BS318 PHY -E LM

B.Sc.
SECOND YEAR SEMESTER - III

PHYSICS
LABORATORY MANUAL & RECORD

THERMODYNAMICS

“We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but we cannot

forgo our right and opportunity to reap the benefits of the
highest education to the fullest extent…”
Dr.B.R.Ambedkar

Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD
2018
 COURSE TEAM
Course Development Team Course Development Team (CBCS)

Editors Editor

Dr. P. Baburao Prof. G. Pushpa Chakrapani

Dr. K. Gnana Prasuna Writers

Writers Dr. K. Gnana Prasuna

Dr. B. Appa Rao Dr. P. Haricharan

Dr. R. Prabhavathi Dr. U. Vijaya Ushasree

Dr. K. V. Narayana Raju Course Coordinator

S.I. Lakshman Rao Dr. U. Vijaya Ushasree

Dr. C. Murali Sastry Cover Design

Dr. V. V. Subrahmanya Sharma G. Venkata Swamy

First Edition: 2018

(c) 2018, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, A.P.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permission
in writing from the University.

The text forms part of Dr. B.R.Ambedkar Open University Programme.

Further information on Dr. B.R.Ambedkar Open University courses may be obtained from
the Director (Academic), Dr. B.R.Ambedkar Open University, Road No. 46, Prof. G. Ram
Reddy Marg, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad - 500033.
Web: www.braou.ac.in

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II
 CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide record of the laboratory work carried out

Sri/Kum/Smt. _____________________________________________ bearing

Admission No. ______________________ in the practical classes of the study

centre ______________________________ of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Open

University, Hyderabad during the year ________________.

Date: Signature of the Counsellor

III
 PREFACE

The Laboratory manual and record deals with the experiments related to
Thermodynamics for the third semester of B.Sc. Physics course offered by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Open University.

Be familiarizing yourself with the general layout of the material before you begin reading
the manual. Have a look at the list of the experiments provided at the beginning of the manual
and flip through the pages of the manual to get a general imprecision about the nature and
quantum of laboratory training aimed at. We have introduced some self assessment questions
at the end of each experiment. These questions provide for you a way of finding out if you
understand what you have just been doing.

May the University wish you all success in your practical training.

IV
 CONTENTS

BLOCK/UNIT TITLE PAGE

Block-I: Thermodynamics - 1 1

Unit - 1 : Thermal Conductivity of a Bad Conductor - Lee’s Method 2-10

Unit - 2: Stefan’s Constant 11-16

Unit - 3: Boyle’s Law 17-22

Unit - 4: Heating Efficiency of Electrical Kettle with Varying Voltage 23-28

Block-II: Thermodynamics - 2 29

Unit - 5: Determination of Thickness of a Paper or Diameter of a Wire 30-37

by the Wedge Method

Unit - 6: Temperature Characteristics of a Thermistor 38-44

Unit - 7: Resistance Thermometer 45-52

Unit - 8: Specific Heat of Solid by Method of Mixtures 53-56

Graphs

V
 BLOCK - I

THERMODYNAMICS - 1
In this block students will be finding thermal conductivity of a bad conductor using
Lee’s method and also they determine the stefan’s constant and show relation between
the volume study Boyle’s law and pressure of a gas. Study the efficiency of an electrical
Kettle with varying voltages.

These units are included in this block.

Unit - 1: Thermal Conductivity of a Bad Conductor - Lee’s Method

Unit - 2: Stefan’s Constant

Unit - 3: Boyle’s Law

Unit - 4: Heating Efficiency of Electrical Kettle with Varying Voltage

1
UNIT-1: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A BAD
CONDUCTOR - LEE’S METHOD

1.1 AIM
To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor using Lee’s
method.

1.2 OBJECTIVE
After doing this experiment you will be able to determine the value of coefficient of
thermal conductivity of a bad conductor.

1.3 APPARATUS
Lee’s apparatus, steam generating boiler or steam generator, two thermometers
(0-100°C), rough balance, Vernier Callipers, Screw guage stand etc.

1.4 DESCRIPTION
As shown in Fig 1.1 a thick circular metal (brass) disc brass disc/Lee’s disc about 10
cm in diameter and 1 cm thick is suspended with its plane face horizontal by means of three
strings tied to the ring of a retort stand. Place the given specimen of the bad conductor on the
metal plate. The given specimen of the bad conductor might be a card board or a thin sheet of
ebonite cut into a circular disc of the same diameter as the metal disc itself. Place the cylindrical
steam box made of brass and cut to the same diameter as the bad conductor. Steam box is
provided with an inlet and an outlet for the circulation of steam through it. Metal disc & base of
the steam box are provided with holes for introducing thermometers T1 & T2 in order to record
their temperatures.

1.5 THEORY
Steam is passed through the steam box until the thermometer records steady temperature
T1 & T2. In this steady state

rate of conduction of heat across the sheet of bad conductor =

= rate of loss of heat from the exposed surface of the brass disc ... 1.1

From the definition of the co-efficient of thermal conductivity rate of conduction of heat across
the sheet of bad conductor

T1  T2
 K  r 2  ... 1.2
l

Where K is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the bad conductor, r is the radius
of the bad conductor and 1 is its thickness. To determine the quantity on the right side of

2
education (1.1) a separate cooling experiment is conducted with the metal disc alone and its
rate of fall of temperature x at T2 is determined.

In the experiment when the steady state in reached the lower disc loses heat from its

bottom & curved surface. Hence the area of surface losing heat is  2r  2rh  , where r is
2

its height or thickness of the bad conductor and II is its height (or thickness).

But during the cooling experiment, the whole surface of the disc is exposed and hence the area
of surface losing heat is  r  2rh 
2

Since the rate of loss of heat is proportional to the area exposed when other conditions
remain the same.

Rate of loss of heat at temperature T2 from the metal disc or lee’s disc in the first
 r 2  2rh 
experiment = m  s   2  x
 2r  2rh 

 r  2h 
 ms   x ... 1.3
 2 r2  h  
 

Where m is the mass of the metal disc Lee’s disc and t is its specific heat.

Hence substituting the expression from. 1.2 & 1.3, we get

K  r 2
 T1  T2   ms   r  2h   x
I 2 r  h 

from which K can be calculated in reate of cooling from graph.

1.6 PROCEDURE
i) To take preliminary measurements

Find the mass m of the lower metal disc / Lee’s disc with a rough balance. See that no
strings are attached to the disc. Find out average thickness h and the diameter 2r of the brass
disc with vernier Calipers. (2r is also the diameter of the disc of bad conductor), with a
screwgauge determine the thickness (1) of the card board at different positions and take the
mean value.

ii) To determine the steady temperatures T 1 &T2

Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 1.1 pass steam through steam box. For this
connect the inlet of the steam box to a boiler by rubber tubing. Drain off the water formed as a
result of condensation of steam into some metal can through a short rubber tubing.

3
 Record the temperatures at intervals of 5 minutes while passing steam. Continue passing
steam till three sets of readings of T1 & T2 agree. Thus we can consider that a steady state has
been attained.

iii) To find the rate of cooling of the Metal disc / Lee’s disc at the steady
temperature T 2

When the thermometer show the steady temperatures T1 & T2 stop supply of steam
and remove the bad conductor so that the steam box lies directly on the metal disc / lee’s disc
in contact with it. Allow the steam to pass through the steam box until the brass disc in heated
to about 5 above the steady temperature T2 which it attained previously. Remove the steam
box so that the metal disc alone is left suspended. Allow it to cool, while cooling note the
temperature at intervals of half minute. Allow this process till the disc has cooled 5° below its
steady temperature T2 .

Now plot a graph taking time on the X-axis and temperature on the Y-axis. From the
graph find the rate of cooling (x) at the steady temperature T2 x can be determined in two
ways.

Method I

As shows in the Fig. 1.2 draw lines parallel to the time axis at temperature ( T2 + l) and
T2 -1 ) and draw ordinates through the points where these lines cut the curve.

From the graph time to cool from ( T2 +I) to ( T2 -I) i.e., to cool through 2°C =

= t minutes = t x 60 seconds.

0
2
Rate of cooling x at the steady temperature T2 of the metal disc  C per sec.
60

4
Method II

Draw a tangent to the curve at the point corresponding to the steady temperature T2 of
the lower disc.

The rate of cooling x in degrees centigrade per second at the steady temperature T2 is
given by tan ABO hence

OA in 0 C
x
OB in seconds

Determine x by any one of two methods given above and calculate the value of K by
means of the formula.

K  m.s
 r  2h  . lx
2
2  r  h  r  T1  T2 

The units of K are calories per sec. sq. cm. per unit temperature gradient.

temperature

Y
time

Fig. 1.3

5
1.7 OBSERVATIONS
1. Mass of brass disc = m grams

2. Average height or thickness of the metal/lee’s disc = h cm

3. Average radius of the metal/lee’s disc = r cm.

4. Radius of the disc of the bad conductor which is cut exactly to the same diameter as
the brass disc = r cm

5. Average thickness of the card board = l cm

6. Sp. heat of brass = 0.097

6
 Table 1.1

Time Temperature of the base of the steam Temperature of the metal disc
For cooling curve
1. T2 + 50C
2. ___ to
3. T2 – 50C

Steady temperature of the base of the steam box from the above table = T10 C

Steady temperature of the base of the brass disc from the above table = T2 0 C

7
 Table 1.2

Time–Temperature readings of the cooling experiment

Time in seconds Temperature
0

30

60

90

120

390

420

450

480

8
1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by bad conductor gives example for it.

2. Thermal conductivity what do you mean it? What are its units? With what letter it is
indicated?

1.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - ANSWERS

1. Bad conductor in one which allow transmission of heat partially.

2. The number of calories of heat required for any substance (bad conductor) which is
one square cm in area and through which when heat is pased and unit temprature
gradiant increase in temperature is obsereved. It is indicated by the letter (k).

9
 (Space for Calculations)

10
UNIT - 2: STEFAN’S CONSTANT

2.1 AIM
To determine the Stefan’s Constant

2.2. OBJECTIVE
After doing this experiment you will be able to explain the Stefan’s radiation law and
know the order of the value of the Stefan’s constant.

2.3 APPARATUS
Stefan’s constant apparatus

Silver constantan thermocouple,

Two thermometers of 0-100°c range

Two beakers,

A sensitive moving coil galvanometer with lamp and scale arrangernent,

A resistance box of range 1-10.000 Ohms.

2.4 DISCRIPTION

The Stefan’s constant apparatus consists of a blackened hollow metal hemisphere

about 25 cm in diameter fitted in a wooden box. The inner surface of hemisphere is coated with
tin. This is fitted to a circular wooden piece containing a small window at its center, which is
also the centre of the hemisphere. This window is provided with a door. The wooden piece is
provided with two openings at the top through which two thermometers can be kept to measure
the temperature of the steam and also of the hollow metal hemisphere. The black surface is the
radiator and the heat is received by a small disc made of silver placed at the window. The silver
disc is fitted in a backelite or Teflon cylinder which can the moved up or down through the
window. From the disc two wires are taken out one of silver and other of constantan and are
fixed to two terminals on the cylinder. This disc works as one junction and the second junction
is taken separately which is a second junction of the thermocouple.

11
 Fig. 2.1

2.5 THEORY
Stefan’s law states that total radiation per unit area per second from a black body is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. That is

R   T 4 per sq. cm. per sec.

Where s is a constant known as Stefan’s constant.

Let R1 be the radiation absorbed by the silver disc per unit area per second and R that
emitted, let the temperatures of the radiator and disc be T1 & T respectively. if the whole
enclosure including disc had temeprature T1 , then there would be equilibrium and disc would
both absorb and emit R1 in unit time. The energy radiated from raditor falls on the disc which
is already at room temperature. Now the energy which is emitted is R. Thus the gain of energy
per second by the disc the area A is  R1  R  A .

dT
If m is the mass of the disc, s its specific heat and is a rate of change of temperature
dt
then from theory of radiation we can write

dT R1  R A 4
ms
dt

J
A
J
 T1  T 4 

Jms dT
or   A T 4  T 4 dt
1 
Where J is the Joules constant having the value 4.1855  107 ergs per calorie or 4.1855
Joules per calorie.

12
2.6 PROCEDURE
The procedure of doing the experiment consists of two parts. (1) To find the relation
between the temperature and the deflection of the sensistive galvanometer (2) To find the
relation between the time and deflection. From these two graphs dT/dt can be determined.

In the first part connect silver constant thermocouple as shown in the figure 2.1. The
silver disc acts as one junction of the termocouple. Keep other junction in a beaker of water
and connect the sensitive galvonometer and resistance box in series with the tehrmocouple.
The disc is pulled down and the window of the hemispher is closed.

Now heat the beaker in the water by keeping it on a heater. The junction in the beaker
acts a hot junction and the junction connected to the disc which is at room temperature acts as
cold junction. As the temperature is raised, the deflection in the sensistive galvanometer and
goes out of scale. hence adjust the resistance in the reistence box to bring the maximum
defflection at maximum temperature within the scale. Heat the water in the beaker to its boiling
point. Note the deflection of the sensitive galvanometer on the scale with the help of lamp and
scale arrangement for temperatures at an interval of 50C starting from boiling point of water to
room temperature with the help of a thermometer kept at the hot junctiion of the thermometer.
Note down the observations in the tbale 2.1. Draw a graph between the temperatures and
dT
deflections, taking temperatures Y-axis and deflection on X-axis. The slope of the line is
d
determined for a small interval of deflection around T.

2.7 OBSERVATIONS
1. Mass of the silver disc m - 2 gms,

2, Specific heat of the material of the disc s = 0.056 cal/gm/0C

3. Steady temperature of the radiator (dome) T1 =

4. Joule’s constant J = 4.1855 x 107 ergs/cal.

Jms dT
Calculate the value of s using the formula   A T 4  T 4 dt
2 
Temperature of the cold junction = 0C

13
 Table 2.1

S.No. Temperature Deflection of galvanometer

14
 d
From the graph can be determined taking the same interval of the deflection in
dt
both the graphs.

dT
Hence measure as close to A as possible (Fig. 2.2)
dt

Fig. 2.2

2.8 PRECAUTIONS
1. All temperature readings should be taken in Kelvin scale only.

2. While doing the first part of the experiment care should be taken to see that the window
of the radiator set is closed perfectly.

2.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the Stefan’s Radiation law?

2. What is J in the equation to find the Stefan’s constant and what is its value?

2.10 ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Radiation of heat is proportional to fourth power of temperature.

1
i.e. R 
T4

2. It is Joul’es constant and its value is nearly 4.2  107 Ergs/cal or 1.2 J/cal.

15
 (Space for Calculations)

16
UNIT-3 : BOYLE’S LAW

3.1 AIM

To prove the relation between the volume of a given mass of gas and pressure i.e. the
 1
pressure inversely proportional to its volume  P   .
 V

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment student will be knowing the relation between the
pressure and volume of a given mass of gas. And will be knowing that the pressure in inversely
proportional to its volume.

3.3 APPARATUS
Boyle’s law apparatus, Quill’s tube, scale, clamp stand, mercury etc.

3.4 THEORY
Before doing the experiment we need to know about Boyle’s law. One can understand
that gases unlike solids and liquids are highly compressible as such the volume of a gas not only
changes with temperature but also with pressure acting on it.

The behaviour of a gas is studied under three heads.

The main aim of this experiment to find the variation of volume with pressure of a
given mass of gas at constant temperature.

This principle is known as Boyle’s law, which states that temperature remaining constant
the pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely as its volume.

If ‘P’ and ‘V’ are the pressure and volume of a given mass of gas at constant
temperature.

1
Then P  (T remaining constant) or PV = constant
V

If the same mass of gas has a volume V1 at a pressure P1 temperature being same

PV  PV
1 1

Similarly for the same mass of gas temperature reamining same pressure and volume
are respectively P2 & V2 .

Then PV  PV 2 2 = constant
1 1  PV

Then Boyle’s law is proved.

17
 For performing experiment and verification of Boyle’s law a quill tube is used. This
tube is prepared as follows.

A uniform cupillary tube about 1 mm bore and length about 60 cm open at both ends is
closed is cleaned and dried. A mercury pellet of length about 10 cms is sucked into it. One end
of this tube is then released thus an air column is trapped between the pellet and the closed end.
This tube is now tied to a meter scale asin shown in Figure 3.0.

Fig. 3. 0

3.5 PROCEDURE
The meter scale along with the quill tube prepared as above is mounted. Vertically with
a clamp stand, with its open end is upwards. Now the length of the air column (l) is noted. The
vertical heights of the two ends of mercury pallet h1 & h2 from the bench are measured. The
difference of h1 ~ h2  h is calculated. Now the pressure of the enclosed air in P  H  h ,
where H is the atmospheric pressure in cms.

This procedure is repeated by tilting the tube with the scale so that it makes various
angles of inclination with the vertical. Every time the values of ‘l’, h1 & h2 are noted. The a, b,
c, d & e are various positions are shown in Fig. 2.0. i.e. with these positions of Quill tube the
measurements are done. In all the above readings ‘l’ is the length of air column in A (hence its
volume) because the tube is of uniform cross section.

The difference of h1 & h2 i.e. h1 ~ h2 is calculated. The pressure in the enclosed air..

P  H  h is found out. The pressure P  H  h it open end is upwards, P  H  h if

open end is downwards.

If the product p x l in other words P x V is shown as constant, Boyle’s law is verified.

Readings are tabulated as shown below. Two graphs can be drawn as shown below.

1. P & l graph with l on X-axis P on Y-axis.

1 1
2. h & graph with on X-axis and h on Y-axis.
l l

18
 The graphs is a straight line cutting the h axis on the negative side which gives the
atmospheric pressure. At the point of intersection 1/l is zero or l is infinity, hence h value gives
atmospheric pressure.

Y
2
h

P
h 1/l

X
l

(1) (2)

Fig. 3.1

3.6 PRECAUTIONS
1. The air enclosed in the tube must be dry.

2. These should be no air bubbles.

3. While doing experiment, temperature should not change.

4. While taking lengths care should be taken to see that measuring to be accurate.

3.7 CALCULATION OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 H  h1  l1   H  h2  l2

h2l2  h1l1
H 
l1  l2 cms.

19
 Table 3.0

Volume (v) air

Position of h1 h2
enclosed i.e. (l) at ‘A’ h  h1 ~ h2 P H  h
the tube (cm) (cm)
side






















 






















La stly PV values to be found c onstant.

20
3.8 SELF ASESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What is Boyle’s law?

2. Unlike soids and liquids in case of gases how does it have any effect with pressure?

3.9 SELF ASESSMENT QUESTIONS - ANSWERS

1. Temperature remaining constant the pressure of a given mass of gas varies inveresely
 1
as its volume i.e.  P  
 V

2. In cases of gases unlike solids and liquids effect of pressure also will be there.

21
 (Space for Calculations)

22
UNIT - 4: HEATING EFFICIENCY OF ELECTRICAL
KETTLE WITH VARYING VOLTAGE

4.1 AIM
To show that the efficiency varies with varying voltage in an electrical kettle.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
After doing the experiment student will be able to know that the efficiency will vary
with varying voltages and that efficiency will not be hundred percent i.e. one will know that
current energy can be converted into heat energy.

4.3 APPARATUS

Electric Kettle, voltmeter, ammeter, connecting wires, rheostat, plug key and step down
transformer and a thermometer (0 - 1000C) rough balance. We are going to use a readymade
apparatus using all these apparatus.

4.4 THEORY
When a current passes through a conductor, heat is produced in it. The electrical
energy consumed is Vit, where V is the voltage in the circuit, ‘i’ is the current flowing through
in the circuit for t seconds.

The electrical energy is converted into heat energy and the temperature of water and
Kettle increases. If ‘  ’ is the increase in temperature of water and Kettle in ‘t’ seconds then
the heat energy developed

=  w  ms   .

where w is the water equivalent of calorimeter = w 1s

m = mass of water

s = specific heat of water = one

 = increase in temperature in ‘t’ seconds.

If  w  ms   = Vit, then the efficiency of the Kettle (  ) is 100%. But due to losses

 w  ms   that is heat energy units will be less than electrical energy (Vit) .

output
 efficiency = input  100 ... (1)

23
 = (Heat energy/electrical energy) x 100

 w  ms  
  100 .
Vit

4.5 DESCRIPTION
The electric Kettle consists of a conductor of suitable resistance. The transformer is a
step down transformer, AC mains being connected to the primary of transformer. The voltage
output from the secondary, through a rheostat, is applied to the element in the Kettle. The kettle
is provided with a thermometer to measure the temperature of water in the kettle.

4.6 PROCEDURE
The electrical circuit as shown in fig. 4.1 is set up. Before the current is switched on,
the mass of empty kettle is determined i.e.  m1  gms.

It is filled with water so that the resistance wire in it is completely immersed in water.
The total mass of kettle and water is found  m 2  gms. The initial temperature of water is

found out  t1 C  .
0

The current is switched on with the help of rheostat which is directly connected to the
secondary of the transformer whose primary is joined to AC mains the voltage in the voltmeter
is adjusted to say about 5 volts and the corresponding current in ammeter (i) is noted. The
voltmeter in the circuit in connected parallel to the element in the Kettle.

After making these preliminary arrangements the weighed Kettle, with water is placed
in its place. The current is passed for about say 5 mts and switched off. Now the temperature
t 20C is found out.

The experiment is repeated by changing the voltage in step of 5 volts and readings are
tabulated as follows. Each time water should be taken a fresh.

Fig. 4.1

24
4.7 OBSERVATIONS

Mass of the Kettle = m1 gms

Specific heat of material of the Kettle (s) =

Water equivalent of Kettle = m1s1  w

... of Kettle + water = m 2 gms

 Mass of water = m =  m 2  m1  gms.

0
Initial temperature of water = t1 C.

Final temperature of water = t 02 C .

Rise in temperature =  t 2 C  t1 C    C
0 0 0

Time of flow of current = t seconds.

Voltmeter reading = V volts

Ammeter reading = i amps.

4.8 CALCULATIONS

 w  ms 
Efficiency of Kettle   = 100
Vit

heat produced
  100
electrical energy produced

For different voltages the efficiency is calculated.

25
4.9 RESULT
The efficiencies of the Kettle, for various voltages applied to the element of the Kettle
are shown in the tabular form.

Voltage applied Current ‘i' Time (t)

S.No. % of Efficiency
(V) in Amps in seconds

26
4.10 PRECAUTIONS
1. Care is to be taken to see that the resistance wire dips completely in water.

2. While taking temperatures the thermometer to be placed inside water properly.

3. As for as possible the Kettle to be closed properly during the passage of current.

4. Connections to be made properly.

4.11 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. By passing electric current through liquid in Kettle the electric energy produced and
consequently heat energy produced will they be same or not?

2. What is meant by heating efficiency and does it change will voltage?

4.12 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - ANSWERS

1. They will not be the same because amount of electric energy will not be the same as
heat energy produced due to this as totally the electric energy will not be completely
converted to heat energy.

2. The ratio between heat energy produced to the electric energy is termed as heating
efficiency   and definitely it changes with voltage.

Increase in voltage will decrease the efficiency.

27
 (Space for Calculations)

28
 BLOCK-II

THERMODYNAMICS - 2
In block 2 the learners find the thickness of a thin paper or wire by forming
interference fringes using the wedge method. Also they learn about the characteristics of
a thermistor. Study variation of resistance with temperature and learn the specific heat
capacity of solid by using method of mixtures.

These units are included in this block

Unit - 5: Determination of Thickness of a Paper or Diameter of a Wire by the Wedge

Method

Unit - 6: Temperature Characteristics of a Thermistor

Unit - 7: Resistance Thermometer

Unit - 8: Specific Heat of Solid by Method of Mixtures

29
UNIT - 5: DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF A PAPER
OR DIAMETER OF A WIRE BY THE WEDGE
METHOD

5.1 AIM
To determine the thickness of a thin paper by forming interference fringes due to a
wedge shaped air film.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
After you do the experiment you will be able

1. to form interference fringes from a wedge shaped air film and adjust the micros scope
to see them.

2. to measure the fringe width and hence the thickness of the paper or diameter of a thin
wire.

3. understand the interference of light by thin films.

5.3 APPARATUS
Travelling micro scope, two plane glass pieces (like microscope sides), another glass
plate, retort stand, hand lamp, reading lens, a strip of the given paper, sodium vapour lamp,
condensing lens.

5.4 THEORY
Monochromatic light incident on a wedge shaped air film trapped between two plane
glass pieces which are slightly inclined to each other produced localised interference fringes in
the viscinity of the film. You can observe these fringes when viewed through a traveling microscope
arranged as shown in figure 5.1. These are straight line fringes parallel to the edge of the glass
pieces.

You can show that the condition for obtaining maximum intensity (bright fringe) is,

 1
2t cos r   m    , m = 1, 2, 3, ... ... 5.1
 2

where  is the refractive index of the film, t is the thickness of the air film and r is the
angle of refraction in the film.

The condition for minimum intensity (dark fringe) is

2 t cos r  m , m = 0, 1, 2, ... ...5.2

For two adjacent dark fringes we can write

30
 2  t  t  cos r   m  1  ... 5.3

Subtracting 5.2 from 5.3 we have

2t cos r  


or t  2 cos r ... 5.4

for normal incident cos r = 1, hence


or t  ... 5.5
2

where t is the difference in the thickness of the air film for two adjacent dark fringes
(the same applies to the bright fringes also).

If  is the angle of the wedge, then tan  is given by

 / 2
tan   ... 5.6


where  is the linear separation between two adjacent dark fringes. Since  is small
we can write


 ... 5.7
2 

From the figure 5.1 we can write,

d
 ... 5.8
l

where d is the thickness of the paper placed between two glass pieces or diameter of
a thin wire and l is the length of the glass piece. see figure 5.1.

From equation 5.7 and 5.8 we have

l
d ... 5.9
2 

Writing   1 for air,,

l
d ... 5.10
2

When the fringe width  of the interference fringes is measured with a travelling
microscope, and l and  are known, you can determine d.

31
5.5 PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the eye-piece of the microscope by focusing it on to the crosswire. Find the
least count of the horizontal scale of the microscope. Clean the glass plates (slides)
with a piece of cloth and arrange them horizontally on a black paper. Then keep the
glass plates on the base of the microscope with the of paper in between the two glass
pieces at an end. See the figure 5.1 for the arrangement of the apparatus and the
microscope.

Fig. 5.1

2. Adjust the glass plate G, 450 to the horizontal with the hlep of a retort stand, such that
the light form the source S, after reflection from G, falls vertically on the wedge.

3. Focus the microscope on the top of the wedge carefully until the interference fringes
arc seen as clearly as possible. These fringes will be parallel to the line of contact of
the two glass slides which forms the wedge. Make the fringes appear birhgt and clear
by adjusting the glass plate G into the correct potion.

4. Move the microscope near to the edge A, while observing the fringes through the
miscroscope. Arrange the intersection of the crosswire of the microscope on the centre
of a bright fringe and take the reading on the microscope scale. Count the number of
this fringe as zero, and enter the microscope reading under 0th fringe number in the
table. Move the microscope towards B until centre of the cross-wire is on the centre
of the second bright fringe. Note the microscope reading and enter it in the proper
place.

5. Repeat the same procedure and take the readings of the microscope at the 4th, 6th and
so on up to the 18th bright fringe. Move the microscope only towards B during the
process but not backwards towards A. Enter the readings in the table.

32
6. Focus the microscope on the edge A of the glass piece and note the reading R1. Next
move the microscope on the inner edge of the paper B and note the reading again (R2).

Find the difference between R1 and R2. This gives you l1 the length of the glass piece.

7. Calculate the width of 10 fringes as given in the table. Calculate the average width of
10 fringes. From this value get the width of one fringe. Take the value of the wavelength
of sodium light from tables. Substitute the
of the values
values of
of l1  and  in equation 5.11 and
get the value of d. the thickness of the paper.

5.6 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Length of M.S.D. on the horizontal scale of the microscope S= cm

Total number of V.S.D’s N=

Least count of the traveling microscope S/N = cm

Reading of the microscope with crosswires on A R1 = cm

Readings of the microscope with crosswires on B R2 = cm

Length between A and B (R1 ~ R2) = cm = m

Average width of ten fringes w= cm

 w
Width of one fringe ...    cm = m
 10 

The wavelength of sodium light from table  m

The thickness of the paper d= m

33
 Table 5.1

Fringe Microscope Reading Fringe Microscope Reading Width of

S.No. S.No.
No. No. Fringes w
M.S.R. V.C. Total M.S.R. V.C. Total

1 R0 R10 R10 ~ R0

2 R2 R12 R12 ~ R2

3 R4 R14 R14 ~ R4

4 R6 R16 R16 ~ R6

5 R8 R18 R18 ~ R8

34
5.7 PRECAUTIONS

1. Clean the two glass plates (slides) kwith mythilated spirit and wipe them with clean
cloth or tissue paper. They must be optically plane.

2. To be able to see the fringes bright adjust the glass plate G to be 450 with the horizontal.
If necessary use a condensing lens to focus the light from S on to G.

3. Move the microscope only in one direction while taking readings, to avoid back lash
error.

5.8 IMPORTANCE AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

1. Very small thickness can be measured accurately.

2. The colours of films of oil slicks spread on roads in rainy season, colours on soap
bubbles cna be explained on the basis of thin film interference of light.

3. Interferometers based on this principal are widely used for

a) determining the wavelength of light

b) measuring the refractive indices of very thin films and gases

c) Testing the flatness of surfaces and

d) standardization of the metre

4. Michelson and Morley used a modified interferometer to prove the non existence of
either in their famous experiment.

5.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the conditions to form a bright and dark fringe due to interference at thin
films?

2. Are the fringes of the same width?

3. What is the purpose of hte glass plate G?

4. What happens if the slides are not optically flat?

5. On what factors does the fringe width depend?

6. Where are the fringes fomred? What are they called?

35
5.10 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - ANSWERS

1. The conditions to form a bright dark fringes respectivley are 2 cos r   m  1 / 2  

where m = 1, 2, 3 and 2 t cos r  m where m = 0, 1, 2 where  is the refractive
index of air film t is the thickness of the air film and r is the refraction angle in the air
film.

2. Yes, they are of same width.

3. The purpose of the glass plate G is to make light from the source ‘S’ to be incident on
the thin air film at 450.

4. If the slides are not optically flat the fringe system will be irregular.

5. The width depends on the lenght of the air film, the angular separation of the two glass
plates and the wavelength of the incident light.

6. The fringes aer formed between the two glass plates and they are known as thin film
interference fringes.

36
(Space for Calculations)

37
UNIT-6: TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
THERMISTOR

6.1 AIM

To draw the temperature characteristics of a Thermistor and to evaluate the constants

A and B (A and B are the constants of the thermistor used)

6.2 OBJECTIVES

After performing this experiment you will be able

1. to note that the Resistance of a thermistor varies exponentially.

2. to note the importance of A and B in calculating the resistance of the thermistor.

6.3 APPARATUS

Thermistor, Three Resistance boxes (dial type) (1000 ohms range), Daniel Cell or
Leclanche cell or I .5V cell, Table Galvanometer, Thermometer, Oil in a test tube, Water bath,
Heater , Connecting wires

6.4 THEORY

A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor. It is a semiconductor made up of mixtures

of metallic oxides such as cobalt, Manganese, magnesium, etc. In many respects a thermistor
resembles conventional resistor. It is a two terminal device having resistance as the fundamental
property and is operated in the same way as a resistor. Most of the thermistors have a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. The reason of negative temperature coefficient of resistivity
of a thermistor (semiconductor) is that when its temperature is increased the velocity of current
carriers (holes and electrons) also increases which results in a decrease in resistance. A thermistor
has a non-linear variation of resistance with increase of temperature given by the relation R=A
exp (B/T) where A and B are constants and T, the temperature in degrees absolute.
The resistance of a resistor varies linearly with temperature. A resistor has a positive temperature
coefficient of resistance.

6.5 PROCEDURE

Connect the Resistance boxes and thermistor in such a way that a Wheaston’s bridge
is set up as shown in figure keep P=Q = 100 ohms each or any convenient value. Adjust the
resistance ‘R’ to obtain null deflection iii the galvanometer at room temperature. Record (lie
resistance in the resistance box ‘R’. This gives the resistance of the thermistor given by the
R.Q 100
relation. P/Q=R/X where X   R. R
P 100

38
 PQR Resistance boxes. G Table galvanometer.

K plug key 13 battery or cell,

X- Thermistor. I- Thermometer, 2. Oil in test lube

3. Water bath. 4. Connecting wires

Where ‘X’ is the resistance of the thermistor. Keep thermometer in the oil bath. Heat
the water bath till water boils. The oil in which the thermistor is immersed will attain the boiling
temperature of water that is around 100° C. Then cool the water bath naturally without adding
cold water. ‘When the temperature in the thermometer reads 90°C balance the bridge for null
deflection in the galvanometer. By adjusting the resistance in the box ‘R’ and note it as the
resistance of the thermistor at 90°C. Repeat the experiment at regular intervals of 5°C each
i.e., 85°C to room temperature and tabulate the results as shown below:

39
6.6 OBSERVATIONS

Temp T0K Resistance of the 1

S. No. Temp. 0C t  10 3 log10 R
(t + 273) thermistor R in ohms T

40
 Draw a graph between R and T 0 K . Note the nature of the graph. The shape of the
graph will be as shown in fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.2

Calculation of ‘A’ & ‘B’

 B
R  A exp   ... 6.1
T

Taking logarithms on both sides

B
log10 R  log10 A  since log e10  0.4343 ... 6.2
T

B
log10 R  log10 A  0.4343  since log e10  0.4343
T

B
log10 R  log10 A  0.4343 
T

This resembles an equation of straight line whose slope will be equal to

B
0.4343 
T

1
Draw a graph between log10 R on Y-axis and on X-axis. The graph is a straight line
T
and
and the
the slope
slope of
of the
the graph
graph gives
gives the
the value
value of
of 0.4343
0.4343 xx B.
B. B
B can
can be
be determined.
determined. Substituting
Substituting the
the
value of B, the value of A can be determined.
value of B, the value of A can be determined.

MP
Slope =
OP

Check up some values of R at different temperatures by substituting the values of A

and B in equation 6.2 and verify.

41
6.7 PRECAUTIONS

1. Temperatures are to be determined accurately

2. Observations are to be noted while the temperature decreases.

3. All the possible precautions that are to be taken in the wheatstone’s bridge experiment
must be taken.

6.8 IMPORTANCE OF THE EXPERIMENT IN REAL LIFE

1. Thermistors are extensively used as sensing elements in microwave power measuring

equipment’s.

2. They are used for regulating ac voltage.

3. They are used to measure and control the temperature of ovens.

4. They are used to stabilise the bias currents.

6.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How is a thermistor different from the resistor?

2. What is the basic reason for the thermistor to have the negative temperature coefficient?

3. On what factors the values of A and B depend?

4. Why the observations are to be noted while the temperature decreases?

42
6.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. A thermistor has a nonlinear variation of resistance with the temperature, while the
resistance of a resistor varies linearly with temperature

2. When the temperature is increased the velocity of charge carries ( holes or electrons)
increases resulting in the decreasing of resistance.

3. The values of A and B depend on the slope of the line drawn between log10 R versus
l/T.

4. The rate of change of temperature is high during the process of increasing the temperature,
hence the stability of temperature i less when compared to that during the process of
decreasing the temperature.

43
 (Space for Calculations)

44
UNIT - 7: RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

7.1 AIM
To find the temperature of a body using the principle of variation of temperature using
resitance thermometer.

7.2 OBJECTIVES
After doing this experiment you come to know that the resistance varies with temperature
i.e. it increases C increase in temperature.

7.3 APPARATUS
Carey Foster’s bridge, resistance box, galvanometer, a DC power supply and a resistance
etc.

7.4 THEORY

Resistance at given temperature (t) is given by this equation R t  R 0 1  t 

where  = temperature coefficient of resistance.

then R 1  R 0 1  t1  ,R t  s  100  l1  

R 2  R 0 1  t 2  , R 35  s  100  l1  

 R 35  R t  100  l35  l  s  100  l1   .

R 35  R t  2  l1  l35  

Similarly R 45  R t  2  l1  l45   and so on.

Here l1 = balancing length of room temperature.

When coil is in left gap.

and  = potential drop or voltage / length of wire.

It is also taken into consideration that the variation in resistance with temperature takes
place.

45
7.5 PROCEDURE
The experiment is performed with Carey Foster bridge. It is carried out in the following
steps.

1. Resistance is determined at room temperature after the experimental is set up.

2. Resistance of the same wire in determined at different temperatures by indirectly

heating the coil in a beaker of water & finding out the balancing lengths at respective
temperatures.

3. A graph is drawn with temperature on X-axis and corresponding resistances on Y-axis

after calculating the resistances by using the equation.

R 35  R t  2  l1  l35   .

4. From graph the resistance of this wire is found out at unknown temperature.

5. From the graph, the temperature corresponding to this resistance in found out.

Determination of resistance at room temperature:

With the resistance R generally of insulated copper non-inductively wound on a

woodencylinder in left and right gap and some resistance ‘S’ in one gap or other, as above the
balancing lengths l1 & l 2 are found then resistance R  s   l2  l1   .

Resistnace at different temperatures

With similar arrangement but for the resistance is now heated in a beaker of water and
same procedure as above is adopted & the resistance at different temperatures say 30, 40, 50
& 60 is found by and readings are tabulated as in Table 7.1.

Say R 35  R t  2  l1  l35  also a temperature say 350 C .

R P Q S

1 2 3 4

J
A B

46
7.6 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS
(a) Calibration of the bridge wire

Connections are made as shown in figure. A stand and resistance of 0.1  is connected
in the 1st gap and a thick is metallic strip (of zero resistance) in the 4th gap.

Now balancing length l1 , is determined. Then the stand and resistance & metallic strip
are, interchanged and the balancing length ‘ l 2 ’ is determined.

Then since R  s   l2  l1  

and since S = 0 and R = 0.1

0.1 R
 or
l2  l1 l2  l1

Thus the resistance of the bridge wire per unit length    is found out. The procedure
is repeated with 0.2 & 0.5 standard resistances also and results are tabulated.

47
 Table 7.1

Balancing lengths
Resistance R
Before interchanging After interchanging 
(R) l 2  l1
(l1) (l2)

48
(b) Determination of the wire at room temperature

The resistance used for this purpose consists of an insulated copper, non inductively
wound on a wooden cylinder. This coil is connected in the left gap (1). The resistance in this
box ‘S’ in gap (4) is adjusted until the balance point is obtained at about the middle of the wire.
Now correct balancing length  l1  is obtained. The box and coil are interchanged again the
correct balancing interchanged again the correct balancing length l 2 is obtained. Then the
resistance coil at room temperature t 0 C is given by R  S   l2  l1   .

Experiment is repeated with different values of S and the reading are tabulat3ed as
shown below.

Table 7.2
Balancing lengths
Resistance (R) Before interchanging After interchanging   s  l2  l1  
(l1 ) (l2)

49
(c) Resistance at different temperatures and Table III as it is

Table 7.3

Balanc ing lengths

Resistance of coil
Resistance (R) Before interchanging After interchanging
R  Rt  2  l1  lt 
(l1 ) (l2)

50
7.7 PRECAUTIONS
1. Care is taken to see that the balancing length is correctly found.

2. Heating should be done uniformly and seen that the resistance coil does not touch the
bottom of beaker.

7.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by the temperature coefficient of resistance and what is the equation
used to find it.

2. How does the resistance change with temperature, give the equation to find it.

7.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS- ANSWERS

1. The increase in resistance when a conductor is heated through 10 C .

R2  R1
Eqn.   R t  R t
1 2 2 1

2. The resistance of a conductor is proportional to the increase in temperature

Using, Rt  R0 1   t  ,  value can be calculated.

51
 (Space for Calculations)

52
UNIT - 8: SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOLID BY METHOD OF
MIXTURES

8.1 AIM
To determine the specific heat capacity or specific heat of a solid by using method of
mixtures.

8.2 OBJECTIVES
After performing this experiment, the students will be able to know the meaning of
specific heat of solid and liquid and also knows how to determine the specific heat of a solid.

8.3 APPARATUS
Calorimeter, thermometer, lead shotscommon balance, Renault steam heater, .... etc.

8.4 PROCEDURE
Before the experiment is started the principle of calorimetry is studied. According to
this when a hot body and a cold body are brought into contact, heat energy is transferred from
the hot body to the cold body until both of them attain same temperature.

In the above exchange heat energy lost by hot body = heat energy gained by cold body.

As per the definition of specific heat it is the amount of thermal energy that is to be
transferred into one gm of substance to raise its temperature by 10 C . The unit which is expressed
is cal/gm/ 10 C .

In the actual experiment to find the specific heat is solved a polished calorimeter with
a stirrer is weighed and its actual weight  w1  gms is determined. Water upto 2/3 of its volume
is taken into it and the weight of calorimeter with water found i.e. let it be  w 2  gms.

Now the temperature of water in calorimeter  t1 C  is noted. Meanwhile the solid

0

(here lead shots) whose specific heat is to be determined is taken in the form of small pieces
and heated in a Renault’s steam heater which is shown in Figure. 8.1

53
 Fig. 8.1 Renault’s steam heater

The temperature of the solid attains a steady maximum value after sometime. This
temperature  t 2 C  is noted. The calorimeter in then brought near the outlet ‘C’ and the solid is
0

quickly transferred into the calorimeter by raising the inner tube. Now the calorimeter is
removed away from the heater. The contents in the calorimeter are well stirred and the resultant
temperature  t 3 C  is noted.
0

Next after cooling the weight of calorimeter along with the contents  w 3  given is
determined. Observations are reocorded as given below.

8.5 OBSERVATIONS
Weight of calorimeter + stirrer = w1 gms

Weight of calorimeter + 2/3 water in it = w2 gms

Initial temperature of water = t10 C

Steady temperature of hot solid = t 2 0 C

weight of calorimeter + stirrer + water + solid (pb shots) = w3 gms

Resultant temperature = t 30 C

(after transforming Pb shots in to calorimeter)

54
 Specific heat of material of calorimeter = s1

Specific heat of solid = x to be determined.

Now heat gained by calorimeter or increase in initial energy = w 1s  t 3  t 1  cal

Heat gained by water or increase in energy of water =  w 2  w1  t 3  t1  cal

Total heat gained by calorimeter + water + stirrer = w1s   w 2  w1  t 3  t1  cal

Loss of internal energy of hot solid (lead shots) or heat lost by solid =
 w3  w2  x  t 2  t3  cals.

Because heat lost = heat gained

  w 3  w 2  x  t 2  t 3   w1s   w 2  w1  t 3  t1 

Now specific heat of solid (x) can be determined from this equation

8.6 PRECAUTIONS
1. Loss of heat is to be avoided while transferring hot solid into calorimeter.

2. While taking of masses one should take them carefully

3. Care to be taken to see that calorimeter weight should be taken only after the calorimeter
has cooled down after transferring hot solid into it.

8.7 RESULT
Specific heat of given solid is found to be Pb shots specifi heat =

8.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by specific heat of a substance?

2. How do you calculate the heat lost or heat gained by a substance. Principle of
calorimeters and unit of heat.

8.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - ANSWERS

1. Heat required to increase the temperature of the susbtance 1 gm through one degree
centigrade.

2. It is calculated by mst i.e. product of mass, specific heat and difference in temperature.
Heat lost is equal to heat gained and unit in calorie.

55
 (Space for Calculations)

56