant force from the implement that bring about an increase in the weight
transfer to the driving wheels, lead to an increase in the maximum tractive efficiency and effective
range of drawbar pulls.
An exception to this rule may be represented by an homogeneous wet cohesive soil where the
increased load on the driving wheels causes a higher coefficient of rolling resistance and deteriora-
tion of the thrust conditions as well.
It is interesting to note that the weight of the tractor or of a combination with implements
has no significant effect on the maximum tractive efficiency. The weight however affects the opti-
mum drawbar pull.
The static weight distribution between the tractor axles is of primary importance to the tractive
56 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF WHEEL TRACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH IMPLEMENI S

efficiency. This weight distribution may be defined by the ratio &, of the static weight on the
driving wheels to the weight of the whole tractor
A= w,,/ w
or by means of the respective dimensions (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Forces and relative dimensions of a pulling tractor with unit wheelbase

e”*go
4-wheel drive /

/ / -40

30. J 1 I / I I 1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 06 09 0.6 0.9 I.0

A,
Fig. 5. Maximum tractive efficiency as influenced by the portion of static weight on the driving wheels and by the
coefficient of rolling resistance
~~0.35; k,=0.19; qd=q,.qdn; qt=90%; p,=O.89;

The influence of the parameter A(, on the maximum tractive efficiency is demonstrated in
Fig. 5. The soil is a fairly compactloam with normal moisture content, covered with grain stubble.
In principle, the efficiency of a four-wheel drive tractor does not change with the parameter &
if the front and rear wheels drive with equal slip. The two-wheel drive tractor is quite another
case. With its usual weight distribution &=0*6-O-7 it is unlikely to surpass the four-wheel drive
tractor unless the latter’s transmission efficiency is considerably inferior. For a tractor with
mounted implements, however, the parameter A, comprises the effect of the implement weight
on the weight distribution. The weight transfer to the two driving wheels is limited by the demands
A. GRE?ENKO s:

on steerability of the tractor and by the load capacity of the driving tyres. The effect of the coefh-
cient of rolling resistance on the maximum tractive efficiency is considerable. In practice it may
be even greater than shown in Fig. 5 because in this graph the slip was supposed to be equal to
both the ,f-values whereas it may increase for greater f in practice.
The useful range of tractive force for similar conditions is presented in Fig. 6.

I 4-wheeldrive

Fig. 6. Effective drawbar pull range as a function of the portion of the static weight on the driving wheels

When the magnitude of the tractive force is given, the additional load on the driving wheels
depends on the moment of this force about point A’ (Fig. 4). By combining the static weight
distribution with the proper moment value, the reserves in traction efficiency of the combination
may be utilized.

4. Problems and method of computing the traction characteristic

As has been stated in the introduction, the computed traction characteristic presents a suitable
way to demonstrate the main operational features of the tractor-implement combination and
thus to improve the prediction of its performance. The traction characteristic has originally
been defined as
Pd; V; i; G; g,=f(D,;p).
The method of computing, the essence and the meaning of this characteristic have undergone a
considerable development so that a wider range of operational features may now be considered.
The accuracy of the performance prediction is based on the reliable slip computation that inter-
prets even fairly small changes in tractor construction and the mode of tractor-implement
combination.
The information needed to design a traction characteristic is the following:-
(a) The relation between slip and tractive effort for the given soil and combination.
(b) The complete engine characteristic.
(cl The overall gear ratios for the desired gears (speeds), the transmission efficiency, weights
and principal dimensions of the tractor and implement, the coefficient of rolling resistance.
A principal component of a traction characteristic is the family of curves of the drawbar horse-
power. This power may be defined either as a product of force and velocity (D,V) or a product
of power and efficiency (Per& Accordingly, there exist two methods of computation the traction
characteristic. The more advanced method (Pel;l,,) has stimulated the development of the charac-
teristic to the present state. As its principles have been published4 this part of the paper will
outline only some main features of this method and include the new aspects.
58 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF WHEEL TRACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH IMPLEMENTS

The slip curve must first be plotted into the (D,; i) co-ordinate system with the aid of the
relevant binomic slip equation i=,f(p), discussed in Section 3. A diagram to demonstrate this
transformation is given in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Transformation of the generalized slip equation i=f(b) to the slip curve i- f(D,) of a tractor-implement
combination

There must be evidently another relation D,=fi(p) available which includes the effect of other
design parameters of the tractor and combination. A tractor with an arbitrary implement may as
usual be reliably replaced by a mechanical system : tractor with a single resulting external force D
acting on it. In the case of trailed implements D is simply a drawbar force, for semi-mounted
implements a vector sum of the implement weight, draught and the reaction on the implement
wheels from the ground, for mounted implements a vector sum of the implement weight and
draught. For the last mentioned case it may be recommended to add the weight of the implement
to the tractor’s own weight first so that the draught alone represents the external force (IX= 0,).
For a two-wheel drive tractor the above relation has the form

whereas for a four-wheel drive tractor whose wheels have theoretically the same size and an
equal slip, the equation is

DX= W I- tan O(,L-.f)

The meaning of some symbols is explained in Fig. 4, representing a tractor with a unit wheel base.
If a more exact computation is required (tractor wheels in different levels, different thrust condi-
tions on the furrow and land wheels, lateral moment from the implement in addition to the result-
ing force) the relevant equations are somewhat more complicated but still at slide-rule level.
For semi-mounted implements and in some special cases, angle 8 and dimension s are not
constants when the tractive force D or the implement draught I changes. In such cases it is
advisable to turn to a graphic solution of D,=f(,u).
The next step consists of plotting the curve of the potential power P,, (Fig. 8) that represents
an envelope to all the curves of tractive power and thus indicates the limits of the tractor per-
formance without taking into account the actual gear ratios. The potential power curve is
defined as the product of the rated engine power and traction efficiency
p,=p, rd.
A. CiKECENKO 59

Its values are thus proportional to the tractive efficiency and a scale for this efficiency may be
drawn (Fig. 8). Every kind of influence on the tractive efficiency (Section 3) is introduced by
means of the potential power curve into the traction characteristic.

Limits to D,

Fig. 8. Traction characteristic and factors limiting the tractive ability of a tractor

As an auxiliary graph the curves of the engine power P, are next to be plotted as a function of
the drawbar pull for the desired gear ratios (Fig. 8). With their aid the drawbar horsepower
curves are drawn finally, according to the equation
pli=pe qll.
Every point in the co-ordinate system (D,; Pdr P,) has its own velocity potential with respect
to the equation presented in Section 2
V-270 Pd/D,.
The equipotential lines of constant velocity are represented by the straight lines passing through
the origin of co-ordinates. If this velocity ray system is suitably plotted (Fig. S), the working
speed of a tractor implement combination may be found quickly from curves P, and P,.
The above method of reading off the speed of a tractor-implement combination is the first step
towards the qualitatively different and more advanced understanding of the traction characteristic
as an area and not merely as a system of curves. In Fig. 8 the respective areas are shown of the
available tractive power for three different gears, the minimum velocity line in every gear having a
potential of for instance + the velocity at the rated drawbar horsepower (e.g. V, and V5 for the
second gear).

5. Estimating the operational features of the tractor-implement combination from the traction
characteristic
The idea of the traction characteristic as an area becomes complete by plotting the curves of
constant fuel consumption G or perhaps of constant specific fuel consumption g,.
60 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF WHEEL. TRACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH tMPl.I:MFii IS

The improved form of the traction characteristic is illustrated in Fig. 9. It is an authentic picture
of the predicted performance of a production model wheeled tractor in combination with a three-
furrow mounted plough when ploughing a loam soil. The drawbar pull D, in this case is equivalent
to the horizontal component of the plough draught I,. Thus the variation of this drawbar pull
represents for instance the variation in the depth of ploughing.

2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 I6 I8 20 22 24 26 28 30

Fig. 9. Computed traction characteristic of a wheeled tractor with a three-furrow mounted plough 3 35 cm
f=0.08; ki=0.19; pm=0.89; W-t W, -3740 kp; WsjW- SO/lOO7(, including the plough

The areas of overlap occur between the adjoining gears. It is easier to decide which gear is more
suitable to use in the overlapping area when the curves of constant fuel consumption are con-
sidered. Probably the best will be the gear giving lowest consumption, but not necessarily. The
gear must also provide a certain reserve in the tractive ability to ensure the work without frequent
gear-change. This reserve depends mainly on the type of implement, the condition of soil and the
type of gearbox used in the tractor.
The tractive ability of a tractor with implement may be limited by at least four conditions that
have been presented graphically in Fig. 8 and may be formulated as follows :-
(4 The slip of the driving wheels must not exceed a certain limit il for a longer period if the
harmful shearing of the top soil is to be minimized. If a maximum shear distance of 8 cm
is permitted, the limit to slippage in per cent is given by
i, =800/l
This limiting condition inserted into the binomic slip equation, leads to an interesting
conclusion: if the mean ground contact pressure is kept constant, all the tyres regardless
A. GREEEN KO hl

of their size would attain the same thrust coefficient and thus give the gross thrust force
proportional to the vertical load acting on the wheel with tyre.
(b) The slip is allowed to increase temporarily upto a value i,,,,, that corresponds to the
minimum permitted tractive efficiency (Fig. 2). This value i,,, may even be of the order of
40 %. In this way, the tractor’s tractive ability is well used.
(cl The traction may be limited by the deficiency in vertical load at the front wheels that results
in inadequate steerability.
(4 There is a limit to the tractive ability because of vertical loading of the driving wheels that
must not exceed the normal load capacity of the tyres.
The tendency to include the effectiveness of operation of a tractor-implement unit directly into
the traction characteristic leads to its understanding in accordance with Fig. 10.

i’
t

r-

P,Z,

,J ( ‘1
0, (L) 42 (42) D, (I, I

Fig. IV. Plotting the performance and fuel consumption per unit area and the input requirements from the implement
into the traction characteristic. X indicates ploughing input for certain soil and depth of,furrow

The values of constant performance in terms of area worked per unit of implement’s working
width n/B, are located in the similar system of straight lines as the values of constant velocity
because of the relation
rr/B,,=O.l V.
This means for instance that the velocity ray 8 km/h marks also the theoretical performance
0.8 ha/h for an implement with a working width of 1 m. Because of being presented jointly with
the curves of drawbar horsepower, the constant performance rays loose their indefinite character
mentioned in Section 2.
On the basis of the equation from Section 2 the curves of the constant fuel consumption R per
unit of area may be plotted for a known implement working width.
The above graphical presentation will also be appreciated when comparing two different
types of tractors in combination with similar implements.
The way in which the draught requirement by the implement can be expressed is also shown in
Fig. IO. Let the implement be designed for a regular speed range from V, to V5. With respect to
possible changes in the working depth and eventually to certain variability in the soil specific
62 PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE: OF WHEEL TRACTORS IN COMBINATION WITH IMPLEMENTS

resistance, the draught of the implement may vary within the values 1,. and I,,. The above four
limits define a trapezium of the desired input. The space that is common to this trapezium and
to the drawbar horsepower areas determines to what degree a tractor meets the demands made
by the implement.
From Fig. IO it becomes evident that a further gear, denoted (2), would bring an improvement
in performance for the combination. The required overall gear ratio p may readily be found from
the gear ratio line given by the equation

p--&D, t-R).

A question may arise of whether it would not be beneficial to modify the curve of potential
power of a tractor and thus to change its traction and speed capacities. Such a modification
might be realised in essential by changing the engine power, tractor weight and the static weight
distribution. The fundamental answer to this question has been previously published4 and thus
will not be treated in this paper.
It is well known that the draught of an implement, e.g. of a plough, increases with a certain
power of the working speed. The input demands from a plough under quite definite circumstances
are also demonstrated in Fig. 10. A vertical line would indicate that the draught is independent
from the speed. To double the speed exactly double the drawbar horsepower and engine power
would be required. The more the real input curve deviates from the vertical, the more power would
be needed to increase the combination’s speed by a required step.
The knowledge of principal factors influencing the tractive efficiency helps considerably in
deciding about the nature of expected changes that would occur with a traction characteristic
as a result of a variable implement weight, hitch position or mode of hitching. (Fig. II).

.
0 0, cr,i
Fig. II. Changes in performance of an implement carrier caused by different combinations with implement3

The performance of some possible combinations of a special tractor with a mounted cultivator
is compared to that [of the tractor exerting a pull through a fairly high drawbar. The differences
in performance are slightly overestimated. Comparing cases 1 and 4, for instance, leads to the
following conclusions :-
 (a) The ascending part of the P, curve is higher for case 1 because of smaller total weight and
thus smaller rolling resistance;
(b) The top of the P, curve is again higher in case 1 because of weight transfer to the driving
wheels giving approximately the same loading of these wheels as in case 4 which has
negligible weight transfer and higher total weight. A different layout decreasing the weight
transfer in case 1 and increasing the transfer in case 4 could bring the top of the P, curve
for case 4 higher than for case 1;
(c) The declining part of the P, curve in case 1 does not probably have a practical significance
because of the insufficient stability of the tractor and so case 4 gives higher drawbar pull
in practice.
The peaks of the drawbar performance curves for the same gear change their position in relation
lo the potential power (vertically) and to the rolling resistance of the tractor (horizontally).

6. Conclusions
The paper was intended to expound the fundamentals of the effect of tractor design and its
combination with implements on field performance and some other operational features. It has
presented a method of predicting and demonstrating these features by means of the traction
characteristic.
The optimum combination of the important operational features, i.e. the performance and
fuel consumption per unit of area worked, which are functions of the tractive efficiency, the
steerability of a tractor and the load carried by the driving wheels, can be achieved by a trial and
error procedure, that will reveal the possible reserves of the combination if based on a proper
theoretical understanding of the problem.
There is, however, a more expedient method of finding the optimum combination,’ i.e., direct
determination of what technical measures should be taken in order to create an ideal combination.
The existence and position of the so-called ideal hitch point has been proved. Through this point
must pass a resultant external force acting on the tractor. Its magnitude must be a known function
of its angle with the horizontal axis to ensure the ideal combination. The demands of an ideal
combination seem to be very severe. However, it has been theoretically demonstrated that the
ideal combination may be realized for every tractor-implement combination.‘, 8
The work on a system of performance prediction discussed has been in progress since 1954
and continues with regard to other types of combinations.

REFERENCES

’ Lvov, E. D. Teoriya truktora (Theory of tractor). Mashgiz, Moscow, 1952

2 Manby, T. C. D. Interpretation of tractor test reports by the user. Inf. wkg Bull. 19, agric. Engng Branch,
Land Wat. Dev. Div., F.A.O., UN., 1962
’ GreEenko, A. Binomic slip-thrust equationfor tractors on predominantly.f?irtional soils. J. Terramechanics,
1967, 4 (4) 37
4 GreEenko, A. KolovP a p&ovP traktory (Wheel and track-laying tractors). SZN, Prague, 1960 (1st ed.),
1963 (2nd ed.)
5 GreEenko, A. Aiditelnost a stubilitu kolov);ch traktorti (Steerability and stability of wheel tractors).
Zemed. Tech., 1961, 7 (6) 415
’ Taylor, P. A.; Birtwistle, R. Wheatland disc plough investigations. Part I: Forces generated by towed
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of a wheel tractor with implements requiring a drawbar pull). ZemBd. Tech., 1965, 11 (7) 38 I
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wheel tractor combined with different ploughs). Zemtid. Tech., 1965, 11 (10) 559