Chapter 14

Vector integral calculus

14.1- Vector fields
14.2- Line integrals
14.2.1- Line integral of a scalar function
14.2.2- Line integral of a vector field

14.3- The fundamental theorem for line integral

14.3.1- The theorem
2
14.3.2- Using the theorem in
3
14.3.3- Case of
14.4- Green’s theorem
14.5- Parametric surfaces and their areas
14.6- Surface integrals
14.6.1- Surface integral of a function
14.6.2- Orientation of a surface in the space
14.6.3- Surface integral of a vector field
14.7- Stokes’ theorem
14.8- The divergence theorem (Gauss-Ostrogradsky’s theorem)
14.1- Vector fields
We consider a function with several variables, the value being a vector. Let  be such a
function. For example:
→ → →
 (s, t ) = 3st i + (s 2 + t 2 ) j is a type of function we will study.
Definition 1
A vector field is a function of one or several variables whose value is a vector

We studied yet vector fields with one variable in chapter 11.

So the domain will be included in , 2 or 3 and the range will be included on 2
or 3
.
The function we gave above is an example of 2 → 2 function.

Definition 2
Graph of a vector field.
a) The graph of a → 2
, function  (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j is the set of the points with
coordinates ( f (t ), g (t ) ) . In general, it will be a curve in the plane.
b) By the same way, the graph of a → 3 function is, in general, a curve in the space.
c) The graph of a 2 → 3 function is a surface in the space.
d) The graph of a 3 → 3 function is a solid in the space.
Remarks:
1) If a curve C in the space is represented by:
x = x(t ) y = y (t ) z = z (t )
with t  D , where D is a domain, so we say that this system of equations is a
parameterization of the curve C. The vector function  ( t ) = x ( t ) i + y ( t ) j + z ( t ) k will be
also called a parameterization of C.
If M 0 has the coordinates ( x ( t0 ) , y ( t0 ) , z ( t0 ) ) , we say that M 0 is the point of parameter t0
or that t0 is a parameter of M 0 . A same point may have more than 1 parameter. See the
examples of a circle or ellipse in chapter 11.
2) By the same way a surface S of the space may have a parameterization:
x = x ( s, t ) y = y ( s, t ) z = z ( s, t )
where ( s, t )  D , D being a domain of 2 . And the 2 variables vector function:
 ( s, t ) = x ( s, t ) i + y ( s, t ) j + z ( s, t ) k
3) A curve or a surface may have several parameterizations.

Example 1:
Let’s consider the surface: z = f ( x, y ) so it can be parameterized by:
→ → → →
 ( x, y) = x i + y j + f ( x, y) k
This is a Cartesian parameterization.

Example 2
Let’s consider the curve in the xy-plane whose Cartesian equation is: y = f ( x), x  D (with z
=0). So the surface deduced from this curve by a revolution about the x-axis can be
parameterized by:
 ( x, ) = xi + sin  f ( x) j + cos f ( x)k 0    2 ,
 y View from left

Radius=

x θ
z

z
Figure 1
Check that the Cartesian system is right handed.
Example 3
a) The sphere of center O and radius R can be parameterized by:
 ( , ) = R(cos sin  i + sin  sin  j + cos  k )    0, 2  ,    0,   .
b) The bowl of center O and radius R can be parameterized by:
 (  , , ) =  (cos sin  i + sin  sin  j + cos  k )    0, R  ,    0, 2  ,    0,  
The difference (with respect to the sphere) is that the radius  is variable to represent all the
points inside the sphere, including the sphere itself.
Both parameterizations above are in spherical coordinates.
c) Let’s fix 0   0,   , let’s consider the vector function:
 ( ) = R(cos  sin 0 i + sin  sin 0 j + cos 0 k )    0, 2 
This is a parameterization of the circle lying on a plane parallel to the xy-plane, drawn on the
previous sphere. The angle  0 represents a type of latitude of the circle, but the angle is
measured from the North Pole instead of the equator like in geography. This is also the set of
all the points at the “latitude”  0 .
Example 4
x2 y 2 z 2
a) The ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 can be parameterized by:
a b c
 ( , ) = a cos sin  i + b sin  sin  j + c cos  k    0, 2  ,    0,   .
b) The solid inside this ellipsoid (which is the solid ellipsoid) can be parameterized by:
 (u, , ) = au cos sin  i + bu sin  sin  j + cu cos  k u   0,1 ,    0, 2  ,    0,   .
These two parameterizations are said to be in elliptical coordinates.
Example 5
a) The hemisphere of center O and radius R above the xy-plane can be also parameterized
by:
 (r ,  ) = (r cos  )i + (r sin  ) j + R 2 − r 2 k r  0, R ,    0, 2  .
This is a parameterization in cylindrical coordinates. To remember that, think that the last
 x = r cos 
coordinates z must verify: z = R 2 − x 2 − y 2 and in that case we consider,  .
 y = r sin 
b) The bowl of center O and radius R can be parameterized by:
 (u, r ,  ) = (ru cos  )i + (ru sin  ) j + u R 2 − r 2 k , u  [−1,1] r  0, R ,    0, 2 
These are parameterizations on cylindrical coordinates.
14.2- Line integrals
14.2.1- Line integral of a scalar function
We are going to consider first a → 2 vector field  continuous on an interval  a, b (that
means that both coordinates are continuous). Then this vector function describes a curve in
the plane. Let s be the independent variable. So let:
→ → →
 ( s ) = x( s ) i + y ( s ) j
Let’s assume, a  s  b , then the graph is a finite curve C.

Now, if a wire has the shape of this curve with density per unit of length equal to f ( x, y ) at a
given point (x,y), then what is the mass of this wire?
Then, we divide this arc into n sub-arcs. The portions will be limited by points with parameter
s0 = a  s1  s2 ....  sn−1  b = sn each sub-interval having the same length. Let
s1 , s2 ,..., sn−1 , sn the lengths of the corresponding arcs. See figure 2.
Let xi * = x( s 'i ) and yi * = y ( s 'i ) , where s 'i   si −1 , si  , 1  i  n . The value of si ' will be
fixed farther.
Let f be a two variables function with the domain included on Rx  Ry where Rx , Ry are the
range of x,y.
The mass of the portion of wire between the points ( x( si −1 ), y ( si −1 ) ) and ( x( si ), y( si ) ) can be
approximate by f ( xi* , yi* )si because we consider that the portion is small enough in order to
have a density almost constant. (See figure 2)

Figure 2

We consider the sum:

n
Sn =  f ( xi *, yi *)si , that will be the approximate mass of the wire.
k =1
Then we do the limit of this sum when n is infinite and the number of sub-arcs is infinite. If
this limit exists, it is by definition the integral of f ( x, y ) along the line C, and we write:
lim Sn =  f ( x, y )ds and that will be the mass of the wire.
n →+
C
Let’s detail the calculation of this integral, for that let’s assume that  is differentiable on
 a, b  :
si si
→
We know that si = 
si −1
'(s) ds = 
si −1
x '2 (s) + y '2 (s)ds (see chapter 11, theorem 3)

By the mean value theorem of the integrals we have the existence of si * such that:
si


si −1
x' 2 ( s) + y '2 ( s)ds = (si − si −1 ) x '2 ( si *) + y '2 ( si *)

Let’s choose si ' = si * then the sum becomes:

n
Sn =  (si − si −1 ) f ( xi *, yi *) x '2 ( si *) + y '2 ( si *)
k =1
Then we recognize a Riemann sum, as n → + , we have:
b
lim Sn =  f ( x( s), y ( s)) x '2 ( s) + y '2 ( s)ds
n →+
a

Then we state the following definition.

Definition 3
Line integral of f over the line C
Let f be a continuous function of two variables and C the curve defined by the vector function:
 (s) = x(s)i + y(s) j a  s  b
Where x,y are differentiable on  a, b . Then the integral of f along the line C oriented as s is
increasing is:
b

C
 f ( x, y)ds =  f ( x(s), y(s))
a
x '2 ( s) + y '2 ( s)ds (1)

The value of this line integral does not depend on the parameterization of the line C.
Remark
- The curve C is conventionally oriented with s increasing: ( x ( a ) , y ( a ) ) is the starting
point and ( x ( b ) , y ( b ) ) is the terminal point. The same curve with opposite orientation
may be considered, we note C such a curve.
- We have:
a b

 f ( x, y)ds =  f ( x(s), y(s)) x ' ( s ) + y ' ( s )ds = −  f ( x( s ), y ( s )) x '2 ( s ) + y '2 ( s )ds

2 2

C b a

= −  f ( x, y ) ds
C

Proof
Let’s prove that the line integral does not depend on the parameterization.
Let  ( t ) be another parameterization of C with the same orientation.
 ( t ) =  ( s ( t ) ) where s is one to one from an interval t0 , t1  on  a, b

 ( t ) = x1 ( t ) i + y1 ( t ) j = x s ( t ) i + y s ( t ) j
The function s must be differentiable and, to get the same orientation, increasing. We have
s ( t0 ) = a, s ( t1 ) = b
With this parameterization the line integral would be:
t1

I =  f ( x1 ( t ) , y1 ( t ) ) x12 ( t ) + y12 ( t )dt

t0
t1

I =  f ( x s (t ) , y s (t )) (( x s ) ') (t ) + (( y s ) ') (t )dt

2 2

t0

By the chain rule: ( x s ) ' = s ' x ' s, ( y s ) ' = s ' y ' s

We assumed s increasing so t  t0 , t1  , s ' ( t )  0 , then ( s ') ( t ) = s ' ( t ) :

2

t1

I =  f ( x s ( t ) , y s ( t ) )s ' ( t ) ( x ' s ) (t ) + ( y ' s ) (t )dt

2 2

t0

Let’s do the substitution u = s ( t ) , so du = s ' ( t ) dt and we find:

b
I =  f ( x ( u ) , y s ( u ) ) x '2 ( u ) + y ' ( u )du , which is the integral of the definition 3.
a

Example 1:
Calculate:  xds where C is the piece of the parabola y = x 2 where 0  x  1 .
C

Solution:
A parameterization of C can be done with the vector function:
→ → →
 (s) = s i + s 2 j , 0  s  1 . (Cartesian parameterization).

Then:
f ( x, y ) = x
1

 xds =  s
C 0
1 + 4s 2 ds
1
1 3

=  (1 + 4s 2 ) 2 
12 0
3
1
= (5 2 − 1)
12
Property 1
Mass
We consider a wire without thickness and having the shape of the curve C described by the
→ → →
vector function  (s) = x(s) i + y(s) j with density (per unit of length). Then the mass of this
wire is:
m =   ( x, y )ds (2)
C

If G is the center of mass of the wire we have (approximately):

 1 n →
GO =  i (si ) where mi is the mass of the portion of wire between the
m k =1
m 

points of parameter si −1 , si . But we have mi =  ( xi *, yi *)si . Then the coordinates of G are

(approximately):
1 n
xG =  xi *  ( xi *, yi *)si
m k =1
1 n
yG =  yi *  ( xi *, yi *)si
m k =1

When n → + we recognize line integrals:

Property 2
Assume that  and  regular enough such that the line integrals below are defined.
Let C be the curve defined by the following vector field:
 (s) = x(s)i + y(s) j , a  s  b
The center of mass of a wire without thickness whose shape is C and density  ( x, y ) at the
point of coordinates ( x, y ) is:
1 1
xG =  x  ( x, y )ds yG =  y  ( x, y )ds (3)
mC mC
where m is the mass of the wire.
Remember that if the density is constant along the wire we talk about the centroid and we
have:
m =   ds then since the two previous formulas:
C

Property 3
Centroid
 xds  yds
xG = C
and yG = C
(4)
 C
ds  C
ds

Example 2:
Find the mass and center of mass of a thin wire in the shape of a quarter-circle:
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 , x  0, y  0 , if the density function is:  ( x, y ) = x + y
Solution:
Let C be the quarter-circle of radius r, whose equation is: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 , x  0, y  0 .
→ →
 
A parameterization of this curve is:  ( ) = r (cos  i + sin  j ) with:   0,  .
 2
 
2 2

 ( x + y)ds = r  (cos + sin  ) (−r sin  ) + (r cos  ) d = r  (cos  + sin  )d = 2r .

2 2 2 2

C 0 0

So the mass is: m = 2r . 2

Let G ( xG , yG ) be the center of mass:



1 1 2
2r 2 C 2r 2 0
xG = x ( x + y ) ds = r cos  (r cos  + r sin  ) (−r sin  ) 2 + (r cos  ) 2 d
  

r 2
r 2  1 + cos 2 1 
xG =
20 cos  (cos  + sin  ) d  = 
2 0

2
+ sin 2  d
2 

 
r   1 2 1 
 = r   − 1 (−1 − 1) 
xG = + sin 2 −  cos 2   2  4 4 
2   2 4 
2

0
4
 
0

r  1
xG =  + 
2 4 2

The domain is symmetric about the line y = x and  ( x, y ) =  ( y, x) . So the wire is symmetric
about this line.
Then the center of mass lies on this axis, for that we have xG = yG .
Example 3
Find the centroid of a wire having the shape of the quarter of circle:
 x = r cos   
   0,  .
 y = r sin   2
Solution:
We have:

2
r

C
ds =  r sin 2  + cos 2  d =
0
2
The quarter of circle is symmetric about the line y = x .The coordinates ( xG , yG ) of the
centroid are:


1 2 2 2 2r
xG = yG =  xds =  ( r cos ) rd = r 2 =
mC r 0 r 

Definition 4
→
Let  be a → 3 function and f a three variables function. The curve C is the graph of
s  ( s ) in the interval s   a, b . Then the integral along the line C of f is:
b

 f ( x, y, z)ds =  f ( x(s), y(s), z(s))

C a
x '2 ( s) + y '2 ( s) + z '2 ( s)ds (5)

Remark:
The properties 1, 2 and 3 can be generalized for a curve in the space with the definition 4 of
the line integral.
Example 3:
Calculate:  xds where C is the curve described by:
C

 (s) = (cos s)i + (sin s) j + sk , 0  s  2

Solution
Remark that C is a piece of helix drawn on a circular cylinder whose axis is the z-axis.
 2

 xds =
C
 cos s
0
(− sin s) 2 + (cos s) 2 + 12 ds
2
= 2  cos sds = 0
0

 xds = 0
C

Work the exercise 1, see also 7 and 9(a-b, only) of the exercise 13

14.2.2- Line integral of a vector field

→
We consider a vector function  whose graph is a curve C and we consider a point moving
→
along this curve, and F is a variable force exerted into this point. We want to calculate its
total work along the curve a  s  b . Let’s restrict first our study to the dimension 2 to
simplify.
With the same notations as above let’s consider Ti = T ( si *) the unitary tangent vector to C at
any point between the points of parameter si −1 and si (See figure 2).
By definition the work W of a constant force F exerted on a solid whose trajectory is the
straight line from A to B is:
W = F . AB (Dot product of these 2 vectors).
If the trajectory is made up by some pieces of segments then the work must be calculated on
each piece of segment, and the total work will be the sum of these works.
For more details about that see chapter 5.6.4, definition 12.

We are going to consider the piece of curve between M i −1 ( x( si −1 ), y ( si −1 )) and M i ( x( si ), y ( si ))

.(See figure 2).
We approximate this piece of trajectory by the segment of line parallel to the vector
Ti = T ( si* ) whose origin is M i −1 and the length is si .( si is the length of the piece of curve
between M i −1 and M i ). We can reasonably consider that it is an approximate trajectory of the
solid.
So the approximate work on that portion of curve is:
Wi = F ( xi *, yi *).si Ti

Then the total approximate work will be:

n → → n → →
Wn =  F ( xi *, yi *).(si Ti *) =  F ( xi *, yi *).Ti * si
i =1 i =1
So doing n → + we recognize the following line integral:
→ →
W =  F ( x( s ), y ( s)).T ds
C

This concept can be easily generalized at the dimension 3.

Definition 5: ( n = 2 or 3)
Let C be a bounded smooth curve parameterized by the vector function  from → n
. Let
T be the unitary tangent vector of  .
→
Let F be a n
→ n
vector field, then the line integral of this vector field along C is by
definition:
→ → →

 F .d  =  F .T ds
C C
(6)

Remarks
- This line integral does not depend on the parameterization of C. The formula (6)
specifies that the line integral of the vector field is a line integral of a scalar function
and we already saw that such integral does not depend on the parameterization.
- We are going to prove that it is not necessary to calculate T .
Let:  = xi + y j + zk
 ' x 'i + y ' j + z ' k
Remember that: T = = (In dimension 3, the calculation being similar in
' x '2 + y '2 + z '2
dimension 2, see chapter 11).
→ →

 F .T ( x, y, z)ds
C
→
b →
 '( s )
=  F ( x( s ), y ( s ), z ( s )). x '2 ( s ) + y '2 ( s ) + z '2 ( s )ds
a x ' ( s) + y ' (s) + z ' (s)
2 2 2

b → →
=  F ( x( s), y ( s), z ( s )). '( s )ds
a
→ → → →
Let: F = P i + Q j + R k
Property 4
Then we have:
→ →

 F .d  =
C
(7)
 dz 
b
dx dy
a  P( x(s), y(s), z(s)) ds + Q( x(s), y(s), z (s)) ds + R( x(s), y(s), z (s)) ds  ds
That can be simply written:
→ →

 F .d  =  ( Pdx + Qdy + Rdz )

C C

Of course this notion is similar if we consider two variables functions instead of three
variables functions.

Example 1
Let F ( x, y, z) = xyzi + ( x + y) j + zk and C be the curve defined by:
 (s) = si + s 2 j + s3 k , 0  s  1.
→ →
Calculate:  F .d  .
C

Solution
We use the formula (7) with: x ( s ) = s , y ( s) = s 2 , z ( s ) = s 3 .
P ( x, y, z ) = xyz , Q( x, y, z ) = x + y , R( x, y, z ) = z .
1

 F .d =  ((ss s )1 + (s + s )2s + (s )3s )ds

2 3 2 3 2

C 0

The end of the calculation is left to the reader.

Example 2
We consider a solid whose trajectory is one sixth of a circle of center O and radius R. At each
point M the force exerted on this solid is: F (M ) = −kOM where k>0, is a constant. Calculate
the total work exerted on this object.
Solution

We can parameterize the curve by:  ( ) = R(cos i + sin  j ) with 0    .
3
The force is: F ( x, y) = −k ( xi + y j )
Then the work is:

3
W =  F .d  =  −kR 2 (− cos sin  + sin  cos )d = 0
C 0
 M

Figure 3

So: W = 0

Remark: We could have forecasted this result, because at each point the force is orthogonal
to the tangent vector of the trajectory.

Example 3
Same question, but this time we consider the force: F (M ) = kT where T is the unitary
tangent vector to the curve at the point M.
Solution
At the angle  we have: F (M ) = k (− sin  i + cos  j)
In polar coordinates we have: x = R cos and y = R sin  .
x y
So: cos  = and sin  = .
R R
k
So: F ( x, y ) = (− yi + x j )
R

3
W = kR  (sin 2  + cos 2  )d
0

k R
W=
3

Property 5
2) Let C = C1  C2 where C1 and C2 are smooth curves and the initial point of C2 is the
terminal point of C1 . So we have:

 F .d  =  F .d  +  F .d 
C C1 C2

( C = C1  C2 where C1 is the blue curve and C2 is the red curve)

We say that C is a piecewise smooth curve.
2) Let C be the curve C but covered in the opposite way. Then we have:
 F .d = − F .d 
C
C

By the same way we can consider C = C1  C2  ....  Cn , where C1 , C2 ,...., Cn smooth curves
are and then the line integral over C can be calculated evaluating n line integrals and adding
them.
 These properties are also valid for line integrals of functions.
Example 4:
Calculate  xdx + xydy where C is the path O → A → B where A(1,1) and B (2,3) . Then C
C

consists of 2 pieces of segment lines.

Solution
x = t
The segment line OA can be parameterized by:  with t  0,1 .
y = t
x = t +1
The segment line  AB  can be parameterized by:  with t  0,1 .
 y = 2t + 1
(See chapter 9 for the parameterization of a line).

Let: F ( x, y) = xdx + xydy

 F .d =  F .d  +  F .d 
C OA  AB
1
5
 F .d  =  (t + t 2 )dt =
6
OA 0
1 1
47
 F .d  =  ((t + 1) + (t + 1)(2t + 1)2)dt =  (4t 2 + 7t + 3)dt =
6
 AB 0 0

26
C
Then:
3 F .d =
Work the exercise 2, see also exercise 13, 9-c and 11.
14.3- The fundamental theorem for line integral
14.3.1- The theorem
f f f
Remember that if f is a function of three variables so: f = i + j + k , this is the
x y z
gradient of f. The definition is similar with a function of two variables.

Theorem 6
Fundamental theorem for the line integrals
→
Let C be a smooth curve given by the vector function  ( s) with a  s  b and f a two or three
variables differentiable function. So we have:
→ → → →

 f .d  = f ( (b)) − f ( (a))
C

This theorem is like the fundamental theorem of calculus, in the term that to calculate  F .d
C

we could find a function f such that: f = F . We say that f is a primitive (or a potential) of
the vector field F . Unfortunately a vector field does not have always a primitive. This fact
justifies the following definition.
Definition 6
Conservative field:
Let F be a continuous vector field. We say that F is a conservative field if there exists a
function f such that:
→ →
f = F
So whenever F admits a primitive.
Remarks
- If f and g are two primitives of F so their difference is constant.

- When the field is conservative the line integral only depends on the initial and
terminal points of the curve and does not depend on the path.
Let’s give some criterions to know whether a vector field is conservative.

2
14.3.2- Using the theorem in
→ →
Let’s give first a necessary condition. If F = P i + Q j is a conservative vector field, then let f
f f
be a function such that: f = i+ j = F . Let’s assume that the 2nd partial derivatives are
x y
continuous. Then we must have:
f f
P= and Q =
x y
So we have:
P  2 f Q  2 f
= and =
y yx x xy
By the Schwarz’s theorem we deduce:
P Q
= (*)
y x
In general (*) is just a necessary but not a sufficient condition. That means that there are non-
conservative vector fields verifying (*). But with some additional hypotheses about the
domain of the vector field, (*) may be sufficient. We state such hypotheses just below.
Problem
We assume that the domain D of the vector field contains a point A( x A , y A ) such that for any
point M ( x, y ) of D, the point M t ( x A + tx, y A + ty ) , 0  t  1, is also a point of D. That means
geometrically that if M is a point of D then the segment  AM  is inside D. We say that D is
stared with respect to A and that A is a center of D.
For example, 2 is stared with respect all its points.
2
− ( 0, 0 ) is not stared.

Stared Not stared.

For proving the theorem 8 we will use the following result.
Theorem 7: Differentiation under the sign  :
Suppose that  is defined by:
b
 ( x ) =  f ( x, t )dt
a

f
We assume that f and are continuous on the rectangle R =  c, d    a, b  .
x
Then the function  is differentiable on ( c, d ) and we have:
f
b
x  ( c, d ) ,  ' ( x ) = 
( x, t ) dt
a
x
This theorem will not be proved, for doing that the concept of uniform continuity must be
used, which was not discussed in this textbook.

Theorem 8
→ →
Let F = P i + Q j be a vector field on an open stared region D. Suppose that P and Q have
continuous first-order derivatives and:
P Q
= throughout D.
y x
Then F is conservative.
Proof:
We can consider without loss of generality that the vector field is defined on a stared region D
where O is a center.
→
Let’s consider:  ( x, y, t ) = F (tx, ty).OM = xP(tx, ty) + yQ(tx, ty)
where M  D and t  0,1 . Then the point (tx, ty ) is still inside D if we assume that D is
stared with respect to O.  is continuous and for t  0,1 , the partial function
( x, y )  ( x, y, t ) has partial derivatives:
 P Q
= P (tx, ty ) + xt (tx, ty ) + yt (tx, ty ) (Apply the chain rule together with the product
x x x
rule)
 P Q
And = Q(tx, ty ) + xt (tx, ty ) + yt (tx, ty ) (by the same way)
y y y
P Q
By the equality = we can write:
y x
 P P
= P(tx, ty ) + xt (tx, ty ) + yt (tx, ty ) that is the derivative with respect to t of:
x x y
f1 (t ) = tP(tx, ty )
 Q Q
= Q(tx, ty ) + xt (tx, ty ) + yt (tx, ty ) that is the derivative of:
y x y
f 2 (t ) = tQ(tx, ty )
Let f be the function:
 1
f ( x, y ) =   ( x, y, t )dt
0

Then we have:
1
f 
1
= dt = tP(tx, ty ) = P( x, y )
x 0 x 0
(Since the theorem 7)
And by the same way we have:
f
= Q ( x, y ) .
y
Then we have: f = F
Remark:
1- This demonstration gives you a way to find a primitive of a conservative field, but it is hard
to remember!
2- We can use the previous theorem to calculate a line integral perhaps more easily than with
the direct definition.
Example 1
For example the force:
k
F ( x, y ) = (− yi + x j ) is not conservative.
R
-A constant force is always conservative.

Example 2
Calculate:  3 ydx + (3x + 2 y)dy where the curve is associated to the vector function:
C
→ →
 (s) = ses −1 i + (1 − s 2 ) j 0  s 1

Solution
→
Let’s prove that the field: F ( x, y) = 3 y i + (3x + 2 y) j defined on 2 is conservative.
 (3 y )  (3 x + 2 y )
= 3 and = 3 . So, by the criterion above, the field is conservative.
y x
→
Let’s find a function f such that: f = F .
f
We must have: ( x, y ) = 3 y then: f ( x, y ) = 3 xy + C ( y ) , where C is a function of y.
x
f
Then: ( x, y ) = 3x + C '( y ) = 3x + 2 y
y
So: C '( y ) = 2 y then C ( y ) = y 2 + k where k is constant.
We can consider: f ( x, y ) = 3xy + y 2 . (Check that f = F )
So we have:

 3 ydx + (3x + 2 y)dy = f ( (1)) − f ( (0))

C

= f (1, 0) − f (0,1)
 = 0 −1
= −1
Remark:
The result of the line integral does not depend on the choice of the primitive.
Remarks: for the theorem 9 the following definitions will be used.
- A “closed curve” means that the initial and terminal point of the curve are identical.
- A region D is said to be connected if for all points A and B in D there is a continuous
vector function  such that  ( a ) = OA, ( b ) = OB , which means that A and B can be
linked by a continuous curve.

Not closed Closed

Connected region The region consisting on the

union of these two sparated
regions is not connected.

Theorem 9
→ →
Let F = P i + Q j be a vector field on an open connected region D. Suppose that P and Q are
continuous on D.
So F is conservative if and only if for all closed continuous curve C, we have:
 F .d  = 0
C

Proof
- Let’s assume F conservative: so, we can write:  F .d = f ( B ) − f ( A) , where
C

f = F and A and B are respectively the initial and the terminal points of C. As C is
assumed to be closed, A = B , then f ( A) = f ( B ) , so the line integral is 0.

- Conversely, let’s assume that  F .d  = 0 for all closed curve in D. Let’s fix a point
C

A ( xA , xB ) of D and let M ( x, y ) be a variable point.

As D is connected there is at least one continuous line C such that, A and M are the terminal
points of this curve. Let f be the function defined by:
 f ( x, y ) =  F .d  (C is a continuous line connecting A to M).
C
First, let’s prove that f depends just on x and y and not on the line itself.
For that let C1 and C2 be two continuous paths connecting A and M. Let’s note C2 the line
C2 itself but oriented from M to A.

A C1 M

C2
The curve C1  C2 is closed. (Be aware to the orientation).
So, we have:  F .d  = 0 . Which is:  F .d  −  F .d  = 0 , then  F .d  =  F .d 
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2

Then f depends only on x and y.

f
Let’s prove that: ( x0 , y0 ) = P ( x0 , y0 ) .
x
f ( x0 + h, y0 ) − f ( x0 , y0 )
For that we will consider: lim
h →0 h
First observe that if M 0 ( x0 , y0 )  D , so for h little enough the point M h ( x0 + h, y0 ) is still
inside D, because D is opened. In effect there is a disc B of center M 0 and radius   0
such that B is inside D (because D is opened). So, it is enough to have  M 0 M h  inside this
disc.
Let C1 be a continuous curve connecting A and M 0 , C2 connecting A and M h . Let  M 0 M h 
be the segment line from M 0 to M h .

M0 Mh
C1

A
C2

We have:  F .d =
C1

C2  M h M 0 
F .d 

Which is:  F.d =  F .d +  F .d 

C1 C2 M h M 0 
Or: f ( x0 , y0 ) = f ( x0 + h, y0 ) +  F .d 
M h M0 
Then: f ( x0 + h, y0 ) − f ( x0 , y0 ) = −  F .d  =  F .d 
M h M 0  M 0M h 

A parameterization of  M 0 M h  is: 1 ( t ) = ti + y0 j , t between x0 and x0 + h .

x0 + h

So: dx = dt , dy = 0 and  F .d  =  P ( t , y )dt0

M 0M h  x0
x0 + h

By the mean values theorem, for an integral: ch  I h ,  P (t , y )dt = hP ( c , y ) , where I

x0
0 h 0 h is

the interval with endpoints x0 , x0 + h .

f ( x0 + h, y0 ) − f ( x0 , y0 )
Then: = P ( ch , y0 )
h
As ch  I h , lim ch = x0 by the squeeze theorem. And because P is continuous:
h →0

lim P ( ch , y0 ) = P ( x0 , y0 ) .
h →0

f
Finally: ( x0 , y0 ) = P ( x0 , y0 ) .
x
f
By a similar reasoning we prove that: ( x0 , y0 ) = Q ( x0 , y0 )
y
So, f appears to be a primitive of F , which means that f is conservative.

Remarks
- The contrapositive of the previous theorem is more often used: if there is a closed
continuous curve such that  F .d   0 so the field is not conservative.
C

- This proof can be done in dimension 3, it is just a question of considering a 3rd

variable and a 3rd component for the vector field. Write the details!
Example:
a) Let P and Q be defined by:
, the domain being 2 − ( 0, 0 ) .
y x
P ( x, y ) = − 2 and Q ( x, y ) = 2
x +y 2
x +y 2

P Q
Prove that = , but nevertheless the field F = Pi + Q j is not conservative.
y x
For that consider  F .d 
C
where C is the circle of center O and radius 1.

b) If the domain of F = Pi + Q j is restricted to D = ( x, y ) / x  0, y  0 , is F

conservative? If it is, find a primitive of F .
c) Same question with: D = ( x, y ) / x  0, y  ?
Solution
a)

P x2 + y 2 − 2 y 2 y 2 − x2 Q
=− = =
y ( x + y ) ( x + y ) x
2 2 2 2 2 2

With the usual parameterization:

2

 F .d =
C
 ( − sin t (− sin t ) + cos t cos t ) dt = 2
0

Then the integral over a closed line is not 0, consequently the field is not conservative.

b) The domain D is stared: let I (1,1) , so for all M inside D the segment  IM  is
inside D (do a figure). The theorem 8 can be applied, then F is conservative. Let f
be a primitive:
f y x
=− 2  f ( x, y ) = − arctan + C ( y )
x x +y 2
y
f x 1 x x
= 2 + C '( y ) = 2 + C '( y ) = 2
y y x 2
x +y 2
x + y2
1+ 2
y

x
So, we can take: C ( y ) = C . Then: f ( x, y ) = − arctan +C
y
x 1 
Remark: we can take also: f ( x, y ) = arctan + C , because for t  0, arctan t + arctan =
y t 2
c) The domain D is still stared with respect to the point A.
The formulas in b) are not valid for y = 0 .
We have: f ( x, 0 ) = C ( y ) (after the 1st calculation) and the function C may be
different for y  0 and y  0 .
f x x
In the 2nd calculation, for y  0 , = 2 + C '( y ) = 2 so C ( y ) = C
y x + y 2
x + y2
 x
 f ( x, y ) = − arctan y + C1 , if y  0

 x
 f ( x, y ) = − arctan + C2 , if y  0
So  y
 f ( x, 0 ) = C



To find C1 , C2 , C let’s fix x  0 , and let’s write that y → f ( x, y ) is continuous at y = 0 .

 x   x 
Then: lim−  − arctan + C1  = lim+  − arctan + C2 
y →0
 y  y →0  y 
 
+ C1 = − + C2  C2 − C1 = 
2 2
We can pick one the constant, for example let’s take C1 = 0 (it could be any real number you
like), so you have: C2 =  .

The common limit is , which is C. In conclusion:
2
 x
 f ( x, y ) = − arctan y
, if y  0

 x
 f ( x, y ) = − arctan +  , if y  0
 y
 
 f ( x, 0 ) =
 2

Remark
1  1 
For t  0, arctan t + arctan = and t  0, arctan t + arctan = − . These identities allow
t 2 t 2
to reformulate the function f: (Note that x  0 )
 y 
 f ( x, y ) = arctan x + 2 , if y  0

 y 
 f ( x, y ) = arctan + , if y  0
 x 2
 
 f ( x, 0 ) = 2


y 
It turns out that: y  , f ( x, y ) = arctan +
x 2
y
Which is, because f is defined within an additive constant: y  , f ( x, y ) = arctan +C
x
3
14.3.3- Case of
Definition 7:
→ → → →
We consider F = P i + Q j + R k vector field of 3 variables, and we assume that all the first
→
partial derivatives of P,Q and R exist. So the curl of F is by definition:
→ → →
i j k
→ → →     R Q  →  R P  →  Q P  →
curl( F ) =  F = = −  i− −  j+  − k
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
P Q R

Theorem 10:
If f is a function of three variables that has continuous second order derivatives, then:
→ →
curl(f ) = 0

Prove it! It is a very good exercise to manipulate the partial derivatives.

Corollary 11:
→
If F is a conservative field of dimension 3 then its curl is the null vector.
Proof
→
( )
→ →
If F is conservative so there is f such that: F = f , and curl F = curl(f ) = 0 .
Remark
The corollary 9 stipulates that a necessary condition is:
R Q R P Q P
= and = and =
y z x z x y

Theorem 12:
3
Let E be a stared part of . If the curl of a vector field is the null vector, then this field is
conservative.

Then in that case, the curl is null if and only if the field is conservative.

Proof
We can consider without loss of generality that the vector field is defined on a stared region D
where O is a center.
→
Let’s consider:  ( x, y, z , t ) = F (tx, ty, tz ).OM = xP (tx, ty, tz ) + yQ(tx, ty, tz ) + zR ( tx, ty , tz )
where M  D and t  0,1 . Then the point (tx, ty, tz ) is still inside D if we assume that D is
stared with respect to O.  is continuous and for t  0,1 , the partial function
( x, y )  ( x, y, t ) has partial derivatives:

 P Q R
= P (tx, ty, tz ) + xt (tx, ty, tz ) + yt (tx, ty, tz ) + zt (tx, ty, tz )
x x x x
 P Q R
= Q(tx, ty, tz ) + xt (tx, ty, tz ) + yt (tx, ty, tz ) + zt (tx, ty, tz )
y y y y
 P Q R
= R (tx, ty, tz ) + xt (tx, ty, tz ) + yt (tx, ty, tz ) + zt (tx, ty, tz )
z z z z
R Q R P Q P
Under the hypotheses = and = and = , we can write:
y z x z x y
 P P P
= P(tx, ty, tz ) + xt (tx, ty, tz ) + yt (tx, ty, tz ) + zt (tx, ty, tz )
x x y z
 
And then: = ( tP ( tx, ty, tz ) )
x t
 Q Q Q
= Q(tx, ty, tz ) + xt (tx, ty, tz ) + yt (tx, ty, tz ) + zt (tx, ty, tz )
y x y z
 
And then: = ( tQ ( tx, ty, tz ) )
y t
 R R R
= R(tx, ty, tz ) + xt (tx, ty, tz ) + yt (tx, ty, tz ) + zt (tx, ty, tz )
z x y z
 
And then: = ( tR ( tx, ty, tz ) )
z t
Let f be the function:
1
f ( x, y, z ) =   ( x, y, z, t )dt
0

f  
1 1

( x, y, z ) =  ( x, y, z, t ) dt =  ( tP(tx, ty, tz ) ) dt = tP (tx, ty, tz ) 0 = P ( x, y, z )

1
Then:
x 0
x 0
t
f
Which is: = P.
x
f f
By the same reasoning we have: = Q and =R
y z
Example 3
Calculate  4 ydx + (4 x + z )dy + ( y + 3z 2 )dz where C is a smooth curve whose initial point is
C

(1,0,1) and terminal point is (−1,3, 2) .

Solution
First let’s prove that the field is conservative (to be sure that this problem makes sense!).
Let: F ( x, y, z) = 4 yi + (4 x + z) j + ( y + 3z 2 )k
i j k
  
curl( F ) = = (1 − 1)i − (0 − 0) j + (4 − 4)k = 0
x y z
4 y 4x + z y + 3z 2
So, the field is conservative. It is enough to know the initial and terminal points of the line.
Let’s find f a primitive of F .
f
We have: ( x, y, z ) = 4 y then f ( x, y, z ) = 4 xy + g1 ( y, z )
x
Let’s derivate this last formula with respect to y:
f g
( x, y, z ) = 4 x + 1 ( y, z ) = 4 x + z
y y
Then we deduce:
g1
( y, z ) = z , that implies: g1 ( y, z ) = zy + g 2 ( z ) .
y
Thus we can write:
f ( x, y, z ) = 4 xy + yz + g 2 ( z )
Let’s derivate this last identity with respect to z:
f
( x, y, z ) = y + g 2 '( z ) = y + 3 z 2 .
z
Then we deduce that: g2 '( z) = 3z 2 or g2 ( z) = z 3 + k , k constant.
Then we can take: f ( x, y, z ) = 4 xy + yz + z 3
And we have:
 4 ydx + (4 x + z)dy + ( y + 3z )dz = f (−1,3,2) − f (1,0,1)
2

= 2 −1 = 1
 4 ydx + (4 x + z)dy + ( y + 3z )dz = 1
2

Work the exercise 3 and see also exercise 13, part 10 and 11.

14.4- Green’s theorem

Orientation:

C
A smooth curve is said to be closed when the initial
D point and the terminal point are identical. By convention
the positive orientation of a close curve will be the
Figure 4 counterclockwise way.

Theorem 13
Let C be a positively oriented counterclockwise, piecewise-smooth, closed curve in the plane
and let D be the region bounded by C. If P and Q have continuous partial derivatives on an
open region that contains D, then:
 Q P 
C Pdx + Qdy = D  x − y  dA
when C is covered once counterclockwise.
Remarks:
- We use  to specify that we cover C once counterclockwise.
-This theorem is to calculate a line integral in the plane. It can be generalized at a curve
in the space through the Stocks’ theorem.
Proof:
We are going to do the proof in the particular case that the domain D can be described by the
set:
S1 = ( x, y)  2 / a  x  b, g1 ( x)  y  g 2 ( x)
and D can be described also by:
. S2 = ( x, y)  2 / c  y  d , h1 ( y)  x  h2 ( y)
So, we assume D regular with respect to the x-axis and the y-axis.
(Remark: if D is not a regular set we can do the proof in the case it is the union of regular
sets).
P
First let’s show that:  Pdx = −  dA .
D y
C
So we write C = C1  C2 , C1 being the part where, y = g1 ( x) and C2 the part where
y = g 2 ( x) .

a b

Figure 5
For the following calculation we use Cartesian parameterizations of C1 , C2 :
b

 Pdx =
C
 Pdx +
C1 C2
 Pdx =  P( x, g1 ( x)) − P( x, g 2 ( x))dx
a
y = g1 ( x )
P
b b g2 ( x )
=   P( x, y) dx = −   dydx
a y = g2 ( x ) a g1 ( x )
y
Then we have what we wanted to demonstrate.
Q
By a similar reasoning we show that:  Qdy =  dA
C D
x
Then adding these two formulas we get the Green’s theorem.

Example 1:
Remember that the coordinates x, y of the center of mass of a lamina occupying the region D
and having the density function  ( x, y ) are:
1 1
x =  x  ( x, y)dA and y =  y  ( x, y )dA where the mass is given by:
mD mD
m =   ( x, y)dA
D
If the density is constant then the center of mass does not depend on that and we talk about
centroid with coordinates:
D xdA D ydA
x= and y =
 dA D
 dA D

Using the Green formula, we find:

1 1
x=  x 2 dy and y = −  y 2 dx where m =  xdy
2m D 2m D D

Where we have denoted by D the boundary of D.

Example 2
Calculate  (− y 3dx + x3dy ) where C is the circle of center O and radius a, oriented
C

counterclockwise.

Solution
The line is positively oriented, and then we can use the Green’s theorem:
 (− y dx + x dy) =  3( x + y )dA , where D is the disk of center O and radius a.
3 3 2 2

C D
Using the polar coordinates we get:
2 a

 (− y dx + x dy) = 3   r drd
3 3 3

C 0 0

3 a 4
 (− y dx + x dy) = 2 .
3 3

Generalization
A region may be bounded by several curves, like in the following figure:

Consider the blue region. It is enclosed by 4 closed lines. Be aware to the orientation: when a
line is covered the blue region must be seen at its left, so counterclockwise for the outer
boundary, and clockwise for the inner ones.

Theorem 13b Generalization of the Green’s theorem

Let D be a region enclosed by a finite number of piecewise smooth simple closed curves, not
two of them intersecting. Assume that P and Q have continuous partial derivatives over a
region containing D. Let’s call C the union of the curves mentioned above. Then:
 Q P 
C Pdx + Qdy = D  x − y  dA
The integral over C is the sum of the line integrals over each portion of C, with the
appropriate orientation.
Example 3
Consider the following vector field:
y x
F =− 2 i+ 2 j = Pi + Q j
x +y 2
x + y2
Let D be a region enclosed by a smooth curve C, such that O  D and O  C .
Calculate  F .d 
C

Solution
 Q P
Observe that: − = 0.
x y
Be aware that F is not continuous at ( 0, 0 ) , so the Green’s theorem cannot be used straight
forward. The answer is not 0.

C
D
Ca

Under these hypotheses, there is a  0 , such that the disc of center O and radius a, is inside
the domain as shown in the figure.
Let Da be this disc and Ca be the circle enclosing this disc. Let D1 be the domain inside D
and outside the disc. We can use the Green’s theorem (13b) to calculate the line integral over
C  Ca . ( Ca : clockwise orientation).

 F .d  +  F .d  =  0dA = 0
C Ca D1

 F .d  −  F .d  = 0   F .d  =  F .d 
C Ca C Ca

The problem is reduced to the calculation of  F .d  , which can be easily done:

Ca
2
 a sin  a cos  
 F .d  =   − . ( −a sin  ) + a cos  d

2 2
Ca 0
a a
2
=  d = 2
0

 F .d = 2
C

Work the exercise 4

14.5- Parametric surfaces and their areas

Definition 8
When a surface in the space can be described by a vector function of two variables:
→ → → →
 (u, v) = P(u, v) i + Q(u, v) j + R(u, v) k (u , v )  D
So we can talk about a parametric surface.
See 14.1 to have some examples.

Tangent planes:
We want to find the Cartesian equation of the tangent plane at a point of parameter ( u0 , v0 ) of
the surface:
 → → → →
 (u, v) = P(u, v) i + Q(u, v) j + R(u, v) k
For that we let v be constant, and then we have a line in the space with the tangent:
→
  P → Q → R →
= i+ j+ k.
u u u u
And we let u be constant we have another line with tangent:
→
  P → Q → R →
= i+ j+ k
v v v v
If these two vectors are independent at the point of parameter (u0 ,v0 ) , let M 0 be this point, so
 → →

 M0 ,      is the tangent plane of the surface at the point M 0 .
,
 u v 
 
Surface area:
We want to calculate the area of a surface S of the space given by its parametric equations,
associated to the vector field of two variables  , whose domain is D, where D is closed and
bounded.
 (u, v) = f1 (u, v)i + f 2 (u, v) j + f 3 (u, v)k , ( u, v )  D
Let’s assume that  has continuous partial derivatives.
We are going to part the surface S into n by m little surfaces that are almost parallelograms
(See figure 7).
For that let R be a rectangle great enough to fit D in (See figure 6). We set:
K =  a , b    c, d 
We break the domain K of (u , v) into nm rectangles of equal lengths. In the following way:
b−a
 a, b = u0 , u1   ...  [ui , ui +1 ]...  un−1 , un  with h1,n = n the length of each subinterval.
d −c
c, d  = v0 , v1   ...  [v j , v j +1 ]...  vm−1 , vm  with h2,m = m the length of each subinterval.
Finally, we write that: K = ui , ui +1   v j , v j +1  . Let Ki, j = ui , ui+1   v j , v j +1 
0i  n −1
0 j  m −1
 Rectangle K
Domain D

a b

Figure 6
Let Ai , j , Ai +1, j , Ai +1, j +1 , Ai +1, j be the vertices of these parallelograms (See figure 7).
For example the point Ai , j has the parameter (ui , v j ) . That means:
OAi , j =  (ui , v j )
Assume that the figure (Zoom of figure 7) below represents a part of the surface that we want
to calculate the area. When n, m are great enough we can reasonably think that the little
surface is a parallelogram even if rigorously it is not, except when the surface is plane.
The sides of the parallelogram can be approximate by Ai , j Ai +1, j and Ai , j Ai , j +1 .
Ai , j Ai +1, j =  (ui +1 , v j ) −  (ui , v j )
We are going to calculate the area of this parallelogram.
Let’s write:
 i , j =  (ui , v j ) if ( ui , v j )  D
 i , j = 0 if ( ui , v j )  D
 This is a 3-D graph of the domain

1
0
0
Z

-1 0.5

-2

1
-3
0
0.5 X
1 1.5
1.5

Zoom

Figure 7

So, the area of the parallelogram is: Ai , j Ai +1, j  Ai , j Ai , j +1 .

In the following reasoning we will ignore the rectangles that lie in the boundary of the domain
D. Those ones tend to be negligible when n,m are increasing infinitely.
Then we have:
Ai , j Ai +1, j =  i +1 , j − i , j

We have, for Ki , j inside D:

 i +1, j −  i , j = ( f1 (ui +1 , v j ) − f1 (ui , v j ), f 2 (ui +1 , v j ) − f 2 (ui , v j ), f 3 (ui +1 , v j ) − f 3 (ui , v j ))
Let’s apply the mean value theorem at the partial function u P(u, v j ) , on the interval
ui , ui+1  . Then there exists ui *  ui , ui +1  such that:
f1 f
f1 (ui +1 , v j ) − f1 (ui , v j ) = (ui +1 − ui ) (ui *, v j ) = h1,n 1 (ui *, v j )
u u
f1
Let f1,u ,i =
(ui *, v j )
u
We do the same for the 2nd component and we get:
 f 2 f
f 2 (ui +1 , v j ) − f 2 (ui , v j ) = (ui +1 − ui ) (ui **, v j ) = h1,n 2 (ui **, v j )
u u
f 2
Let f 2,u ,i = (ui **, v j )
u
Be aware that in general ui *  ui ** .
And so on, we have then:
 i +1, j −  i , j = h1,n ( f1,u ,i , f 2,u ,i , f3,u ,i )
Let’s write: ( f1,u ,i , f 2,u ,i , f3,u ,i ) =  u ,i
When ( n, m) → + the points (ui *, v j );(ui **, v j );(ui ***, v j ) become very close each other.
Then, because each partial derivatives are continuous we can reasonably think that for
f f
example: 2 (ui **, v j )  2 (ui *, v j ) .
u u

So we can write:  u ,i  (ui *, v j ) .
u
By the same way:

Ai , j Ai , j +1 =  i , j +1 −  i , j = h2,m ( f1,v, j , f 2,v , j , f3,v , j ) = h2,m  v, j  h2,m (ui , v j *)
v
So the area of the parallelogram can be written:
Si , j   u ,i   v, j h1,n h2,m

Doing the sum of the areas of these surfaces we have the approximate area of the surface S:
A   Sij
Doing n, m →  we have almost a double Riemann sum, but not exactly because the two
partial derivatives are not evaluated at the same point. Nevertheless ,it could be proved that at
the limit we have:
→ →
 
A =   u   v dA where: u = and v =
D
u v
This number will be defined as being the area of the surface. The calculation above shows
that this definition is reasonable.
Definition 9
Let’s consider a surface S parameterized with the vector function  (u, v) , (u , v )  D having
continuous first partial derivatives, and then its area is:
→ →
A =   u   v dA
D

 
(We note u =
, v = )
u v
This number A does not depend on the parameterization of S.
Proof
Let’s prove that A does not depend on the parameterization of S.
Let ( s, t ) →  ( s, t ) ( s, t )  D1 be another parameterization.
That implies:  ( s, t ) =  ( u1 ( s, t ) , v1 ( s, t ) ) where ( s, t ) → ( u1 ( s, t ) , v1 ( s, t ) ) is a C 1 -
diffeomorphism from D on D1 .
D ( u1 , v1 )
Let be its Jacobian, which is different of 0 on D. (Because we have a C 1 -
D ( s, t )
diffeomorphism)
→ →
Let: A ' =   s  t dA . We must prove: A ' = A .
D1

By the chain rule:

u  v 
 s ( s, t ) = 1 ( s, t ) ( u1 ( s, t ) , v1 ( s, t ) ) + 1 ( s, t ) (u1 ( s, t ) , v1 ( s, t ) )
s u s v

u1  v 
 t ( s, t ) = ( s, t ) (u1 ( s, t ) , v1 ( s, t ) ) + 1 ( s, t ) (u1 ( s, t ) , v1 ( s, t ) )
t u t v
By expanding:
→ →
 u v v u  D ( u1 , v1 )
 s  t =  1 1 − 1 1  u  v = u  v
 s t s t  D ( s, t )
We used that: u  u = 0 and u  v = −v  u
Thus:
→ → D ( u1 , v1 )
A ' =   s  t dA =  u  v ( u1 ( s, t ) , v1 ( s, t ) ) dA
D1 D1
D ( s, t )
Let’s do the substitution: u = u1 ( s, t ) , v = v1 ( s, t ) .
D ( s, t )
The Jacobian of this substitution is: and the inverse image being the domain D.
D ( u1 , v1 )
D ( s, t ) D ( u1 , v1 )
Thus, we find: A ' =  u  v ( u, v ) dA =  u  v ( u, v ) dA = A
D
D ( u1 , v1 ) D ( s, t ) D

Example 1:
What is the area of a sphere of radius a?
Solution
With the spherical coordinates we can have a parameterization of the sphere with:
 ( , ) = a(cos sin  i + sin sin  j + cos k ) with: D = [0,2 ]  0,   .
  ( , ) = a(− sin  sin  i + cos sin  j )
  ( , ) = a(cos cos  i + sin  cos  j − sin  k )
j i k
    = a − sin  sin  cos sin 
2
0
cos cos  sin  cos  − sin 

(
    = a2 − cos sin 2  i − sin sin 2  j − ((sin 2  + cos2  )cos sin  )k )
    = a ( − cos sin  i − sin  sin  j − cos sin  k )
2 2 2

Then we have:
    = a 2 cos2  sin 4  + sin 2  sin 4  + cos 2  sin 2 
    = a 2 (cos 2  + sin 2  )sin 4  + cos 2  sin 2 
    = a 2 sin 4  + cos 2  sin 2  = a 2 sin  sin 2  + cos 2  (remember: 0     )
    = a 2 sin  (Let’s remember this result!)
Then we have:
2 
A=a   sin  d d = 4 a
2 2

0 0

Then the area of a sphere of radius a is: 4 a 2

Example 2
What is the area of the part of the sphere of center O and radius 2, inside the circular cylinder
whose axis is: x = 1, y = 0, z = t and radius is 1?
This is, by definition, a Viviani’s window.
Solution:

Window of Viviani

Figure 8
We are going to use spherical coordinates.
The Cartesian equation of the cylinder is:
( x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1
So the points (x,y,z) inside this cylinder verify:
( x − 1)2 + y 2  1
So in spherical coordinate we have:
sin   cos  (Do the calculations!)
The function arcsin is increasing then we have:
  arcsin(cos  )
 
We have: cos  = sin  −   .
2 
  
Let’s consider 0    fixed, then also 0  −   , then we must have:
2 2 2
 
0   −
2

The half surface 0    is associated to the vector function (remark that the surface is
2
symmetric about the xz-plane):
 ( , ) = 2cos sin  i + 2sin  sin  j + 2cos  k , with ( ,  )  D where:
   
D = ( ,  ) / 0    , 0    −  
 2 2 
By a calculation yet done (see previous example):

    = 4sin 
Let A be the area of the entire surface. Then we have:
  
−
 
2 2 2
A = 2  4sin  d d = 8 (− cos  −   + 1)d
0 0 0 2 
Then we have:
A = 4 − 8

Remark

Vincenzo Viviani (1662-1703) was an Italian

astronomer and mathematician.

Figure 9
Example 3: Cartesian parameterization
If a surface is given by a Cartesian equation: z = f ( x, y ) then it has a parameterization with
the associate vector function:
→ → → →
 ( x, y) = x i + y j + f ( x, y) k
We have:
→ →
 → f →  → f →
( x, y ) = i + ( x , y ) k ( x, y ) = j + ( x , y ) k
x x y y
Then, we have to do the cross product of these two vectors and we find:
→ →
  f → f → →
 =− i− j+ k .
x y x y
Using the formula to the surface area we get:
2
 f   f 
2

A =  1 +   +   dA
D  x   y 

Solid of revolution
Let’s consider a solid generated by the revolution of a surface lying on the xy-plane and
bounded by x = a, x = b and the graph of the function f, about the x-axis, f positive function.
We can write the vector function associated to the surface that will delimit such a solid:
→ → → →
 ( , x) = x i + f ( x)sin  j + f ( x) cos  k

y=f(x)

a b
Figure 10
→
 → → →
( x,  ) = i + f '( x) sin  j + f '( x) cos  k
x
→
 → →
( x, ) = f ( x)(cos  j − sin  k )


→ → →
→ → i j k
 
 = f ( x) 1 f '( x) sin  f '( x) cos 
x 
0 cos  − sin 

 → → →

= f ( x)  − f '( x) i + sin  j + cos  j 
 
Then the area is:
2 b
A=   f ( x) 1 +  f '( x) dxd
2

0 a

That is:
b
A = 2  f ( x) 1 +  f '( x) dx
2

Remark: this formula can be found only with a simple Riemann’s sum.
14.6- Surface integrals
14.6.1- Surface integral of a function
We consider a surface S of the space. We divide this surface into patches S ij whose
projections on the xy plane are rectangles. Let f be a three variables function whose domain is
included in S. We define the surface integral over S of f as follows:

Definition 10
n m


S
f ( x, y, z )dS = lim
n , m →+
 f ( P )S
i =1 j =1
*
ij ij

where Sij is the area of Sij and Pij*  Sij .

We have to show how to calculate such an integral. For that let’s consider that the surface S
can be described by parametric equations associated to the vector field:
→ → → →
 (u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v) k where (u , v )  D .
Then it can be shown that:

Theorem 14
Surface integral for a three variables functions:
→ →
→  
 f ( x, y, z )dS = 
S
D
f ( (u , v)) 
u v
dA

This integral does not depend on the parameterization of S.

So, the area of S is:  dS

S

Remark:
- Remember that if we choose a Cartesian parameterization:  ( x, y) = ( x, y, g ( x, y)) then
we have:
2
   g   g 
2

 = 1+   +  
x y  x   y 
- The reader will prove that the integral is independent of the parameterization of S. The
proof is almost identical as the one done for the area (definition 9).
Example 1:
Calculate  ( x + y + z )dS where S is the cylinder of center O, radius R, 0  z  1 , its axis
S

being the z-axis (we consider just the lateral part of the cylinder, so we do not include the
bases).
Solution:
A parameterization of such a cylinder is given by the vector function:
 ( , z) = R cos i + R sin  j + zk ( , z )  0, 2   0,1
Let’s calculate the partial derivatives:
 ( , z ) = − R sin  i + R cos  j (With respect to  )
 z ( , z ) = k (With respect to z)
Then we have:
   z = R cos  i + R sin  j and we have:    z = R .
Then the surface integral is:
2 1

 ( x + y + z)dS =
S
  ( R cos + R sin  + z) Rdzd
0 0

R
 ( x + y + z )dS = 2 2
S

 ( x + y + z)dS =  R
S

Example 2
Calculate I =  xydS where S is the piece of paraboloid z = x 2 + y 2 with 0  z  1.
S

Solution:
We can use a Cartesian parameterization, and then we have:
I =  xy 1 + 4 x 2 + 4 y 2 dA
D
Where D is the disc of center O and radius 1 (Projection of the piece of the paraboloid).
Using polar coordinates, we get:
1 2 2 1
1
I =   r sin  cos  1 + 4r drd =  sin 2 d  r 3 1 + 4r 2 dr =0
3 2

0 0
20 0
2
(Because  sin 2 d = 0 , so the calculation of the other integral is not required!)
0

14.6.2- Orientation of a surface in the space

A surface in the space can be oriented with the help of the set of the normal vectors. Let S be
a surface regular enough to have a normal vector at each point. For that the existence of two
independent tangent vectors is sufficient.
If the surface is defined by:
 (u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v)k , (u , v )  D
 
Let’s set:  u = and  v = .
u v
The two vectors  u (u0 , v0 ) and  v (u0 , v0 ) are tangent to the surface. If these two vectors are
 u  v
independent, then the vectors:  are the unit normal vectors, they are two.
 u  v
The choice of one of them depends on the orientation you want to choose.
 This is a 3-D graph of the domain

1
0
0
Z

-1 0.5

-2

1
-3
0
0.5
1
Normal vector,
1.5
X inward
1.5
orientation
Y
Outward orientation
Figure 11
If a surface is given by a Cartesian equation, for example by f ( x, y, z ) = 0 , we know that the
unit normal vectors are also given by:
f ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
n=
f ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
Remark
If a surface at a given point has a normal vector, so there is a unique unit vector having a
given orientation.
Example:
We want to orient the sphere of center O and radius a, inward. What is the unit normal vector
that we are going to choose?
Solution
A 1st method consists on using the parameterization on spherical coordinates.
 ( , ) = a(cos sin i + sin sin  j + cos k ) with: D = [0,2 ]  0,   .
Then we have:
   
=
(
a 2 − cos sin 2  i − sin  sin 2  j − cos  sin  k ) (See the calculations in 14.5,
    a sin 
2

example 1).
Simplifying:
   
= − cos  sin  i − sin  sin  j − cos  k
   

If the orientation is inward, the last coordinates must be negative for 0    , then we
2
choose:
   
n=
   
A 2nd method consists on using a Cartesian equation of the sphere, that is:
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2
We have:
f xi + y j + zk xi + y j + zk
= =
f x2 + y 2 + z 2 a
And for the same reason as above:
f
n=−
f
Check that both methods give the same result.
OM
Let’s remember that: n =  , for a unit normal vector for a sphere center O and radius a.
a

14.6.3- Surface integral of a vector field

Definition 11
If F is a continuous vector field defined on an oriented surface S with unit normal vector n ,
then the surface integral of F over S is:
 F .d =  F .ndS
S S

This integral does not depend on the parameterization of S.

The orientation can be chosen by the unit normal vector.

Remark:
As the surface integral of a vector field is also the surface integral of a scalar function and
given that this last one does not depend on a parameterization, hence the surface integral of a
vector field neither depends on this parameterization.
Example 1:
Calculate I =  F .d  , where: F ( x, y, z) = zi + x j + yk , where S is the part of the plane
S

x + y + z = 1 in the octant of the space x  0, y  0, z  0 , oriented upward.

Solution:
3
In that case we have: n = (1,1,1) . (Use the gradient or you know to find a normal vector to
3
a plane if its Cartesian equation is given).
Then we must calculate:
3 3 3
I=  ( z , x, y ). (1,1,1) dS =  ( x + y + z ) dS =  dS
3 S 3 S 3 S
And then we choose a Cartesian parameterization:  ( x, y ) = xi + y j + (1 − x − y ) k

So:  x   y = ( −1) + ( −1) + 1 = 3 (See the remark after theorem 12).

2 2

3
I=
3 D 1 + (−1)2 + (−1) 2 dA
D is the projection on the xy-plane of the surface.

Figure 12
1 1− x 1
3 1
3 0 
I= 3dydx =  (1 − x)dx =
0 0
2

Theorem 15
If the surface S is given by parametric equations associated to the vector function  (u, v) with
(u , v )  D , then we have:

 F .dS =  F .(u  v )dA or  F .dS =  F .(v  u )dA

S D S D

since the orientation.

Proof:
By definition:
 F .dS =  F .ndS
S S

that is:
 F .dS =  ( F .n ) 
S D
u   v dS

u   v
But we have: n =  . So, by the linearity of the dot product we have:
u   v

F .n = 
1
 u  v
(
F.  u  v )
So, we have the formula.
Remark:
Observe that the expression inside the integral is a triple scalar product. So, you may use the
properties seen in the chapter 9, with the condition that you know the orientation.
Example 2:
Calculate  F ( x, y, z ).dS where F ( x, y, z) = zi + y j + xzk and S is the hemisphere of center
2

O, radius 1, above the xy-plane with outward orientation.

Solution:
1st step: Parameterization of S.
We can parameterize with the help of the spherical coordinates:
 
 ( , ) = cos sin i + sin  sin  j + cos  k ( ,  )  0, 2   0, 
 2
We saw yet (14.4):
    = − cos  sin 2  i − sin  sin 2  j − cos  sin  k
We can easily verify that this orientation is inward, so we choose
    = cos  sin 2  i + sin  sin 2  j + cos  sin  k
as normal vector.

2nd step: Calculation of the integral.

Then we have:

2 2

 F.dS =   (cos cos  sin  + sin 3  sin 4  + cos  cos 2  sin 2  )d d
2

S 0 0
 
2 2 2 2
=  sin  d  sin  d =  sin  (1 − cos  )d  sin  d
3 4 2 4

0 0 0 0

=0 (The first factor is 0, so the calculation of the other ones is useless).

2nd method:

 F ( x, y, z ).d  =  F .nds , where n is the normal unit vector (of the sphere) oriented
S S

outward. Knowing that a radius of the sphere is normal to it, at the point where it passes
OM
through, we can take: n = = ( x, y, z ) (We have OM = 1 for M on the sphere). So, we
OM
have:
 F ( x, y, z).d =  ( z, y , xz ) .( x, y, z)ds =  ( xz + y + xz ) ds
2 3 2

S S S

2 2
=   ( cos sin  cos  + sin  + cos  sin  cos 2  ) sin  d d ….the end is left to the reader.
3

0 0

Example 3

 F .dS where F = x i + y j + z k ,throughout the paraboloid z = x + y , 0  z  1 ,

2 2 2 2 2
Calculate
S

with inward orientation.

Solution:
The simplest is to use a Cartesian parameterization for the paraboloid:
 ( x, y) = xi + y j + ( x2 + y 2 )k
The domain for ( x, y ) will be:
D = ( x, y)  2
/ x 2 + y 2  1
That is the disk of center O and radius 1.
We have:
x2 y 2 z 2
( )
F .  x   y = 1 0 2 x (See chapter 9.6.5, formulas (18) and (20)).
0 1 2y
1 0
(Check the orientation! That can be done just calculating , that is the z-coordinate of
0 1
x  y )
( )
F . x   y = x 2 (−2 x) − y 2 (2 y) + z 2 = −2 x3 − 2 y3 + z 2
Then:
 F .dS =  (−2 x − 2 y 3 + ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 )dA
3

S D

Let’s use the substitution in polar coordinates:

2 1

 F .dS =   r (−2r cos3  − 2r 3 sin 3  + r 4 )drd

3

S 0 0

In that last integral we can separate the variables for each term. Check that:
2 2

 cos  d =  sin  d = 0 .
3 3

0 0

So finally we have:
1 
 F .dS = 2 6 = 3
S

14.7- Stokes’ theorem

Let S be a bounded surface enclosed by a curve C. We assume S oriented (See 14.5.2).
So we say that C is positively oriented with respect to the orientation of S, if someone walking
on the curve, having the way “feet toward head” the same as the normal vectors chosen by the
orientation of S, sees the surface at his left.

Curve C
Upward positive
+ orientation
Surface S

Figure 13
In the previous figure a walker must go in the direction of the red arrow if he is walking with
his head toward up to be in the positive way.
If the positive orientation of the surface were outward (toward down), then the positive way
of the curve would be opposite.

Theorem 16
Stokes’ theorem
Let S be an oriented piece-wise smooth surface that is bounded by a closed, piece-wise
smooth boundary curve C with positive orientation. Let F be a vector field whose
components have continuous partial derivatives on an open region of 3 that contains S.
Then:

 F .d =  curl( F ).d

C S
(Integral with positive orientation, if we match the orientation of the surface with the
orientation of the curve as previously explained).

So, the integral of line through that close curve in the space is equal to the surface integral of
the curl, throughout the surface enclosed by the curve.
Proof
The proof will be done on the case that the surface S is defined by:
z = f ( x, y ) , ( x, y )  D where f is continuously differentiable and the 2nd partial derivatives are
continuous.
S is enclosed by C, whose projection on the xy-plane is C1 , which is the curve enclosing the
surface D, D being the projection of S over the xy-plane.
Let  ( t ) = x ( t ) i + y ( t ) j , be a parameterization of C1 oriented counterclockwise, then:
 ( t ) = x ( t ) i + y ( t ) j + f ( x ( t ) , y ( t ) ) k is a parameterization of C, oriented
counterclockwise when seen from above.
dz dx f dy f
In this last parameterization we have: = +
dt dt x dt y

C1
D

 R Q  →  R P  →  Q P  →
Let F = Pi + Q j + Rk , so curl F =  ( )
−  i − −  j+  −
 y z   x z   x y 
k
  f → f→ →

 curl( F ).d =  curl( F ). − x i − y

S D
j + k dA (Orientation upward, Cartesian

parameterization, see example 3, after the definition 9).

In the other way:

b
 dx dy dz 
b
 dx dy  dx f dy f  
C F .d  = a  dt dt dt  a  P dt + Q dt + R  dt x + dt y  dt
P + Q + R dt =

 f   f 
=   P + R  dx +  Q + R  dy
C1 
x   y 
Now we apply the Green theorem to write this line integral as a double integral over D. For
that be aware that the functions P,Q,R are evaluated at the point ( x, y, f ( x, y ) ) , then for
instance:
  f  P f P
y
( )
P ( x, y, f ( x, y ) ) =  0,1,  .P =
y 
+
y y z

Having that in mind:

C
 F .d =
  Q f Q  R f R  f  2 f   P f P  R f R  f 2 f  
D   x x z  x x z  y xy   y y z  y y z  x yx  dA
+ + + + R − + + + + R
 
Which is:
  Q f Q R f   P f P R f  
=    + + − + +  dA
D 
x x z x y   y y z y x  
(Cancelling differences of identical terms).
  R Q   f   P R   f   Q P  
=    −  −  +  − −  +  −   dA
D 
y z   x   z x   y   x y  
And inside the integral we have the dot product:
 f → f → → 
( )
=  curl F .  − i −
 x y
j + k  dA

D
So the formula is proved, for this case.
Remarks:
- The previous proof is the 1st part of the complete proof of the Stokes’ theorem, i.e. for
the most general surface S. This proof is discussed in more advanced calculus books.
- The Stokes’ theorem appears to be a generalization of the Green’s theorem in the
following form:
Let’s assume that F = Pi + Q j (The last component is 0). Let’s assume that these two
P Q
components do not depend on z, i.e. = = 0.
z z
Let’s use the previous theorem to calculate  F .d  where C is a closed curve lying on the xy-
C

plane, oriented counterclockwise when seen from above.

 i j k
    Q P 
We have: curl( F ) = = − k .
x y z  x y 
P Q 0
We have: n = k (Unitary normal vector that must be oriented upward).
We use the definition 11 to calculate:
 Q P 
S curl( F ).dS = S  x − y dS
But a parameterization of a surface lying in the xy-plane can be represented by:
 ( x, y) = xi + y j ( x, y )  S .
By using the theorem 12 we find:
 Q P 
 F .d =   x − y dS
C S

We recognize the Green’s theorem. So the theorem of Stokes can be regarded as the
generalization of the Green’s theorem for vector field in the space, along closed curves in the
space.

- If we use the Stokes’ theorem to calculate a line integral, so we have to find a surface
that is enclosed by S. There are an infinite number of surfaces complying with this
condition and of course all the choices lead to the same result. The game will consist on
finding the surface which involves the easiest calculation.

- There are types of surfaces without boundary, for example a complete sphere or
ellipsoid. In this case:  curl( F ).d = 0 .
S

Example 1:
The plane of equation x + z = 2 intersects the cylinder x + y = 1 on an ellipse C. Calculate:
2 2

 ( ydx + zdy + xdz) , C is oriented clockwise when it is seen from above.

C

Solution
Let F = yi + z j + xk
Let’s use the Stokes’ theorem. For S we choose the plane surface enclosed by the ellipse in
the plane x + z = 2 . (See figure 14 next page).
The projection of this surface on the xy-plane is the disk of center O and radius 1.
This surface can be parameterized by:
 (r, ) = r cos i + r sin  j + (2 − r cos )k , with (r , )  0,1  0, 2  .
The last coordinate z verifies: z = 2 − x .
Let’s calculate:
 i j k
  
curl( F ) = = −i − j − k
x y z
y z x
 (r , ) = −r sin  i + r cos  j + r sin  k
r (r , ) = cos i + sin  j − cos k
i j k
    r = r − sin  cos  sin  = − r (i + k )
cos  sin  − cos 

This matches with the orientation, because the vector is downward (See figure 14).
Then we have:
1 2

 ( ydx + zdy + xdz) = 2 rdA = 2

C D
 rd dr
0 0

 ( ydx + zdy + xdz) = 2

C

Ellipse of
intersection

Clockwise orientation of
the curve when seen
from above matches
with a downward
orientation of the
surface

Figure 14
Example 2
The plane with Cartesian equation x + z = 2 intersects the sphere x + y + z = 4 on a circle
2 2 2

C. Calculate:  ( ydx + zdy + xdz ) , with any orientation.

C

Solution:
Let’s use the Stokes’ theorem:
 ( ydx + zdy + xdz) = − (i + j + k ).dS where S is the disk enclosed by C. (Calculation done in
C S

the example 1).

We use the definition 11:  F .dS =  F .ndS where n is a unitary normal vector to the disk.
S S

 1 1 
Because this disk lies in the plane x + z = 2 we have: n =  , 0,  .(Orientation
 2 2
counterclockwise when viewed from above).
Then we have:
( )
 ( ydx + zdy + xdz ) = −  (i + j + k ).d  = −  i + j + k .nds = − 2  dS
C S S S

The surface integral  dS is equal to the area of the disk S. Let A(2,0,0) and B(0,0,2). AB is a
S
2
 8
diameter of the circle (See figure 15). AB = 8 . So the area of S is:    = 2 .
 2 

x+z =2
B(0,0,2)

A(2,0,0)

xy-plane

Figure 15
So we have:
 ( ydx + zdy + xdz) = −2
C
2
14.8- The divergence theorem (Gauss-Ostrogradsky’s theorem)
Definition 12:
Let F = Pi + Q j + Rk , then the divergence of this vector field is defined by:
P Q R
div( F ) = + + .
x y z

Theorem 17
Theorem of Gauss-Ostrogradsky
Let E be a simple region of the space and let S be the boundary surface of E, given with
positive orientation.
We assume that S is piece wise smooth and does not have boundary.
Let F be a vector field whose component functions have continuous partial derivatives on an
open region that contains E. Then:

 F .d =  div( F )dV

S E
(Outward orientation)

Proof
a) Let’s assume that E is defined by:
E = ( x, y, z )  3
/ ( x, y )  D, z0  z  f ( x, y )
Where f has continuous first partial derivatives.
And: F = Rk (the 2 first components are 0).

z = f ( x, y )

z = z0

Figure 16

Let D be the projection of the surface into the xy-plane. It is the same as the bottom of
the solid, just it lies in the xy-plane instead of the plane z = z0 .
f ( x, y )
R
 div ( F )dV =  
E D z0
z D
(
dzdA =  R ( x, y, f ( x, y ) ) − R ( x, y, z0 ) dA ) (*)

In the other way, the boundary S enclosing E can be split unto 3 surfaces:
Let S1 be the piece of surface z = f ( x, y ) where ( x, y )  D . (The top of the surface).
This surface can be parameterized by:
1 ( x, y ) = xi + y j + f ( x, y ) k (Cartesian parameterization).
Let S 2 be the lateral surface.
 Let S 3 be the bottom surface:
A parameterization of S 3 is:
3 ( x, y ) = xi + y j + z0 k , ( x, y )  D
So, S is the union between S1 , S2 and S 3 , these 3 surfaces not overlapping.
So:  F .d  =  F .d  +  F .d  +  F .d 
S S1 S2 S3

 f f 
 F .d  =  ( Rk ) .  − x i − y
S1 D
j + k dA =  R ( x, y, f ( x, y ) ) dA
 D

 F .d  =  Rk .nds , n is the unit normal vector to

S2 S2
S2 . As the axis of this piece of

cylinder is vertical so n ⊥ k , then n.k = 0 . So:  F .d  = 0 .

S2

 F .d  =  Rk .nds , the normal oriented outward to S 3

S3 S3
is −k .

= −  Rds
S3

Check that:  3, x   3, y = 1 , then:

 F .d  = −  R ( x, y, z ) dA
S3 D
0

Eventually:  F .d  =  ( R ( x, y, f ( x, y ) ) − R ( x, y, z ) )dA
S D
0
(**)

By comparing (*) and (**) we have the result.

b) Let’s do the same assumptions about E and this time: F = Pi + Q j .
z z
Let’ set: P1 ( x, y, z ) =  P ( x, y, t ) dt and Q1 ( x, y, z ) =  Q ( x, y, t ) dt
z0 z0

P1 Q1
Observe that: = P and = Q (1)
z z
P P
z
Also, by the theorem 7: 1 ( x, y, z ) =  ( x, y, t ) dt (2)
x z0
x
P
By hypothesis is continuous, so continuous with respect to z, then by the
x
P1 P
fundamental theorem of integral = is continuous.
zx x
P1 P
And = by (2).
xz x
P1 P1 P
Then: = = (3)
zx xz x
Q1 Q1 Q
By the same way: = = (3a)
zy yz y

Let’s set: F1 = Q1 i − P1 j
  P Q  P1 Q1
( )
We find: curl F 1 = Pi + Q j −  1 + 1  k = F − Rk where R =
 x y  x
+
y
Let’s apply the Stokes’ theorem:

 curl ( F ).d = 0 , because S is a surface without boundary.

S
1

(See the 4th remark after the theorem 14).

Then:  ( F − Rk ) .d  = 0
S

We can deduce that:  F .d =  Rk.d

S S

R
Applying what we proved in a):  F .d  =  z dV
S D

R  P1  Q1 P Q
( )
2 2
= + = + = div F by (3).
z zx zy x y
So, the formula is proved.
c) Still the same hypotheses as a) for the region E, and F = Pi + Q j + Rk
 F .d  =  ( Pi + Q j ) .d  +  Rk .d 
S S S

 P Q  R
=   + dV +  dV (Respectively by a) and b))
D 
x y  D
z
=  div( F )dV
E
Remark
- The proof was done with a type of domain regular with respect to the xy-plane, by the
same way we do the proofs for this type of domain regular with respect to xz or yz plane.
- The proof just done appears to be the 1st step of the general proof, i.e. with a more
general region E. This reasoning requires definitions and notions way above the level of
this text book.
Example:
Calculate  ( x3dx + xy 2 dy + 3x 2 yzdz ) where S is the surface constituted by the 6 faces of the
S

cube  0,1 , with outward orientation.

3

Solution:
With a direct method we would have to evaluate 6 integrals, one for each face.
Let’s use the previous theorem.
div( x3dx + xy 2 dy + 3x 2 yzdz ) = 3x 2 + 2 xy + 3x 2 y .
Then we have:
1 1 1

 ( x dx + xy dy + 3x yzdz) =    (3x + 2 xy + 3x y)dxdydz

3 2 2 2 2

S 0 0 0

I let the reader to finish this calculation. (the answer is 5).

Example:

 F .dS where: F = x i + z j + 4xy k , where S is the cone z = x + y ,0  z  1 with

2 3 2 2 2
Calculate
S

outward orientation.
a) Including the top disc.
b) Without this disc.

Solution:
Let C be the solid inside the cone.
a)  F .dS =  2 x 2 dV .
S C

Let’s use cylindrical coordinates substitution.

2 1 r 2 1

 F .dS =  2 x dV =    r (2r cos  )dzdrd =   2r cos 2  drd

2 2 2 4

S C 0 0 0 0 0

2
 F .dS =
S
5
b) Let D be the top disc and S1 , being the cone, without D.
 F .dS =  F .dS −  F .dS
S1 S D

So let’s calculate:  F .dS . The unit normal vector oriented outward is k .

D

 F.dS =  F.kdS = 4 xy dS

3

D D D

The surface D can be parameterized by:

 (r, ) = (r cos )i + (r sin  ) j + k
0  r  1, 0    2
Because, the disc is at the “height” z = 1 and its radius is 1.
We have:
2 1

 F .dS = 4   (r cos  )(r sin 3  )drd = 0 (Check!)

3

D 0 0

So finally the result is the same with or without the top disc.

Extension of the Gauss-Ostrogradzky thorem

This theorem can be extended when the region E has several boundaries. Let S be the union of
these boundaries, assume they are all piece wise smooth without boundaries, and the
intersection of all these surfaces is empty. Be careful to the orientation of each of these
surfaces: it must be outward (of E).
 Surface S 3

Solid E

Surface S1
Surface S 2

Figure 17

In this figure the solid E is enclosed by the surface S3 and limited by the surfaces S1 , S 2 i.e.
the solids enclosed by S1 and S2 are not part of the solid E. All the arrows indicate the
outward orientation of E.
Let’s do the convention that a surface integral is calculated with outward orientation with
respect to the solid it encloses.
In this case:  F .d  =  F .d  −  F .d  −  F .d 
S S3 S1 S2

Theorem 17b
Let E be a solid enclosed by a finite number of piece wise smooth surfaces without boundary,
not two of them intersecting. Let F be a vector field whose component functions have
continuous partial derivatives on an open region that contains E. Then:
 F .d  =  div F dV ( )
S E

Where  F .d is a sum of surface integrals as described above.

S

Example

OM
Let: F = , where OM = ( x, y, z )
OM 3
Let S be a surface without boundary enclosing a solid E, O being a point of E but not a point
of S i.e. O is a point in the interior of E.

Calculate  F .d .
S
Solution

xi + y j + zk
So: F =
OM 3
x
Let P = 3
be the 1st component.
(x 2
+ y2 + z )
2 2

P   2 −2 
3 3 5
3x 2
 ( )  ( ) ( ) OM 3 OM 5
2 −2 2 −2 1
= x x 2
+ y 2
+ z = x 2
+ y 2
+ z − 3 x 2
x 2
+ y 2
+ z = −
x x  

P OM 2 − 3x 2
= , by the same way, Q and R being the two other coordinates:
x OM 5

Q OM 2 − 3 y 2 R OM − 3z 2 2
= and =
y OM 5
z OM 5

3OM 2 − 3 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 3OM 2 − 3OM 2

( )
div F =
OM 5
=
OM 5
=0

Be aware that the divergence theorem cannot be applied straight forward because F is not
continuous at O.
The point O being at the interior of E, we can find a  0 such that the bowl of center O and
radius a is inside of the interior of E. Let S a be the sphere enclosing this bowl. Let
S1 = S  Sa , with the orientations as in figure 17. See also figure 18.

Let D1 be the solid between S and S a .

Sa

Figure 18
By the divergence theorem (17b):
  F .d =  div ( F )dV
S1 D1

Which is:

 F .d  −  F .d  = 0   F .d  =  F .d 
S Sa S Sa

So, the problem is reduced to the calculation of  F .d 

Sa
which cannot be calculated with the

divergence theorem. A direct calculation is required here:

OM OM OM
 F .d =  OM
Sa Sa
3
.d  = 
Sa
a 3
.d  =  3 .nds
Sa
a

OM
Where: n = (unit normal vector oriented outward for the sphere of center O and radius
a
a).
1 1 1
 F.d = a  OM ds =  ds = a 4 a 2 = 4 ( 4 a 2 is the area of the sphere).
2
4
Sa Sa
a2 Sa
2

 F .d = 4
S