BLOOD Fibrinogen:

-“river of life” complex connective tissue in which  4% of plasma proteins

living blood cells, the formed elements are  aids in clot formation
suspended in a nonliving fluid matrix called plasma. Embolism
-clot that travel from site where it was
Functions of Blood
form.
 Transport of gases, nutrients and waste Thrombus
products - blood clot that forms in a vessels.
 Transport of processed molecules Erythrocytes ( RBC)
 Transport of regulatory molecules  Disk-shaped with thick edges
 Regulation of pH and osmosis  Nucleus is lost during development
 Maintenance of body temperature  Live for 120 days
 Protection against foreign substances Function:
 Clot formation -transport O2 to tissues.

Homeostatic Imbalance:
Composition of Blood
Decrease RBC – anemia;
Plasma:
Increase RBC – polycythemia
 55% of total blood
Leukocytosis – a total WBC count above normal;
 pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells
generally indicates bacterial or viral infection
 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other
Leukopenia – abnormally low WBC; commonly
Formed Elements:
caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and
 45% of total blood anticancer agents.
 cells and cell fragments
H. Imbalance: Leukemia –bone marrow becomes
 erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes
cancerous and huge numbers of WBC are turned
Plasma Proteins out rapidly but immature and incapable of carrying
out their functions.
Albumin:
Hemoglobin – an iron-bearing protein, transport
 58% of plasma proteins the bulk of the oxygen that is carried in the blood.
 helps maintain water balance Male 13-18 g/ml; Female 12-16 g/ml

Globulins:
 38% of plasma proteins
 helps immune system
 Hemoglobin
Main component of erythrocytes
Transports O2
Each globin protein is attached to a heme molecule
Each heme contains one iron atom
O2 binds to iron
Oxyhemoglobin:
hemoglobin with an O2 attached
Production of Erythrocytes
 Decreased blood O2 levels cause kidneys to
increase production of erythropoietin.
 Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow
to produce more erythrocytes.
 Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in
blood O2 levels.
Fate of Old Erythrocytes and Hemoglobin
Old red blood cells are removed from blood by
macrophages in spleen and liver
Hemoglobin is broken down
Globin is broken down into amino acids
Hemoglobin’s iron is recycled
Heme is converted to bilirubin
Bilirubin is taken up by liver and released into
small intestine as part of bile.
Leukocytes (WBC)
 Lack hemoglobin
 Larger than erythrocytes
 Contain a nucleus
Functions:
 fight infections
 remove dead cells and debris by
phagocytosis
Classification of WBC:
Granulocytes – granule containing WBCs
1.Neutrophils – most numerous WBC,
phagocytes
2. Eosinophils – increases rapidly during
allergies and infections by parasitic worms
ingested in food or entering via the skin
3. Basophils – rarest of the WBCs, contain
large histamine-containing granules
Agranulocytes:
1.Lymphocytes – play an important role in
immune response, second most numerous
leukocytes
2. Monocytes – largest of the WBCs; when
they migrate into the tissues they become
macrophages with huge appetite
* Never let monkey eat banana*
Types of Leukocytes
Granulocytes: contain specific granules and
include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
1.Neutrophils:
 most common
 remain in blood for 10 to 12 hours then
move to tissues
 phagocytes
2.Eosinophils:
 reduce inflammation
 destroy parasites
3.Basophils:
 least common
 release histamine and heparin
Agranulocytes: no specific granules.
1.Monocytes:
 largest sized white blood cells
 produce macrophages
 Lymphocytes:
 immune response
 several different types (T cells and B
cells)
 lead to production of antibodies
White Blood Cell Disorders
Leukopenia:
 low white blood cell count
 caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs,
tumors, viral infections
Leukocytosis:
 high white blood cell count
 caused by infections and leukemia
Platelets
Platelets are minute fragments of cells, each
consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm
surrounded by a cell membrane.
They are produced in the red bone marrow from
large cells called megakaryocytes.
Small fragments break off from the megakaryocytes and
enter the blood as platelets.
Platelets play an important role in preventing blood
loss.
Platelets – not cells in strict sense; fragments of
bizzare multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes.
RBC – life span is 100 to 120 days; reticulocyte is
young RBC and after 3-5 days becomes mature
RBC.
Erythropoietin – controls erythrocyte production
Hemostatis – stoppage of bleeding
1.Vascular spasm occurs – vasoconstriction of
blood vessels occurs, decreasing blood loss until
clotting can occur
2. Platelet plug forms – platelets becomes sticky
and cling to the damage site
3. Coagulation event occur – formation of fibrin
which forms meshwork to trap RBCs and form the
basis of the clot
Imbalance:
 Thrombus
 Embolus
Thrombocytopenia – insufficient number of
circulating platelet
Petechiae – small purplish blotches
Hemophilia – different hereditary bleeding
disorders
Blood Loss
-When blood vessels are damaged, blood can leak
into other tissues and disrupt normal function.
Blood that is lost must be replaced by production
of new blood or by a transfusion.
Preventing Blood Loss
1.Vascular spasm:
temporary constriction of blood vessel
2.Platelet plugs:
can seal up small breaks in blood vessels
3.Blood clotting (coagulation)
Vascular Spasm
-Vascular spasm is an immediate but temporary
constriction of a blood vessel that results when
smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel
contracts.
This constriction can close small vessels completely
and stop the flow of blood through them.
Vascular spasm is stimulated by chemicals released
by cells of the damaged blood vessel wall and by
platelets.
 Platelet Plug Formation
-A platelet plug is very important in maintaining the
integrity of the damaged blood vessels.
The formation of a platelet plug can be described
as a series of steps, but in actuality many of these
steps occur at the same time.
Platelet adhesion occurs first, when platelets stick
to the exposed collagen in the damaged blood
vessel wall.
After platelets adhere to collagen, they become
activated, change shape, and release chemicals.
Platelet Plug Formation
-In platelet aggregation, fibrinogen forms bridges
between the fibrinogen receptors of numerous
platelets, resulting in a platelet plug.
Blood Clotting
Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel
Clot:
 network of thread-like proteins called fibrin
that trap blood cells and fluid
 depends on clotting factors
Clotting factors:
 proteins in plasma
 only activated following injury
 made in liver
 require vitamin K
Steps in Clot Formation
1.Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting
factors to become activated due to exposed conn.
tissue or release of thromboplastin
2.Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed and
acts upon prothrombin
3.Prothrombin is switched to its active form
thrombin
4.Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its active form
fibrin
5.Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (clots)
Clot Formation Control
-Clots need to be controlled so they don’t spread
throughout the body.
Anticoagulants:
 prevent clots from forming
 Example - heparin and antithrombin
Injury causes enough clotting factors to be
activated that anticoagulants can’t work in that
particular area of the body.
Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
Clot retraction:
 condensing of clot
 serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
 helps enhance healingClot Retraction and
Fibrinolysis
Fibrinolysis:
 process of dissolving clot
 plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down
clot (fibrin)
Blood Grouping
Injury or surgery can lead to a blood transfusion
Transfusion reactions/Agglutination:
 clumping of blood cells (bad)
Antigens:
 molecules on surface of erythrocytes
Antibodies:
 proteins in plasma
Blood groups:
 named according to antigen (ABO)
Antigen – a substance that the body recognizes as
foreign; it stimulates the immune system to release
antibodies.
ABO Blood Groups
-In the ABO blood group system, there are two
types of antigens that may appear on the surface of
the red blood cells, type A antigen and type B
antigen.
Type A blood has type A antigens, type B blood has
type B antigens, and type AB blood has both types
of antigens.
Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens.
The types of antigens found on the surface of the
red blood cells are genetically determined.
ABO Blood Groups
In Caucasians in the United States, the distribution
is type O, 47%; type A, 41%; type B, 9%; and type
AB, 3%.
Among African-Americans, the distribution is type
O, 46%; type A, 27%; type B, 20%; and type AB, 7%.
Blood Donor and Recipient
According to ABO Blood Types
O are universal donors because they have no
antigens
Type A can receive A and O blood
Type B can receive B and O blood
Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood
Type O can only receive O blood
Rh Blood Group
Rh positive means you have Rh antigens
95 to 85% of the population is Rh+
Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is exposed
to Rh+ blood by transfusion or from mother to
fetus.
Rh Incompatibility in Pregnancy
-If mother is Rh- and fetus is Rh+ the mother can be
exposed to Rh+ blood if fetal blood leaks through
placenta and mixes with mother’s blood.
First time this occurs mother’s blood produces
antibodies against antigens.
Any repeated mixing of blood causes a reaction.
Hemolytic Disease of Newborn
This condition
 occurs when mother produces anti-Rh
antibodies that cross placenta and
agglutination and hemolysis of fetal
erythrocytes occurs
 can be fatal to fetus
 prevented if mother is treated with
RhoGAM which contains antibodies against
Rh antigens.
Diagnostic Blood Tests
Complete blood count:
 provides information such as RBC count,
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC count
Hematocrit:
 % of total blood volume composed of RBC
Hemoglobin:
 determines amount of hemoglobin
 indicate anemia
Prothrombin time:
 time it takes for blood to begin clotting (9 to
12 sec.)
White blood cell count:

 total number of white blood cells

White blood cell differential count:

 Determines the % of each 5 kinds of

leukocytes
 neutrophils: 60 to 70%
 lymphocytes: 20 to 25%
 monocytes: 3 to 8%
 eosinophils: 2 to 4%
 basophils: 0.5 to 1%