South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

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South African Journal of Botany

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sajb

The genus Senna (Fabaceae): A review on its traditional uses, botany,

phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology
Oluwole Solomon Oladejia,b,*, Funmilayo Enitan Adelowoc, Abimbola Peter Oluyoria
a
Department of Physical Sciences, Industrial Chemistry Programme, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria
b
Landmark University Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 3): Good Health and Well-being Research Group, Nigeria
c
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article History: Genus Senna belongs to the family of Fabaceae and comprises of about 250
300 accepted species extensively
Received 10 June 2020 dispersed in tropical and subtropical regions. The Senna species is widely used in Africa, Asia, Europe and
Revised 4 November 2020 Latin America, some Senna species are well-known for their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities
Accepted 19 November 2020
with basis in traditional medicine to treat diabetes, microbial infections, malaria fever and other ailments.
Available online xxx
This review was extensively prepared by a comprehensive assessment of available literature via major scien-
Edited by M Marrelli tific catalogues. The genus contains important metabolites such as alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, tan-
Keywords:
nins, glycosides, steroids, terpenoids, saponins and volatile oils. The crude extracts and isolated metabolites
Fabaceae from Senna displayed a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological activities such as antidiabetic, anti-
Phytochemistry gonorrhea, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antipyretic, antinociceptive, antidepressant and anti-inflammatory
Pharmacology functions displayed by the genus Senna. The objective of this review is to critically explore the advances in
Ethnopharmacology the botanical, phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological studies of the genus Senna, which will pro-
Senna vide a useful bibliography for further investigations and applications in medicines. The review reveals that
Toxicity study Senna species have been widely used for therapeutic purpose and substantial traditional evidence of their
applications exist. Further studies should be tailored towards targeting active metabolites responsible for the
pharmacological activities, structural elucidation and toxicological appraisals.
© 2020 SAAB. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The genus Senna is a perennial plant belonging to the family Faba-
ceae. There are almost 250
300 accepted species distributed
throughout the world, but are most dispersed in tropical and sub-
tropical regions of Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America. Senna spp.
has been used universally in folk medicines for several years. In
China, India, Mexico, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand and Africa, Senna spp.
is well-known as an active therapy in improving human health and
treatment of wide range of diseases and infections such as diabetes,
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), measles, malaria, inflammation,
abdominal pain, typhoid and gonorrheal (Silva et al., 2008). In the
last decade, several Senna spp. have been explored due to the struc-
tural diversity of bioactive molecules coupled with broad spectrum
of biological and pharmacological activities exhibited by aerial and
underground parts of Senna species (root, bark, stem, leaf, seed and
fruit).
* Corresponding author at: Department of Physical Sciences, Industrial Chemistry
Programme, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Landmark University, Omu-Aran,
Kwara State, Nigeria.
E-mail address: oladeji.oluwole@lmu.edu.ng (O.S. Oladeji).
The genus Senna species are mostly annual or biannual shrub
with a distinctive fragrance. Most Senna spp. sprouts (grows) in
sunny, grassland, coastal environs, waste and water-logged areas
(Hennebelle et al., 2009, Vashishtha et al., 2009). According to the
morphological information, most Senna spp. are closely related with
disparity in size and leaves alignment (or arrangement) (Waltenber-
gera et al., 2008).
Lately, the pharmacologically bioactive metabolites from different
Senna spp. have been explored. Furthermore, research has revealed
that Senna plants yielded over 120 structurally diverse phytochemicals
including piperidine alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, tannins, sapo-
nins, steroids, flavonoids, anthraquinones, polyphenol and anthrones
(Hennebelle et al., 2009). Recent pharmacological studies have con-
firmed that the crude extracts, fractions or isolated metabolites of the
genus Senna possess antimalarial, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxi-
dant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitumor, antinociceptive and
anticancer (Ibrahim and Islam, 2014). Till date, noteworthy innova-
tions have been achieved based on extensive phytochemical appraisals
of Senna leading to the elucidation of phytoconstituents with interest-
ing pharmacological activities. Nevertheless, the available phytochem-
ical studies are far from adequate to promote the use of the species as
medicinal bioresources. Therefore, this review is tailored towards

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2020.11.017
0254-6299/© 2020 SAAB. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
comprehensive correlation among the traditional uses, phytochemis-
try and pharmacology of genus Senna in order to unveil their thera-
peutic potential, bring to light the gaps in the present knowledge, and
assess future research opportunities which could lead to unearthing of
novel pharmacophore.
2. Research methodology
This review was extensively prepared by a comprehensive assess-
ment of available literature via major scientific catalogues such as
Scopus, SciFinder, PubMed, Science Direct and Google Scholar. Also,
relevant information was explored from available books of taxonomy
and ethnopharmacology. This information was acquired from The
Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org), the floras books and Tropicos
(http://www.tropicos.org). Keywords used for collecting the pub-
lished articles are Senna, traditional uses of Senna, pharmacology,
phytochemistry and toxicological study of the genus Senna. After col-
lection of published articles, results were analyzed and selectively
grouped according to the theme of the review or section. About 320
published articles were collected and articles not written in English
(25) or published before 1980 (32) were expunged from the library of
downloaded articles.
3. Botany
The genus Senna comprises mostly of flowering plants (shrubs,
herbs and trees) belonging to the family (legume or Fabaceae), sub-
family (Caesalpinioideae) and order (Fabales). According to “The
Plant List” (www.theplantlist.org), there are about 250-300 accepted
species widely dispersed and cultivated all over the world (Marazzi
et al., 2006; Randell and Barlow, 1998). The leaves are pinnate with
opposite paired leaflets. The flowers consist mostly of five petals and
sepals, with ten straight stamens of different sizes and could exist as
staminodes. Generally, the inflorescence formed racemes at the edge
of each branches. Commonly, Senna species produce legume pod
(fruits) with several seeds (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2001).
4. Ethnopharmacology of the genus Senna
Senna species have been used in the Siddha, Unani and Ayurveda
(traditional Indian medical system), traditional Chinese systems, tra-
ditional Tibetan folk medicine and African traditional medicine (Table
1) (Bum et al., 2010; Jafri et al., 1999; Jain et al., 1997; Silva et al.,
2011; Singh et al., 2013; Viegas et al., 2004). Most of the plants’ parts
of Senna spp. are commonly used in preparation of herbal drugs (or
medicine) for the treatment of various diseases and infections. Gener-
ally, herbal medicines of the genus Senna prepared by maceration,
decoction, infusion, exudates or stem bath have been commonly
used as therapeutic substances (Oladeji et al., 2016; 2020). Amongst
all Senna species, Senna occidentalis and Senna alata are generally
used by the Siddha, Ayuverda and African physicians in the treatment
of typhoid, malaria, yellow fever and cholera (Oladeji et al., 2020;
2020; Sansores-Perazaa et al., 2000; Singh et al., 2013; Yadav et al.,
2010).
5. Recent update on bioactive metabolites of the genus Senna
The comprehensive phytoconstituents studies of some Senna spp.
has immensely contributed to the identification of a broad spectrum
of bioactive metabolites characterized by structural diversity (Table
2). A considerable number of these phytoconstituents are anthraqui-
nones, flavonoid, terpenoids, essential oils, anthrones, alkaloids, tan-
nins, polyphenols, glycosides, steroids and saponins were isolated
from several Senna spp (Bene et al., 2019; Malmir et al., 2015; Nam-
birajan et al., 2018; Ramsay and Mueller-Harvey, 2015). Some of
these phytoconstituents exhibited considerable in vitro and in vivo
2
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
bioactivities, while others have been explored for their potential bio-
activities and structures. From these platform, several benefits ema-
nating from recent phytochemical studies will enhance discovery of
novel and potent drugs from several Senna species.
5.1. Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds are abundant phytoconstituents in the genus
Senna and have potential as biomarkers in herbal therapy (Fig. 1).
Several factors could contribute to the significant increase or
decrease in chemical composition of phenolic contents in Senna spp.
These are solvent polarity, extraction method and geographical loca-
tion of the plant. According to spectroscopic data obtained from
liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry
(LC-ESI-MS), six phenolic compounds (1
6) were isolated from bud
and flower of Senna auriculata (Nambirajan et al., 2018). A biflavanoid
procyanidin (7) of the proguibourtinidin group with significant bioac-
tivities was isolated from the root of Senna macranthera (Klika et al.,
2015). Nascimento et al., (2020) conducted a study on the phyto-
chemical content of ethyl acetate fraction of S. macranthera flower
via UHPLC-MS and the structural elucidation was performed using
High resolution electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (HRE-
SIMS) and Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). The phytochemical
investigations led to the isolation of two flavan-3-ol (8-9), one fla-
vone (10), two glycosylated flavonols (11-12), five proanthocyanidin
dimers (13
17) and four proanthocyanidin trimmers (18-21). Two
bioactive flavonoid glycosides identified as rhamnetin-neohesperido-
side (22) and 5,7,40 -trihy-droxy-3,6,30 -trimethoxyflavone 7-O-(2-
rhamnosylglucoside) (23) were isolated from the fruit of S. occidenta-
lis (Yadav et al., 2010). Kaempferol-3-O-gentiobioside (24), with pro-
nounced free scavenging activity was isolated from S. alata leaves
(Moriyama et al., 2001). Kamagate
et al., (2014) isolated and identi-
fied flavonone (25), flavonol (26) and flavanonols (27) from the
methanolic extract of Senna siamea flower using high performance
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometer/ mass spectrometer
(HPLC-MS/MS). Bene et al., (2019) also isolated these phytoconstitu-
ents from the stem bark extract of S. siamea. In addition to the iso-
lated metabolites, kaempferol-3-O- glucoside (28) and chrysoeriol
(29) were identified from the methanolic extract of S. siamea stem-
bark. Two bioactive metabolites, that is, a flavone (30) and flavonoid
glycoside, rhamnetin-3-O-(200 -O-b-D-mannopyranosyl)-b-D-allopyr-
anoside (31) were isolated from the seed extract of S. alata (Gupta
and Singh, 1991). According to liquid chromatography-mass spec-
trometer (LC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data, three
bioactive proanthocyanidins which are linked to propelargonidins
(32-34) were isolated from the leaves of S. alata (Ramsay and Muel-
ler-Harvey, 2015). Baez et al. (1999) analyzed the phytoconstituents
in the alcoholic root extract of Senna kinneri and Senna wislizeni.
The structures were elucidated according to the available spectro-
scopic data. Two unknown flavonoid (35,36) and flavonoid aglycone
(1,37) with a novel stilbenoid identified as piceatannol (38) were elu-
cidated from the isolates. There are eight phytoconstituents (39-46)
isolated from the ethyl acetate fractions of Senna tora. The metabo-
lites were characterized from the molecular peak ion and fragmenta-
tion pattern from chromatogram of gas chromatography-mass
spectrometer (GC-MS) and LC-MS (Fathalla et al., 2018). Kharat et al.
(2017) isolated two ellagitannins with a unique C-C bond linkage
identified as hexahydroxy diphenic acid (47) and a known metabo-
lite, kaempferol (26) from the methanolic leaves extract of Senna
sophera.
5.2. Anthraquinones
Anthraquinone is one of the major phytoconstituents found in
Senna genus. The most common scaffold is the hydroxyl-anthraqui-
none. Generally, more than 20 phytoconstituents of hydroxyl
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Table 1
Some of the most important traditional and ethnomedicinal properties of some species from genus Senna.

Species Country Plant part used Traditional uses/Indication References

S. acutifolia (Delile) Batka Egypt and India Leaves and flower Laxative Sezer et al., 2019
S. alata (L.) Roxb. India, Fiji, Indonesia and Malay- Leaves and flower Ringworm, skin diseases such as Dey and Bahadur, 1973
sia Leaves and flower eczema and chronic purities Longuefosse and Nossin, 1996
France Leaves Digestive and skin ailments such Hennebelle et al., 2009;
Ethiopia Leaves and bark as athletes foot, skin rash. Damodaran and Venkatara-
Kenya, Tanzania and Nigeria Leaves, stem, bark Pityriasis versicolor and hyme- man, 1994
India, Cameroon and Nigeria Leaves nolepisdiminuta. Abate, 1989
Nigeria Skin cancer (Minshiro Nekersa) Kokwaro, 1976; Sugumar et al.,
Pain, diabetes and reduce blood 2016
sugar, gastroenteritis, ring- Palanichamy and Nagara-
worm and eczema jan, 1990; Morah and
Eczema Otumu, 1991
S. alexandrina Mill. China Leaves Purgative, control bowel Wang et al., 2018
movements Farnsworth and
Bunyapraphatsara, 1992
S. angustifolia (Vahl) Batka India Whole plant Laxative Kayina et al., 2012
S. auriculata (L.) Roxb. India and Sri Lanka Roots, flowers and buds Rheumatism, eye diseases, gon- Nambirajan et al., 2018
orrhea, diabetes, conjunctivitis Latha and Pari, 2003
and gout.
S. bicapsularis (L.) Roxb Asia and Africa Leaves Microbial infections Mak et al., 2013
S. didymobotrya (Fresen.) H.S. Asia and Africa Leaves and stem bark Ringworm, intestinal worm, fun- Semenya, et al., 2012
Irwin & Barneby gal, hypertension and sickle
cell anemia.
S. macranthera (Collad.) H.S. Brazil Seed and endocarp Fever Aquila et al., 2012
Irwin & Barneby
S. obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Asia Whole plant Ophthalmic diseases, constipa- Ju et al., 2010; Jung et al., 2016
Barneby tion and hyperlipidemia
S. occidentalis (L.) Link China and other Asia continent Whole plant Liver and urinary tract diseases, Tanimu and Wudil, 2012;
India Leaves and stem gonorrhea and tuberculosis. Vijayalakshmi et al., 2013
Seeds Fracture and bone diseases. Pal et al., 2019
Human disorders Franz, 1993
S. podocarpa (Guill. & Perr.) Lock Africa Leaves and root Gonorrhea Malmir et al., 2015
S. racemosa (Mill.) H.S.Irwin & Mexico Leaf, stem bark and root Diabetes, diarrhea, fever and Rosado-Vallado et al., 2000;
Barneby Mexico Whole plant abdominal pain Flores, 2001
Diarrhea Arellano-Rodriguez et al., 2003
S. rugosa (G.Don) H.S.Irwin & Brazil Root Skin infection and fever Sasores-Peraza et al., 2000
Barneby
S. septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S.Irwin Mexico Whole plant Fever, flu, stomach-ache and Bye and Linares, 2013
& Barneby Asia and Africa Whole plant wounds Jones et al., 2000
Mexico Leaves Laxative and vermifuge, hemor- Randriamiharisoa et al., 2015
rhoids and snakebites Jones et al. 2000
Alopecia, rabies, cold, cholera,
inflammation and pain
S. siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, Stem bark is used for the treat- Tabuti, et al., 2010; Yetein, et al.,
Barneby Mali, and Sierra Leone ment of tuberculosis, malaria 2013
and allied diseases.
S. singueana (Delile) Lock India, China, Tanzania, Kenya, Leaves (sap), stem bark Malaria and diabetes mellitus Etuk et al., 2010
Burkina Faso Nadembega et al., 2011
S. spectabilis (DC.) H.S.Irwin & Brazil Whole plant Anti-microbial, laxative and Jain et al., 1997; Jafri et al., 1999
Barneby Brazil Leaves anti-ulcerogenic Viegas et al., 2004; Silva et al.,
West Africa Whole plant Leaves decoction is used as anal- 2011
Asia and Thai Leaves gesic and to relieve pain dur- Bum et al., 2010
China Leaves ing child labour Singh et al., 2013
Cameroon Laxative and purgative Singh et al., 2013
Constipation, insomnia, anxiety, Nsonde-Ntandou et al., 2005
epilepsy, malaria, dysentery
and cephalalgia
Fever, ringworm, eczema and
scabies.
Constipation, epilepsy, insomnia,
anxiety and dysenteries
S. surattensis (Burm.f.) H.S.Irwin Egypt Leaves, bark and fruits Antidote to poison, diabetes and Ebadi, 2002
& Barneby gonorrhea. Kirtikar KR, Basu, 1935
S. tora (L.) Roxb. India Seed Regulate lipid in the blood serum Pawar and Lalitha, 2014
S. velutina (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Brazil Root, bark, flower and leaves Leukemia Campos et al., 2016
Barneby
S. villosa (Mill.) H.S.Irwin & Mexico Leaves Skin infections, inflammatory BADEPY, 1985
Barneby problems and dysmenorrhea.

anthraquinones have been isolated from the genus Senna (Fig. 2). The
metabolites possess a unique 1,4- quinone and 9,10-anthraquinones
structural moieties. Abegaz et al. (1994) isolated four dimeric anthra-
cene derivatives (48-51) from chloroform extract of Senna multiglan-
dulosa leaves. According to chemical and spectroscopic data, two
new bianthraquinones (52,53) and four known bianthraquinones
(54-57) were isolated from the pods of Senna didymobotrya. Based
on comparison of spectroscopic data with literature, the known
metabolites were identified as emodin (54), chrysophanol (55),
physcion (56) and knipholone (57) (Alemayehu et al., 1996).

3
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Table 2
The structural diversity of genus Senna.

Compound Plant specie(s) Plant part Reference

Quercetin (1), spermidine (2), N8 Acetyl spermidine (3), S. auriculata Bud and flower Nambirajan et al., 2018).
cyanidin (4), hesperidin (5), vitexin -2”-O-rhamnosid (6)
(2R*,3S*,4S*,2"R*,3"S*)-Guibourtinidol-(4a!8)-catechin (7) S. macranthera Root Klika et al., 2015
Catechin (8), gallocatechin (9), luteolin (10), quercetin-3-O-gluco- S. macranthera Flower Nascimento, et al. 2020
side (11), myricetin-3-O-glucoside (12), S. occidentalis Fruit Yadav et al., 2010
(ent)-cassiaflavan-catechin (13), S. alata Leaves Moriyama et al., 2001
cassiaflavan-gallocatechin (14),
guibourtinidol-catechin (15),
guibourtinidol-gallocatechin (16),
fisetinidol-gallocatechin (17),
guibourtinidol-guibourtiniol-catechin (18),
guibourtinidol-gallocatechin (19),
guibourtinidol-afzelechin (20)
Rhamnetin-neohesperidosid (21),
Rhamnetin-neohesperidoside (22),
3,20 -dihydroxy-7,8,40 -trimethoxyflavvon-5-O-{-b-D-allopyrano-
side-2 (23),
Kaempferol-3-O-gentiobioside (24),
Naringenin (25), kaempferol (26), dihydroquercetin (27) S. siamea Flower Kamagate
et al., 2014
Kaempferol-3-O- glucoside (28), chrysoeriol (29) S. siamea Stem bark Bene et al., 2019
Santal (7-O-methylorobol) (30) S. alata Stem Hemlata and Khalidha, 1993
Rhamnetin-3-O-(200 -O-b-D-mannopyranosyl)-b-D-allopyranoside S. alata Seeds Gupta and Singh, 1991
(31)
Epiafzelechin (32), procyanidins (33), prodelphinidins (34) S. alata Leaves Ramsay and Mueller-Harvey, 2015
5,7-dimethoxyrutin (35), 5,7-dirnethoxyquercetin (36), rutin (37), S. skinneri and S. wislizeni Root Baez et al., 1999
piceatanol (38)
Chrysophanol (39), chrysarobin (40), 10-hydroxy-5-methoxy-2- S.tora Leaves Fathalla et al., 2018
methyl-1,4-anthracenedione (41), rubrofusarin (42), parietin
(43), griseoxanthone-B (44), isotorachrysone (45), cumbiasin B
(46)
Hexahydroxy diphenic acid (47) S. sophera Leaves Kharat et al., 2017
Floribundone-1 (48), torosanin-90 ,100 -quinone (49), anhydro- S. multiglandulosa Leaves Abegaz et al., 1994
phlegmacin (50), 9-(physcion-7’-yl)-5,10-dihydroxy-2-
methoxy-7-methyl-1,4-anthraquinone (51)
10-hydroxy-10-(physcion-70 -yl)-chrysophanol anthrone (52), S. didymobotrya Pod Alemayehu et al., 1996
5,10-dihydroxy-2-methyl-9-(physcion-70 -yl)-l,4 anthraquinone
(53), emodin (54), quinquangulin (55), physcion (56), knipho-
lone (57)
Torachrysone (58), chrysophanol bianthrone (59), chrysophanol- S. longiracemosa Leaves Alamayehu et al., 1993
physcion bianthrone (60), chrysophanol-isophyscion bian-
throne (61), isophyscion bianthrone (62), rubrofusarin (63),
nataloemodin (64)
2-methoxystypandrone (65) S. longiracemosa Root bark Alamayehu et al., 1993
Presengulone (66), sengulone (67), isosengulone (68), torosachry- S. sophera Seed
sone (69), anhydrophlegmacin-9,10-quinones A (70), anhydro-
phlegmacin-9,10-quinones B2 (71)
Chrysophanol-8-methylether (72), xanthorin questin (73), 1- S. lindheimeriana Root Barba et al., 1992
hydroxy-3-methyl-2,6,7,8-tetramethoxy-9,10-anthraquinone
(74)
Rhein (75) S. podocarpa Root Malmir et al., 2015
Obtusifolin-2-O-b-ᴅ-(6’-O-a,b-unsaturated butyryl)-glucopyra- S. obtusifolia Seeds Pang et al., 2018
noside (76)
epi-9-dehydroxyeurotinone-b-dglucopyranoside (77)
Madagascin (3-isopentenyloxyemodin) (78) S. alexandrina Fruit and leaves Epifano et al., 2015
3- geranyloxyemodine (79)
Fistulaquinones A-C (80-82) S. fistula Twigs Zhou et al., 2017
Iso-6-cassine (83), iso-6-cassine (12-[(2R,5R,6R)-5-hydroxy-6- S. spectabilis Leaves Freitas et al., 2011; Pivatto et al., 2014
methylpiperidin-2-yl]dodecan-2-one)] (84) Flower Pivatto et al., 2014
(-)-3-O-acetylcassine (85), (-)-3-O-acetylspectaline (86)
120 -hydroxy-70 -multijuguinol (87) S. multijuga Leaves Francisco et al., 2012
(-)-cassine (88), S. spectabilis Leaves Castro et al., 2008
(-)-spectaline (89) Flower
70 -multijuguinone (90), S. multijuga Leaves Seranno et al., 2010
120 -hydroxy-70 -multijuguinone (91)
120 -hydroxy-70 -multijuguinol (92), 120 -hydroxy-80 -multijuguinol S. multijuga Leaves Francisco et al., 2012
(93), methyl multijuguinate (94), 70 -multijuguinol (95), and 80 -
multijuguinol (96)
5-hydroxy-2-methyl-6-(110 -oxododecyl)-pyridine (97), S. spectabilis Flower Sriphong et al., 2003
5-hydroxy-2-methyl-6-(110 -oxododecyl)-pyridine N-oxide (98),
3(R)-benzoyloxy-2(R)-methyl-6(R)-(110 -oxododecyl)-piperidine
(99)
(-)-7-hydroxyspectaline (100), iso-6-spectaline (101) S. spectabilis Flower Viegas et al., 2004
Cassiarins C-E (102-104) S. siamea Flower Oshiumi et al., 2009
10,11-dihydroanhydrobarakol (105)

(continued)

4
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Table 2 (Continued)
Compound Plant specie(s)
Cassiarins A and B (106-107) S. siamea
Cassiarins G, H, J, and K (108-111) S. siamea
Chrobisiamone A (112), 5-acetonyl-7-hydroxy-2-methylchro- S. siamea
mone (113) and N,O-diacetylcassine (114)
5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methyl-6-prenylisoindolin-1-one (115) S. siamea
Terpinolene (116), a-pinene (117), borneol (118), globulol (119) S. occidentalis
and terpineol (120)
Cycloccidentalic acid C (121), cycloccidentaliside VI (122) S. occidentalis
3-isopropyl-1,6-dimethoxy-5-methyl-naphthalen-7-ol (123), 2,7- S. occidentalis
dihydroxy-4-isopropyl-6-methyl-naphthalene-1-carbaldehyde
(124)
Cycloccidentalic acid A and B (125-126) S. occidentalis
Lupeol (127), a-amyrin (128), betulinic acid (129) S. siamea, S. italic and Senna greggii
Stigmasterol (130), b-Sitosterol (131) and daucosterol (132), S. alata,
(-)-7-acetoxy-9,10-dimethyl-1,5-octacosanolide (133), S. occidentalis
(E)-eicos-14-enoic acid (134), friedelin (135)
2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone (136), dalbergin (137), 2,3,7-tri-o-
methylellagic acid (138), torachrysone (139), p-hydroxybenzoic
acid (140), adenine (141), 1-hydroxyxanthone-6,8-dicarboxylic
acid (142)
Alemayehu et al., (1993) isolated eight bioanthrones of anthracene
and naphthalene derivatives (58-65) from the root and leaves of
Senna longiracemosa. Out of the isolated metabolites, 46, 61-63 were
new compounds, however, compound (46) has been previously iso-
lated from the leaves of Aloe vera. Phytochemical studies of the seed
of S. sophera led to the isolation of 1,4- anthraquinone- dihydroan-
thracenone dimer. According to spectroscopic and chemical informa-
tion, the isolated metabolites are identified as presengulone (66),
sengulone (67), isosengulone (68), torosachrysone (69), anhydro-
phlegmacin- 9,10-quinones A (70), anhydrophlegmacin- 9,10-qui-
nones B2 (71) and floribundone-I (72). From the identified
metabolites, compound 66 is reported for the first time in the genus
Senna (Alemayehu et al., 1998).
The phytoconstituents investigation of the alcoholic root
extract of Senna lindheimeriana led to the isolation of five estab-
lished 9,10- anthraquinones dimers (54-56,73) and a novel
metabolite identified as 1-hydroxy-3-methyl-2,6,7,8-tetrame-
thoxy-9,10-anthraquinone (74). Compound 74 was reported as a
new phytoconstituents, however, it has been synthesized by
methylation of 3-methyl-8- methoxy-1,2,6,7-tetrahydroxy-9,10-
anthraquinone (Barba et al., 1992). Malmir et al. (2015) isolated
and identified four anthraquinone derivatives from root fraction
(Spr-1) of Senna podocarpa via liquid chromatography-ultra vio-
let/ (LC-UV/DAD co-chromatography. The compounds based on
the available chromatogram were identified as rhein (75) and
metabolites (54-56) which have been reported in other Senna
species. A novel anthraquinone (76) and eurotinone analogue
(77) were isolated from the seeds of Senna obtusifolia according
to chemical and spectroscopic data (Pang et al., 2018). According
to spectroscopic data two new prenyloxyanthraquinones (78,79)
were isolated and identified from the fruit and leaves of Senna
alexandrina Mill (Epifano et al., 2015). Three new anthraquinones
identified as fistulaquinones A-C (80-82) were isolated from the
twigs of Senna fistula (Zhou et al., 2017).
5.3. Alkaloids
Alkaloids are major phytoconstituents in this genus with diverse bio-
logical and pharmacological activities. Few alkaloids have been reported
from the genus Senna with the predominant metabolites identified as
piperidine, cassine, pyridine and homologous alkaloids (Fig. 3). These
alkaloids contains two polar homologue-derivatives with variation in
two methylene units in the side chain (Freitas et al., 2011; Pivatto et al.,
2014; Sansores-Peraza et al., 2000). The major alkaloids reported in the
5
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
Plant part Reference
Leaves Morita et al., 2007
Leaves Oshimi et al., 2008
Leaves Oshimi et al., 2008
Leaves Zhou et al., 2016
Whole plant Mworia et al., 2019
Whole plant Li and Li, 2017
Whole plant Qin et al., 2016
Whole plant Li et al., 2012
Stem bark Ajaiyeoba et al., 2008
Whole plant Hennebelle et al., 2009
Bark, leaves and flowers Hennebelle et al., 2009
genus Senna are iso-6-cassine (83), iso-6-cassine (12-[(2R,5R,6R)-5-
hydroxy-6-methylpiperidin-2-yl]dodecan-2-one) (84), (-)-3-O-acetyl-
cassine (85), (-)-3-O-acetylspectaline (86), 120 -hydroxy-70 -multijuguinol
(87), (-)-cassine (88) and (-)-spectaline (89) (Freitas et al., 2011; Pivatto
et al., 2014; Sansores-Peraza et al., 2000).
On the basis of spectroscopic data interpretation, two novel pyridine
alkaloids identified as 70 -multijuguinone (90) and 120 -hydroxy-70 -multi-
juguinone (91), were isolated from the leaves of Senna multijuga (Ser-
anno et al., 2010). Francisco et al., isolated five novel pyridine alkaloids
from the leaves of S. multijuga. According to spectroscopic and chemical
data, the metabolites were identified as 120 -hydroxy-70 -multijuguinol
(92), 120 -hydroxy-80 -multijuguinol (93), methyl multijuguinate (94), 70 -
multijuguinol (95), and 80 -multijuguinol (96) (Francisco et al., 2012).
Three pyridine alkaloids were isolated from the flowers of S. spectabilis.
Based on spectroscopic details, the alkaloids were identified as 5-
hydroxy-2-methyl-6-(110 -oxododecyl)-pyridine (97), 5-hydroxy-2-
methyl-6-(110 -oxododecyl)-pyridine N-oxide (98) and 3(R)-benzoy-
loxy-2(R)-methyl-6(R)-(110 -oxododecyl)-piperidine (99) (Sriphong et
al., 2003). In addition to pyridine alkaloids (97-99), two new alkaloids
identified as (-)-7-hydroxyspectaline (100), and iso-6-spectaline (101),
with a known metabolite identified as (-)-3-O-acetylspectaline (86)
were isolated from the flower of S. spectabilis (Viegas et al., 2004). Three
dimeric and a novel chromone alkaloids were isolated from flowers of
Senna siamea and the structures were elucidated by spectroscopic data.
The metabolites were identified as cassiarins C-E (102-104) and 10,11-
dihydroanhydrobarakol (105). Metabolite (102) was a dimeric phyto-
constituents comprising of 5-acetonyl-7-hydroxy-2-methylchromone
(Oshiumi et al., 2009). According to Morita et al., two novel alkaloids
with a unique tricyclic skeleton were isolated from the leaves of S. sia-
mea. According to spectroscopic data, they are identified as cassiarins A
(106) and B (107) (Morita et al., 2007). Cassiarins G, H, J, and K (108-
111) were also isolated from leaves of S. siamea (Deguchi et al., 2012). A
novel bischromone alkaloid identified as chrobisiamone A (112), 5-ace-
tonyl-7-hydroxy-2-methylchromone (113) and N-O-diacetylcassine
(114) formed from the cyclization of (113) were isolated from the leaves
of S. siamea (Oshimi et al., 2008). A novel isoindole alkaloid identified as
5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methyl-6-prenylisoindolin-1-one (115) was iso-
lated from the leaves of S. siamea via chromatographic techniques
(Zhou et al., 2016).
5.4. Terpenoids
Terpenoids is also one of key phytoconstituents found in the
genus Senna. Basically, the common terpenoids in Senna spp. is
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 1. Phenolic compounds isolated from the genus Senna.
the triterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids (Fig. 4). Some of the terpe-
noids isolated from the genus Senna are terpinolene (116),
a-pinene (117), borneol (118), globulol (119) and terpineol (120)
(Mworia et al., 2019). A cycloartane triterpenoid identified as
cycloccidentakic C (121) and its glycoside derivative identified as
cycloccidentaliside VI (122) were isolated from the whole plant of
6
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
S. occidentalis and structures were elucidated according to spec-
troscopic data (Li and Li, 2017). A novel nor-sesquiterpene identi-
fied as 3-isopropyl-1,6-dimethoxy-5-methyl-naphthalen-7-ol
(123) and 2,7-dihydroxy-4-isopropyl-6-methyl-naphthalene-1-
carbaldehyde (124) were isolated from S. occidentalis. Metabolite
(124) was first isolated from the plant (Qin et al., 2016). In
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 1 Continued.

addition, two cycloartane triterpenoids, identified as cyclocciden- 5.5. Steroids

talic acids A and B (125-126) were also isolated from S. occidenta-
lis (Li et al., 2012). Three triterpenoids identified as lupeol (127),
a-amyrin (128) and betulinic acid (129) were isolated from S. sia-
mea (stem bark), Senna italic and Senna greggii (Ajaiyeoba et al.,
2008).
7
The major steroids isolated from the Senna genus are stigmasterol
(130), b-Sitosterol (131) and daucosterol (132), (-)-7-acetoxy-9,10-
dimethyl-1,5-octacosanolide (133), (E)-eicos-14-enoic acid (134) and
friedelin (135) (Fig. 5) (Hennebelle et al., 2009).
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 1 Continued.

5.6. Miscellaneous phytoconstituents are 2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone (136), dalbergin

(137), 2,3,7-tri-o-methylellagic acid (138), torachrysone (139), p-
Several non-volatile secondary metabolites have been isolated hydroxybenzoic acid (140), adenine (141) and 1-hydroxyxanthone-
from the bark, leaves and flowers of genus Senna (Fig. 6). These 6,8-dicarboxylic acid (142) (Hennebelle et al., 2009).
8
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 1 Continued.

6. Volatile oils a-terpineol, b-caryophyllene, limonene, cyperene, t -cadinol, caryo-

phyllene oxide, 2,5-dimethoxy-p-cymene, benzyl benzoate, b-caryo-
The genus Senna are mostly cultivated for volatile oils and most phyllene, (E)-phytol, hexadecanoic acid, pentadecanal, 6,10,14-
Senna spp. give an unpleasant scent when grinded. The quantitative and trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, linalool, borneol and pentadecanal (Agna-
qualitative analysis of volatile oils in Senna spp. revealed the presence of niet et al., 2005; Essien et al., 2011; Essien et al., 2018).

9
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 1 Continued.

7. Progress of pharmacological studies on genus Senna 7.1. Anti-infectious effects

A wide range of therapeutic activities have been reported for
crude extracts, fractions and isolated metabolites (Table 3) from
Senna spp. The diversity of pharmacological properties, starting
from anti-infectious, effects on digestive disorders and effects on
pain and neurological disorder are comprehensively explored.
7.1.1. Antimicrobial potential
The antimicrobial potential is regarded as the most extensively
studied therapeutic application of the genus Senna. The activities
reported in this section will be based on the significance to human
health via minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) or minimum

10
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 1 Continued.

bactericidal concentration (MBC). Piceatannol (38), a stilbenoid found
in the roots of Senna skinneri exhibited strong resistance against Sal-
monella typhimurium and Escherichia coli when assessed via agar
overlay technique (Baez et al., 1999). Anthraquinone and flavonoid
metabolites (10, 26, 54) isolated from the methanolic leaves extract
of S. alata significantly displayed pronounced inhibitory activities
against multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria strains. Of the metabo-
lites, 54 exhibited strong inhibitory activities (MIC= 4 to 128 mg/mL)
(Tatsimo et al., 2017). Metabolites (1, 25, 29 and 31) isolated from
leaves extract of S. alata significantly inhibited growth of gram

11
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 1 Continued.
positive and negative bacteria. A close activity was displayed by the
isolated metabolites and the control (chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin,
fluconazole and penicillin) against E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, Streptococ-
cus spp and Vibrio cholera (Chatterjee and Dutta, 2012). The piperi-
dine alkaloid (88) found in the leaves of S. racemosa significantly
inhibited the growth of bacterial and fungal isolates with MIC of
Staphylococcus aureus and B. subtilis (2.5 mg/mL) and Candida albicans
(5.0 mg/mL) (Sansores-Peraza et al., 2000).
Phenolic compounds (8-19) isolated from S. macranthera flower
significantly inhibited the growth of tested microbes. Also, flavonoid-
rich extracts and fractions were assessed on fungal isolates. Out of
the extracts, ethanolic extract exerted strong inhibitory activities
(MIC = 5.9 to 23.4 mg/mL), ethyl acetate fraction exhibited significant
activities against C. glabrata (MIC = 5.9 mg m/L), C. tropicalis and C.
albicans (MIC = 23.4 mg/mL), while amphotericin B displayed moder-
ate activities (MIC = 0.1
0.2 mg/mL) (Nascimento et al., 2020). The
anthraquinone glycosides (76-79) and steroids (93-95) obtained
from both crude extracts and purified fractions of the flower of
12
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
S. alata significantly inhibited the growth of Micrococcus Luteus, S.
aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, B. subtilis and Pseudomonas putida (MIC
= 500 mg/mL) and zone of inhibition (ZOI) ranging from 10 to 25 mm
(Adebayo et al., 2001). The volatile oil extracted from the dried fruits
of S. occidentalis significantly inhibited the growth of S. aureus (MIC=
312 mg/mL), E. coli (MIC= 78 mg/mL) while oils from the fruits of S.
hirsuta exhibited moderate inhibitory effects against C. albicans, E.
coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and S. aureus (MIC= 625 mg/mL) (Essien
et al., 2018).
Volatile oils extracted from the leaves of S. alata significantly
treated epithelisation in wounds caused by S. aureus and P. aerugi-
nosa. The ointment from ethanolic leaves extract of S. alata combined
with polyethylene glycol (PEG) ointment reduced the wound on the
test animal (rabbit) with activities of 58.8, 79.0 and 88.9% after 7, 14,
21 days of application. The PEG ointment displayed low inhibitory
activity of 57.1% after 21 days of application. However, nitrofurazone
ointment significantly reduced the wound surface area (98.8%) after
14 days of application (Palanichamy et al., 1991). In a similar study,
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 2. Anthraquinones isolated from the genus Senna.
ointment produced from the leaves of S. alata significantly inhibited
acute lesions of dermatophilosis in infected experimental animals.
After 21 to 28 days of administration, it was observed that hairs grew
on treated surface without causing mutilation without setbacks
(reoccurrence) after 3 years (Ali-Emmanuel et al., 2003).
The anti-infectious activities of volatile oils extracted from leaves
of S. alata, S. occidentalis and S. hisuta were assessed on clinical iso-
lates of B. cereus (ATCC 14579), S. aureus (ATCC 29213), E. coli (ATCC
25922), P. aeruginosa (ATCC 27853) and Aspergillus niger (ATCC
16401). The oils significantly inhibited the microbes with activities
for S. alata (MIC= 156, 78, 625, 625, 156 (mg/mL), S. occidentalis (MIC=
13
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
156, 156, 625, 312, 78 mg/mL) and S. hisuta (MIC= 156, 156, 625, 625,
312 mg/mL) (Essien et al., 2011).
The anthraquinone metabolites (54 and 75) isolated from leaves
of S. alata significantly inhibited the growth of dermatophytes. The
metabolites displayed strong activities against T. rubrum (MIC= 15.6
mg/mL), T. mentagrophytes (MIC= 62.5 mg/mL) and M. gypseum (MIC=
250 mg/mL) (Sakunpak et al., 2009). The kinetics of the crude extracts
of S. alata flower was investigated on clinical isolates of S. aureus
(NCIB 8588), M. luteus (NCIB 196), P. putida (ATCC 77483) and B. subti-
lis (NCIB 3610). Pronounced inhibitory activities was observed at
100 mg/mL (MIC) against gram positive bacteria with pronounced
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 2 Continued.

inhibition as the MIC increases to 50% mortality after 15 min of
administration. After 100 min, the extracts significantly inhibited the
growth of S. aureus while low inhibitory activities were observed
against M. luteus, B. subtilis and P. putida (Adedayo et al., 2002).
14
The antifungal activity of methanolic crude extract and partially
purified fractions of S. alata flower was appraised against five stan-
dard fugal strains. The MIC of the extract was comparatively low for
all the fungal strains except for A. niger (MIC= 5.0 mg/mL), however,
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 2 Continued.
purified fractions (C and F) exhibited strong inhibitory activities
against Penicillin spp. (0.312 mg/mL) and A. niger (2.5 mg/mL) (Ade-
dayo et al., 1999). The antimicrobial activities displayed by the genus
Senna clearly validate the ethnopharmacological uses of the genus in
treatment of diseases or infections caused by microbes.
7.1.2. Antigonorrhea potential
The bio-assay guided isolation of the constituents of the leaves
and root fractions of S. podocarpa led to the identification of four
15
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
bioactive metabolites which were characterized by LC-UV/DAD (54-
56,75). The fractions (Sx, Sy and Sz) and isolated metabolites were
tested against nine clinical strains and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (positive
control). Fraction Sx significantly inhibit the microbial growth of all
clinical strains (MIC= 100
400 mg/mL). Similarly, rhein (75) exhib-
ited strong inhibitory activities against all test strains (MIC= 3.13 mg/
mL), however, pronounced activities were displayed by emodin (54),
chrysophanol (55) against all test strains (MIC > 75 mg/mL) (Malmir
et al., 2015). The anti-gonorrhea activities displayed S. podocarpa
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 2 Continued.
justify the ethnomedical belief of the genus Senna as therapeutic sub-
stance in treatment of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) such as
gonorrhea.
7.1.3. Antimalarial potential
The antiplasmodial potential of ethanolic extracts of S. singueana
leaves were investigated in Plasmodium berghei ANKA infected Swiss
albino mice (SAM) (both sexes) via 4-day suppressive test. The crude
extracts at body weight of 200 mg/kg/d, 400 mg/kg/d, and 800 mg/
kg/d were administered after four days the mice were infected. The
extracts significantly led to 34.54%, 44.52%, and 47.32% parasite sup-
pression in infected mice. The leaves extract combined with CQ
exhibited pronounced antiplasmodial activity however, the activity is
less pronounced when compared to activities shown by the extracts
(Hiben et al., 2016). This justify the use of genus Senna as antimalarial
therapeutic substance in folk medicine.
7.1.4. Antiprotozoal potential
The various uses of Senna spp. that allude to microbial infections
suggest that it could exhibit antiprotozoal activity. In search for
potent trypanocidal therapy, the antiprotozoal potential of
16
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
metabolites isolated from leaves of S. spectabilis were investigated
against Trypanosomal brucei rhodesiense (in vitro). The metabolites (-)

spectaline (89) and iso-6-spectaline (101) significantly inhibited
the growth of T. b. rhodesiense with 50% minimum inhibitory concen-
tration (IC50) for (-)-spectaline (89) (IC50= 0.41 § 0.01 mM) and iso-6-
spectaline (101) (IC50= 0.71 § 0.01 mM) (Lim et al., 2018).
The methanolic, aqueous and chloroform extracts of leaves of S.
villosa significantly inhibited epimastigote and trypomastigote forms
of Trypanosomal cruzi. Chloroform extract displayed strong activities
(MIC= 1.65, 3.3 and 6.6 mg/mL) with activities in close proximity to
that displayed by gentian violet and allopurinol (Guzman et al.,
2004). Alcoholic roots, bark and leaves extracts of S. racemosa exhib-
ited strong inhibitory activities against Giardia intestinalis (IC50 = 2.10
g/mL) and Entamoeba histolytica (IC50= 3.87 g/mL). However, chryso-
phanol (55) and (-)-cassine (88) isolated displayed strong activity
against E. histolytica (IC50 = 6.21 g/mL) and G. intestinalis (IC50 = 3.28
g/mL) respectively (Moo-Puc et al., 2007).
The four piperidine alkaloids (86-89) isolated from the flower of S.
spectabilis was evaluated against promastigote phase of Leishmania
amazonensis. Compound (87) displayed strong inhibitory activity
against L. amazonensis (IC50 = 15.81 mg/mL), however, metabolite
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 2 Continued.
(87) and (89) exhibited strong inhibitory activities against the para-
site than (86) and (88) due to their large side chain (Lacerda et al.,
2018). These studies justify the ethnopharmacological claims of the
genus Senna as a therapy for infections caused by protozoa.
7.1.5. Anti-schistosomiasis potential
The bio-assay guided isolation of alcoholic extract of S. spectabilis
flowers afforded two metabolites (88) and (89). The metabolites
were investigated on chronic parasitic disease caused by the genus
Schistosoma. The dichloromethane fraction displayed strong inhibi-
tory activity (ED50 = 83.5 mg/mL), while metabolite (85) and (86) sig-
nificantly inhibited growth of adult worms and cercariae (ED50 = 37.4
lg/mL) (de Castro et al., 2016). This validate the use of Senna spp. in
the treatment of worms.
7.2. Effects on digestive disorders
7.2.1. Laxative activity
The genus Senna are generally used in folk medicine as laxative
due to its ability in producing contractions and enhancing colonic
motility without causing hindrance to stool discharge. The laxative
potential or bowel management of S. alata was investigated in some
patients with repaired anorectal aberrations and constipation via
Fischer’s exact test. The clinical trials as well as washout period in
infants with complications were investigated. The efficacy of admin-
istered extract of S. alata were assessed via three parameters, these
are, daily bowel movement, fecal soiling and a clean abdominal X-
ray. The extract significantly prevent any risk of fecal soiling and
wounds associated to stool discharge. The rate of colonic motility
was enhanced thereby increasing the rate of stool discharge (Sntos-
17
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
Jasso et al., 2017). This rationalize the use of Senna spp. in folk medi-
cine as laxative in enhancing stool discharge.
7.2.2. Antigiardia effects
Few reports have shown the genus Senna to possess a wide range
of antigiardia properties. In folk medicine, several Senna species were
documented to effectively treat both acute and chronic diarrhea (Are-
llano-Rodriguez et al., 2003). Nevertheless, the antigaiardia effect of
stem bark of S. racemosa was investigated on diarrhea caused by Giar-
dia intestinalis infection. The methanolic extract of S. racemosa stem
bark was administered into G. intestinalis trophozoites infected mice
(0.25
15 mg extract/kg bw). The bioactive metabolites isolated from
methanolic extract identified as chrysophanol (55) and physcion (56)
significantly inhibited the growth of G. intestinalis in neonatal CD-1
mice (ED50 =1.14 mg/Kg) (Caamal-Fuentes et al., 2016). This validate
the folkloric use of Senna spp. in the treatment of diarrhea.
7.3. Effects on pain and neurological disorder
7.3.1. Antidepressant or anticonvulsant
The anticonvulsant and depressant effects of iso-6-cassine (84)
from S. spectabilis was assayed by oral administration of 0.5, 1.0 and
1.5 mg/kg in mice for 30 days. The metabolite significantly inactivate
the development of convulsions caused by picrotoxin and pentylene-
tetrazole. In a similar study, the decoction of S. spectabilis at dose con-
centrations of 106.5 and 213.0 mg/kg significantly reduce the
mortality rate, maximal electroshock and protect the pentylenetetra-
zole in seizure-induced mice (Nkantchoua et al., 2018). This substan-
tiate the folkloric use of Senna spp. in the treatment of convulsion
and depression.
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 3. Alkaloids isolated from the genus Senna.
7.3.2. Diuretic effects
The diuretic effects of metabolite (90) isolated from aerial parts of
Senna septemtrionalis (10 to 100 mg/kg p.o.) was investigated through
certain parameters such as motor coordination, urine volume and
electrolyte excretion of Na and K, nitric oxide and prostaglandins in
indomethacin and N(v)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (LNAME)
induced mice. The extract at dose of 100 mg/kg significantly
increased the urinary volume (2.67-fold), excretion of Na (5.6-fold)
and K (7.2-fold). The synergic effect of co-administration of crude
extract with LNAME or indomethacin or yohimbine relapsed
the diuretic and antidepressant activities exhibited by the extract. On
the other hand, the extract did not demonstrate any negative effect
on motor coordination in the mice (Alonso-Castro et al., 2019). This
18
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
authenticate the use of Senna spp. in folk medicine in the manage-
ment of stress.
7.3.3. Antinociceptive effects
The antinociceptive potential of methanol extract of S. singueana
leaves (SSML) was investigated in mice through formalin-induced
paw licking (FPL), hot plate and acetic acid-induced writhing (AAW)
assays. Dose concentrations of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg, p.o extracts
significantly increased the inhibitory activities of FPL and AAW in
mice. The synergic effect of SSML and morphine or diclofenac (posi-
tive control) increase the percentage of FPL, AAW and mean maximal
effect in treated groups with a dose dependent activity. The activities
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 3 Continued.

could be linked to mediation of the extract via central and peripheral
mechanisms (Hishe et al., 2018). This substantiate the ethnomedical
uses of Senna spp. in Africa as therapeutic substance in regulating
pain and related complications.
19
7.3.4. Antipyretic effects
Fever and related complications have been managed by the use of
antipyretic substances such as diclofenac, aspirin and paracetamol
(Naidu and Pham, 2015). In herbal medicine, decoction and infusion
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 3 Continued.

20
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 3 Continued.
of several Senna spp. have been used documented to effectively cure
fever due to its pyretic effects. The antipyretic effects of dichlorome-
thane of S didymobotrya leaves was investigated in pyrexia induced
Swiss albino rats (SAR) via different body weights (25 to 250 mg/kg
b.w.) and aspirin (positive control) (100 mg/kg b.w.). The extract and
control significantly exhibited dose dependent activity against fever
in pyrexia induced SAR. A remarkable effects of the extract and con-
trol was exhibited at dose of 250 mg/kg b.w. The activity could be
linked to bioactive metabolites (116
118) isolated from the plant
(Mworia et al., 2019). This validate the use of Senna spp. in folk medi-
cine in the management of fever.
21
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
7.3.5. Anti-inflammatory effects
Inflammation is a physiological reaction of the body against muti-
lation or disruption. According to the report by Allkin, most of the
Fabaceae family, specifically Senna species are documented in folk
medicine as remedy for inflammation (Allkin, 2017). The in vitro
assessment of ethanolic extract of aerial part of S. septemtrionalis
was assayed via TPA induced ear and Crrageenan-induced paw
oedema test using LPS-stimulated macrophages. In addition, cyto-
kines (IL-6, IL-1b, and TNF-a) coupled with hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), ELISA kits and nitric oxide (NO) were explored. The
extract exhibited considerable inhibitory activities of 154.7 mg/
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 3 Continued.
mL (H2O2), > 200 mg/mL (IL-1b, TNF-a, and NO) and 163.3 mg/
mL (IL-6). The extract showed pronounced inhibitory activity (in
vivo) in the TPA and carrageenan assays (ED50 = 137.8 mg/ kg
p.o.) (Arana-Arga
ez et al., 2019).
The anti-inflammatory effect (-)-cassine (88) isolated from S. spec-
tabilis increase the interaction between TRPA1 and TRPV1 receptors,
through inhibition of the upregulation of cyclooxigenase-2,
22
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
phosphorylation of MAPK/ERK and transcription factor NF-kB (da
Silva et al., 2012). According to Guarize et al., n-hexane extract of
S. macranthera leaves induced 58% oedema while sodium diclofenac
(steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) exhibited 75% oedematous
response in the test organisms (Guarize et al., 2012).
This validate the folkloric use of genus Senna in the regulation of
inflammation, swelling or congestion of the blood vessels.
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 4. Terpenoids isolated from the genus Senna.
7.4. Other biological effects
7.4.1. Antidiabetic activity
The therapeutic use of the genus Senna as therapy for Diabetes
mellitus is well documented in folk medicine (Etuk et al., 2010). For
centuries, different parts of the genus Senna have been used in
23
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
regulating glucose blood sugar and fat. The antidiabetic potential of
S. singueana was examined on male Sprague-Dawley mice
induced with T2D (in vivo). The acetone fraction obtained from
alcoholic extract was administered using two body weight (150 and
300 mg/kg). The fraction significantly decrease non-fasting blood glu-
cose concentration after 28 days of administration, however, liver
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 4 Continued.

24
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 5. Steroids isolated from the genus Senna.
glycogen, glucose tolerance, serum insulin concentration and pancre-
atic b-cell function were regulated in mice (treated) with activities
more pronounced compared to control group (Ibrahim and Islam,
2014).
The flower and bud extracts of S. auriculata were reported to sig-
nificantly regulate type II diabetes in Swiss albino mice. The mice
were treated with ethanolic extracts of the flower and bud. It was dis-
covered that ethanolic bud extract significantly reverse and regulate
the development of diabetes (IRS2 gene) in high fat diet and strepto-
zotocin induced diabetic rats. Ethanolic extract of S. auriculata flower
exhibited moderate activity compared to ethanolic flower extract.
The antidiabetic activities exhibited by the extracts could be linked to
the presence of flavonoid and phenolic compounds in the extracts
(Nambirajan et al., 2018). In similar study, the antidiabetic potential
of the leaves and flower extract of S. angustifolia leaves and flower
were investigated in experimental mice. The extracts significantly
slow down complications caused by chronic hyperglycemia and also,
ameliorates metabolic aberrations caused by diabetes (Jani and Gos-
wami et al., 2020).
25
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
Many studies have underlined the antidiabetic potential of phyto-
constituents such as flavonoid and phenolic compounds in inhibiting
a-amylase and a-glucosidase enzymes. The methanolic extract of S.
alata leaves were investigated on diabetic induced mice. The extracts
significantly inhibit the activity of a-glucosidase in mice (IC50 = 63.75
§ 12.81 mg/mL). The bioguided fractionation of methanolic extract
led to isolation of two flavonoid metabolites, kaempferol (26) and
kaempferol 3-O-gentiobioside (28). According to spectroscopic data,
compound (26) was identified in ethyl acetate fraction while (28)
was identified in n-butanol fraction. Metabolite (26) significantly
inhibited the a-glucosidase in mice (IC50= 25.80 § 2.01 mg/mL) while
(28) showed moderate activities (IC50= 2.95 § 0.47 mg/mL) (Varghese
et al., 2013).
The potential of the leaves of S. surattensis to regulate maltose
and glucose uptake were investigated in Swiss albino mice. The
leaves significantly inhibit the activities of maltose and sucrose in
small intestine homogenate with significant effects at IC50 =
209.15 mg/mL and IC50 = 366.44 mg/mL respectively. The alco-
holic extract also increase glucose at the rate of 5.4 mg/g/30 min
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Fig 5 Continued.
and regulate secretion of a-amylase at concentration of
123.95 mg/mL (IC50) (Thilagam et al., 2013).
Hexahydroxydiphenic acid (47) and kaempferol (26) isolated from
leaves of S. sophera significantly regulate blood sugar level (BSL) and
body weight in diabetic mice. The metabolites were administered to
the diabetic mice at body weight of 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg. The
BSL was reduced from 76.66 § 3.17 mg/dl to 52.33 § 2.83 mg/dl after
100 days administration of 100 mg/kg while 50 mg/kg regulate it
from 76.66 § 3.17 mg/dl to 72.33 § 2.42 mg/dl (Kharat et al., 2017).
The leaves of S. alata significantly inhibit the effects of enzymatic
and nonenzymatic on hepatic and renal tissues in streptozotocin-
induced diabetes mice. The glucose, plasma insulin, urea, ascorbic
acid, vitamin E, creatinine reduced glutathione, catalase, uric acid,
glutathione-a-tranferase and glutathione peroxidase were regulated
by the extracts (Sugumar et al., 2016). These studies justify the ethno-
pharmacological claims of the genus Senna as a therapy for diabetes
mellitus and glucose levels and blood sugar.
7.4.2. Antioxidant effects
The free scavenging effects of genus Senna is attributed to the
presence of some bioactive metabolites such as flavonoids and
26
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
phenolic compounds. According to Affiy and Hassan, S. surattensis
flower extract exhibited strong antioxidant effect of 0.479 § 0.001 at
500 mg/L, and scavenging effect against 1,1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydra-
zyl (DPPH) radical at 500 mg/L (90.20 § 0.29%). The activities dis-
played by the extract could be due to the presence of total phenolic
content (TPC) (850.30 § 13.81 mg/100 g) and total flavonoid content
(TFC) (2.79 § 0.23 mg/100 g) evaluated from flower extract (Affiy and
Hassan, 2016).
The antioxidant activity of Senna bicapsularis flower could be
linked to solvent polarity of the extract. The ethanolic extract have
high TPC (26223.78 mg GAE/100 g) compared to aqueous extract
(9468.18 mg GAE/100 g). The TPC of ethanolic extract was evaluated
as (3839.91 mg GAE/100 g) compared to aqueous extract
(1133.60 mg GAE/100 g). The ethanolic extract displayed strong scav-
enging activities of DPPH (99.51%) and FRAP (2403.15 mmoles Fe (II)/
100 g) compared to DPPH (96.51%) and FRAP (1966.30 mmoles Fe
(II)/100 g) of the aqueous extract (Mak et al., 2013). The phytocon-
stituents (25
27) isolated from stem-bark of S. siamea displayed
pronounced antioxidant effects (Bene et al., 2019). This substantiate
the folkloric claim of the genus Senna as therapeutic substance in
inhibiting oxidative stress.
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32

Fig 6. Other compounds (or isolated metabolites) from the genus Senna.

7.4.4. Antilipogenic effects information on different Senna spp. in a view of justifying its safety
Few reports highlighting the hypolipidemic and antiobesity effi- claims.
cacy of the genus Senna have been documented. Obesity is associated
with sudden increase in the body weight due to disproportionate 8.1. Cell line
buildup of body fat, high-fat diet and energy imbalance. The antiobse-
ity or lipid metabolism management potential of leaves of S. alata
8.1.1. Human cells line
was investigated in high fat-diet induced obese mice. The high calorie
The cytotoxic effects of volatile oils from S. alata and S. occidentalis
feed was administered for 3 months (45 kcal% fat). The aqueous
were investigated on Hs 578T and PC-3 human tumor breast cell
extract was administered after 7 weeks at body weights of 250 and
lines. The oils and tingenone (positive control) (250 and 100 mg/mL)
500 mg/kg/day for 6 weeks. The treated mice exhibited considerable
exhibited dose dependent cytotoxicity against the cell-lines. How-
decline in leptin, triglyceride, hepatic triglyceride, serum total choles-
ever, at <80 mg/mL, inhibition ratio on cell variability increased. This
terol, serum insulin and elevated blood glucose level. In addition, the
indicate the oils are cytotoxic (Essien et al., 2011). According to
lipid accumulation in liver tissue, acetyl-CoA carboxylase +nd fatty
(Kowalczyk et al., 2020) transgenic hairy roots of S. obtusifolia exhibit
acid synthase was reduced. However, the extract increased the pro-
high cytotoxic effect against human acute lymphoblastic leukemia
tein expression of PPARz in liver tissue (Naowaboot and Wannasiri,
(NALM6) cell line. The effects was further confirmed by expression of
2016). This justify the folkloric use of the genus Senna in the manage-
apoptosis-related genes (TP53, PUMA, NOXA, BAX), cell cycle and
ment of obesity and related complications.
observed reduction in mitochondrial membrane. In addition, pro-
nounced cytotoxicity was exhibited when extract combined with
doxorubicin, and the effects could be linked to betulinic acid
8. Toxicology
appraised from the plant (Kowalczyk et al., 2020).
The genus Senna is perceived by consumers to be without health
or side effects, however, herbal drugs must be taken with prudence 8.1.2. Animal cell line
until the safety has been scientifically proven. Generally, toxicology The toxicological effects of ethanolic extract and fractions of S.
studies incorporate phytochemistry, plant part used, mode of prepa- macranthera flower were assayed on Vero cells (ATCC CCL 81). The
ration and administration (Lerotholi et al., 2017; Mounanga et al., cytotoxicity effects of the extracts and fractions were observed to be
2015). The available toxicology reports on Senna spp. portrays the low with selectivity index ranging from 1.34 and 1.94. The cytotoxic
genus to be safe, nevertheless, certain contemporary reports makes effect could be due to flavonoid metabolites (8
21) isolated (Nasci-
the claims futile. This section explores the available toxicological mento et al., 2020).
27
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
Table 3
Chemical data and biological activities reported for selected constituents reported from genus Senna.
Chemical compound Pharmacological potential Pharmacological activity
Luteolin (10), kaempferol (26), emodin (54), Antibacterial
(-)-cassine (88) Antibacterial
Emodin (54), rhein (75) Antibacterial
Obtusifolin-2-O-b-ᴅ-(6’-O-a,b-unsaturated butyryl)- Antibacterial
glucopyranoside (76),
epi-9-dehydroxyeurotinone-b-dglucopyranoside
(77)
Rhein (75) Antigonnorhea
(-)
spectaline (89) Antiprotozoal
iso-6-spectaline (101)
Chrysophanol (55), Antiprotozoal
(-)-cassine (85)
(-)-3-O-acetylcassine (85) Anti-schistosomiasis
(-)-3-O-acetylspectaline (86) Antiprotozoal
Chrysophanol (55), physcion (56) Antigiardia
Kaempferol (26), kaempferol 3-O-gentiobioside (28) Antidiabetic
8.2. Animal tests/trials
8.2.1. Rats/mice
The cytotoxicity of the oral administration of S. occidentalis seed
(diet concentration of 1
3%) was investigated on mitochondria
metabolism impairment and histological variations in muscle fiber of
Swiss albino mice (21 days old). The effects exhibited by the extract
was dose dependent with highest number of COX negative fibers
exhibited by mice fed with 3% diet (Calore et al., 2000). The seed
extract of S. occidentalis contributed to fragmentation in the lower
gut of adult and young mice. The seed extract significantly reduce the
oxidative enzyme activity in myenteric neurons and smooth muscle
cells of large bowel. This contributed to excessive disturbance in the
intestine and decrease in colonic motility as a result of metabolic
effect (Nadal et al., 2003).
The genus Senna was reported to display no genotoxicological
consequence in patients taking Senna laxatives. The administration of
2000 mg dose of Senna extract in mice (both sexes) exhibited no
increase in micronuclei in bone marrow cells and no clastogenic
effect was observed (Mengs et al., 1999). The effect of prolonged
administration of S. occidentalis seed extract (1%, 2% and 4%) was
assayed on thirty male Wistar mice. Another ten mice were fed with
commercial ration for 14 days. The mice fed with seed extract exhib-
ited signs of weakness, depression, emaciation and lethargy. How-
ever, two rats from the group fed with seed extract (3%) and those of
commercial ration fed group died during the experiment. The death
could be linked to fiber degenerations in skeletal, cardiac muscles
and vacuolar in the mild nefrosis (Barbosa-Ferreira et al., 2005). The
effect of S. occidentalis seeds was investigated on bone marrow,
spleen and hematopoietic organs of male Wistar rats treated for
90 days with S. occidentalis seeds diet (SOSD). SOSD (2%) significantly
reduced the Myeloid/Erythroid in blood, cellularity of spleen and
28
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
References
The metabolites exhibited strong inhibitory activities Tatsimo et al., 2017
against multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria strains
(MIC= 4 to 128 mg/mL)
The piperidine alkaloid inhibited the growth of bacte- Sansores-Peraza et al., 2000
rial and fungal isolates with MIC of Staphylococcus
aureus (2.5 mg/mL), B. subtilis (2.5 mg/mL) and Can-
dida albicans (5.0 mg/mL)
The metabolites exhibited strong inhibitory activities Sakunpak et al., 2009
against T. rubrum (MIC= 15.6 mg/mL), T. mentagro-
phytes (MIC= 62.5 mg/mL) and M. gypseum (MIC=
250 mg/mL)
The metabolites inhibited the growth of M. luteus, S. Adebayo et al., 2001
aureus, S. faecalis, B. subtilis and P.putida (MIC = 500
mg/mL)
Strong inhibitory activities was exhibited against all Malmir et al., 2015
test strains (MIC= 3.13 mg/mL)
Metabolite (89) displayed activity of (IC50= 0.41 § Lim et al., 2018
0.01 mM) and (101) with activity of (IC50= 0.71 §
0.01 mM)
The phytoconstituents displayed strong activity Moo-Puc et al., 2007
against E. histolytica (IC50 = 6.21 g/mL) and G. intes-
tinalis (IC50 = 3.28 g/mL)
Metabolite (86) significantly inhibited growth of de Castro et al., 2016
adult worms and cercariae (ED50 = 37.4 lg/mL)
Compound (87) displayed strong inhibitory activity Lacerda et al., 2018
against L. amazonensis (IC50 = 15.81 mg/mL)
Significantly inhibited the growth of G. intestinalis in Caamal-Fuentes et al., 2016
neonatal CD-1 mice (ED50 =1.14 mg/Kg)
Metabolite (26) significantly inhibited the a-gluco- Varghese et al., 2013
sidase in mice (IC50= 25.80 § 2.01 mg/mL) while
(28) showed moderate activities (IC50= 2.95 §
0.47 mg/mL)
bone marrow, however, there was an increase in reticulocyte count
(Teles et al., 2015).
Long term administration of S. angustifolia was reported to cause
immunological variations in skin and colon of C57/BL6j induced
mice. There was a significant increase in the colon (DOPA-positive
cells) after 12 h of administration, and this continued for 28 days. In
addition, the number of Langerhans cells decreased leading to signifi-
cant reduction in skin cells defense (Yamate et al., 2015). The alco-
holic extract of S. alata leaves (1000, 2000, and 3000 mg/kg b.w.)
displayed no variation in the biochemical, physical and hematological
parameters in Swiss albino mice. In addition, the histopathology of
kidney, spleen and liver were unaffected (Roy et al., 2016). The
metabolites (39) and (56) isolated from methanolic extract of S. race-
mosa bark inhibited the growth of G. intestinalis in neonatal CD-1
mice (ED50 = 1.14mg/Kg). However, at body weight of 3000 mg/Kg,
no lethal effects was evident in the internal organs (Caamal-Fuentes
et al., 2016).
8.2.2. Hen and birds
The feed formulated from S. occidentalis seeds was reported to be
toxic at low concentration in laying hens. After 42 weeks, signs of
poisoning was not shown by the hen, however, variation in body
weight and feed intake was observed. The egg production was signifi-
cantly reduced causing severe damage to ovaries (dysplasia of vitel-
line membrane and yolk leaking) (Gotardo et al., 2017).
8.2.3. Pregnant goat
The seed of S. occidentalis (4%) caused perinatal effects in pregnant
goat (concentration of less than 4%). In addition, fetal and body devel-
opment variation was minimal. According to Barbosa-Ferreira et al.,
ingestion of S. occidentalis seed caused few alterations in serum
O.S. Oladeji, F.E. Adelowo and A.P. Oluyori
biochemistry, tissue lesions in kidney, necrosis in cardiac muscles
and skeleton in sciatic nerve cells (Barbosa-Ferreira et al., 2011).
8.2.4. Cattle/cow
The aerial part of S. obtusifolia caused morbidity (2
27.9%) and
lethality (100%) in six cattle. The symptoms exhibited by the cat-
tle are relapse of skeletal muscles, muscular weakness, degenera-
tion of cardiac muscles, necrosis, diarrhea, recumbency, slow
movement and discoloration of the skeletal muscle (Furlan et al.,
2014).
9. Summary
The systematic pathway for discovery of novel therapeutic
substances from natural resources is based on evaluation of
human knowledge on the medicinal benefits of plants. The genus
Senna has been documented as therapeutic substance in folk
medicine. The leaves, bark, root, flowers, seeds and fruits of
Senna spp. were cited in folk medicine (Nsonde-Ntandou et al.,
2005; Singh et al., 2013). Several phytochemical techniques have
been employed in qualitative and quantitative appraisals of bioac-
tive metabolites from genus Senna. The metabolites isolated from
Senna species were obtained from bioguided isolation with elu-
ents collected by solvents with different polarities (Nascimento,
et al. 2020; Klika et al., 2015). The phytoconstituents in the genus
Senna is linked to the wide spectrum of biological and pharmaco-
logical activities exhibited by the extracts and isolated metabo-
lites (Oladeji et al., 2020).
The toxicology and cytotoxicity of crude extract and isolated
metabolites of genus Senna on host cells (human or animal) and ani-
mal trials is a significant tool for appraising the selectivity of the
pharmacological activities exhibited by the plant. None of the scien-
tific studies aimed at investigating the toxicity of genus Senna has
shown damaging effects to cells or experimental animals. This
reports in conjunction with other applications, in which no effects
escalating from the use of the species have ever been acknowledged,
recommended that different parts of the genus Senna have minimal
side effects or toxicity, if any.
10. Future directions and gaps in knowledge
Several reports on the analyses of plant metabolites on the genus
Senna published in literature is promising. However, more scientific
evidence is required to substantiate the ethnomedical uses. More
than 50 to 60 accepted species have been documented and explored
for phytoconstituents and medicinal applications which successfully
led to discovery of novel pharmacophore. New methods should be
presented in characterization and identification of bioactive resour-
ces in plant samples. These could enhance phytochemical, biochemi-
cal and biophysical studies, molecular pathways or mechanisms, and
substantiate routes for certain biological processes. The investiga-
tions of phytoconstituents should exceed preliminary evaluation of
crude extracts and isolated metabolites. Few isolated metabolites
have been identified from the genus Senna. To promote the phyto-
chemistry of this genus, elucidation of new phytoconstituents
through bioguided or secondary metabolite guided assays should be
given prioritized. The pharmacological investigations of isolated
metabolites should involve comparison of efficacy with conventional
drugs or available literature on the basis of establishing novel thera-
peutic bioresources. All these could be achieved through collabora-
tive network and research clusters among scientists. This will
stimulate sustainable research through exchange of ideas, reaching a
concession on the basic research methods involved in quality control,
sample collection, extraction, fractionation, statistical evaluation and
archive of data or results.
29
South African Journal of Botany 138 (2021) 1
32
11. Conclusion
This review provide a comprehensive appraisals of the traditional
significance, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of the
genus Senna. Several reports on the pharmacology of genus Senna
substantiated the reported traditional uses. The studies unveiled sev-
eral phytoconstituents with considerable therapeutic potentials in
ameliorating of various infectious and degenerative diseases. Though
some in depth studies have engrossed on the phytochemistry of
genus Senna, there is insubstantial information on the chemical
diversity within the species. The phytochemical reports of the genus
were focused on specific groups of compounds. Unlike other mem-
bers of Fabaceae, Senna spp. grows in a variety of habitats and cli-
matic conditions. The geographical distribution and adaptability of
the species to various climates could influence the assortment in sec-
ondary metabolites produced by plants. The volatile constituents in
some cases impart many of the scent produced by the species when
grinded. Information of the chemical diversity that exist will aid in
identifying apposite biomarker compounds that could be of medici-
nal importance. The antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antinociceptive, anti-
oxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial and antipyretic have been
studied but more studies into the pharmacological activities is neces-
sitated specifically by applying appropriate models (in vivo). More
studies should be tailored towards strategizing mechanisms which
could help corroborate the pharmacology and toxicology of the spe-
cies. The potential of genus Senna to regulate blood sugar and sup-
press convulsion remains scientifically unexplored. More studies on
the antigiardia, antipyretic, antinociceptive and antilipogenic activi-
ties need to be addressed to substantiate the ethnobotanical asser-
tions related to these activities. Hence, isolation and clinical trials
should be systematically considered which could lead to discovery of
novel bioresources, thus, quenching the biotechnological demands of
scientists in search of safe therapeutic drugs which could regulate
current health challenges.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors are indebted to Landmark University Centre for
Research and Innovation Development (LUCRID) and Department of
Physical Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Landmark
University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria for providing supporting resources.
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