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Phys 1011-Chapter 6
Phys 1011-Chapter 6
Phys 1011-Chapter 6
2
Coulomb discovered an inverse
square law, like gravitation
Its magnitude is
1 μC = 10-6 C
4
Coulomb’s Law: Example
6
Superposition
The total electric force on a charge 𝑄3 from two
charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 is the vector sum of the electric
forces from each charge as shown in the diagram.
10
Visualizing The Electric Field
(lines of force)
11
Definition of The Electric Field
The strength 𝐸 of an electric field is
defined by bringing in a test charge 𝑞 and
measuring the electric force per unit
charge acting on the test charge.
12
The Electric Field
Test charge q
13
Test charge q
14
15
The Dipole Field
16
Two equal positive charges Q
are placed on the y-axis at
equal distances d on opposite
sides of the origin.
Show that the electric field on
the x-axis has magnitude
2𝑘𝑄𝑥
𝐸= 3
𝑥 2 + 𝑑2 2
18
Solution
+Q Q’=?
x
-a 0 a 2a 3a
Example:
Two point charges are located
on the x axis. The first is a charge
+Q at x = -a. The second is an
unknown charge located at x =
+3a. The net electric field these
charges produce at the origin
has a magnitude of 2kQ/a2.
What are the two possible
values of the unknown charge?
19
Electric Potential Energy
Imagine a charge q0 placed in a uniform electric field: F = 𝑞0 E
W = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑
W = q 0 Ed = U A − U B = −U
If we define 𝑈𝐵 = 0, then 𝑈𝐴 = 𝑞0𝐸𝑑 is the electric
potential energy the charge has at point A.
Electric Potential: Unit
The quantity 𝐸𝑑 in 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 is called electric potential, V.
1 𝑄𝑞0
𝑈 𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
SOLUTION
Apply conservation of total energy
𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐸𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐾1𝑖 + 𝐾2𝑖 + 𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑖 = 𝐾1𝑓 + 𝐾2𝑓 + 𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑓
𝑄2 1 1
0+0+𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑣 2 + 0
2
𝑟 2 2
𝑘 𝑄2
𝑣= ≈ 100 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 𝑟
NB: the escape velocity for Earth is about 11 km/s
23
Potential Energy: Example
Calculate the electric potential energy of two protons separated
by a typical proton-proton intranuclear distance of 2x10-15 m.
𝑒2 1.6 × 10−19 2
9
𝑈 = 𝑘 = 9 × 10 × = +1.15 × 10−13 𝐽
𝑟 2 × 10−15
What is the meaning of the - sign in the result? Is that a small energy?
Potential Energy: Example
The potential energy of the hydrogen atom is about -4.36x10-18
joules. How many electron volts is that?
1 eV
U = -4.36 10 J = ( -4.36 10 J )
-18 -18
-19
-27.2 eV
1.6 10 J
What is the kinetic energy of the electron given that the ground-
state energy of the hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV?
2 2
e ke
K = 12 mv 2 = 12 mac r = 12 Fc r = 12 k 2 r =
r 2r
K=
9
(
9 10 1.6 10 )
−19 2
1eV
= 13.6eV
2 0.53 10 −10 1.6 10 −19
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
𝑈=𝑘 + +
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23
q3
P q1 q 2 q1 q 3 q 2 q 3
U = k + +
3m r12 r13 r23
q1 4m q2 x
9
1 × 10−6 −4 × 10−6 1 × 10−6 3 × 10−6 −4 × 10−6 3 × 10−6
U = 9 × 10 + +
4 3 5
U = −2.16 × 10−2 J
Electric Potential Difference
Suppose a unit positive charge is
moved between two points A and
B in an electric field.
1 B
The electrical PD is then the work
2 done to move the unit charge
between the two points
A
𝑊𝐴→𝐵 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = =
𝑞0 𝑞0
NB:
The potential V is independent of the amount of charge being moved
The PD (V) is path independent
The unit for electric potential is volt (V): 1 V = 1 J/C
The Electric Potential of a Point Charge
For the point charge:
1 𝑄
𝐸(𝑟)
Ԧ = 2
𝑟Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Then
1 𝑄
𝑉(𝑟) =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
The dotted circles
(spheres in 3D) show
equipotential regions
Electric Potential with
Multiple Charges
The electric potential due to several point charges is the
sum of the potentials due to each individual charge
This is another example of the superposition principle
The sum is algebraic:
V=?
1 qi
V=
4 0 i ri
V = 0 at r = ∞ ri
qi
Example: A 1 C point charge is located at the origin and a -4 C
point charge 4 meters along the +x axis. Calculate the electric
potential at a point P, 3 meters along the +y axis.
y
qi q1 q 2
VP = k = k +
P i ri r1 r2
3m 9 1×10 -6
-4×10 -6
= 9×10 +
x 3 5
q1 4m q2
= - 4.2×103 V
E and V of
a conducting sphere
All charges reside on the surface of the
metal
The electric potential is
Constant inside the sphere
a function of r out side the sphere
The electric field is
Zero inside the metal
a function of r2 outside
The effect of a charge on the space
surrounding it:
The charge sets up a vector electric field
which is related to the force
The charge sets up a scalar potential
which is related to the energy
Electric Current, the definition
Assume charges are moving
+ +
perpendicular to a surface of
area A
A
+ +
+ +
If ΔQ is the amount of charge
that passes through A in time Δt,
then the current is I
The current-voltage
relationship is
nonlinear
Resistivity Values and the temperature coefficient α
Resistors
A device made to have certain
resistance value is called a resistor.
Solution:
Q Ne
Iav = =
t t
Iav =
( 3.8 10 21
)(1.6 10 −19
)
( 4 60 )
Iav = 2.53A
A flashlight bulb carries a current of 0.1 A. Find the
charge that passes through the bulb in 0.5 Seconds.
Solution:
Figure a b c d
Rank 1 2 2 3
Direction of conventional Right Left Right Left
current
Consider a simple V-R circuit comprising a light bulb. Assume
there is a 1.5-volt battery and the light bulb draws a current of
0.2 Amps. Find the R of the light bulb filament.
Solution:
𝐸 0.740𝑉Τ𝑚
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 = = = 3.03 × 107 𝐴/𝑚2
𝜌 2.44×10−8 Ω𝑚
Suppose you want to connect your stereo to remote speakers.
(a) If each wire must be 20 m long, what diameter copper wire
should you use to make the resistance 0.10 per wire.
(b) If the current to each speaker is 4.0 A, what is the voltage
drop across each wire?
R = L / A V=IR
A = L / R V = (4.0) (0.10)
(d/2)2 = L / R V = 0.4 V
d = 2 ( L / R )½
d = 2 [ (1.68x10-8) (20) / (0.1) ]½
d = 0.0021 m = 2.1 mm
The 12-gauge copper wire in a home has a cross-sectional area of
3.31 x 10-6 m2 and carries a current of 10 A. Calculate the
magnitude of the electric field in the wire.
Solution: I
E = J =
A
(1.72 10−8 m) (10 C/s )
E=
(3.3110−6 m 2 )
E = 5.20 10−2 V/m
Question: What is the source of this electric field?
In parallel
Condition: 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 V1
Δ𝑉 = Δ𝑉1 = Δ𝑉2
1 𝐼 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2 1 1 V2
≡ = = + ≡ +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 Δ𝑉 Δ𝑉 Δ𝑉1 Δ𝑉2 𝑅1 𝑅2
Example
The 8.0- and 4.0- resistors
are in series and can be replaced
with their equivalent, 12.0
R R R
A
R R R
B
R R R
Series
A
R
R 3R
R
B
Parallel
3
R 3R 4 R
B
Series
A
R
3 11
4 R 4 R
R
B
Parallel
11
R 4 R 11
15 R
B
Series
A
R
11 41
15 R 15 R
R
B
All done!
A Exercise
After the lessons on Kirchhoff’s
41 rules, calculate the equivalent
15 R resistance between A and B
using Kirchhoff’s two rules: the
junction rule and the loop rule
B
For the circuit below, calculate the current drawn from
the battery and the current in the 6 resistor.
10
R?
8
6
I?
3 9V
8
1
9V
Solution
10
8
6
3
8
1 9V
4
6
3
1 9V
10
3
1 9V
5
3
1 9V
9
I= = =1A
R1 + R2 + R3 9
Calculate the current through the 6-Ω resistor.
10
A B
I1
6 4
3
I=1A
1 9V
Start at B and follow the blue Then follow the green path
path to point A
VA − 6 I1 − 4 I1 = VB VAB = −10 I1
VB − 3 1 + 9 − 11 = VA VAB − VBA 5
I1 = = = = 0.5 A
VBA = VA − VB = 5V − 10 − 10 10
Rule 1: Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
Junction Rule, from charge
conservation:
The sum of the currents at any
junction must equal zero
Mathematically:
I =0
junction Junction
The example on the left figure:
I1 - I2 - I3 = 0
Rule 2: Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
Loop Rule, from energy
conservation:
V1 V2
Choose your loop
The sum of the potential differences
Loop direction
across all elements around any
closed circuit loop must be zero
Mathematically:
V = 0
closed
Remember two things:
1. A battery supplies power. Potential
loop rises from the “–” terminal to “+”
terminal.
Pay attention to the sign (+ or -) of
the potential changes when you go 2. Resistors dissipate power.
around a chosen loop direction. Potential falls in the direction of
the current through the resistor.
Example
Step 1: Choose and mark the loops.
Step 2: Choose and mark current directions. Mark the potential change on
resistors.
Step 3: Apply junction rule:
– +
I1 + I2 − I3 = 0 I2
L1
Step 4: Apply loop rule: I1 I3
+ –
L1: +2.00I3 − 12.0 + 4.00I2 = 0
L2
L2: − 8.00 − 2.00I3 − 6.00I1 = 0
– +
Step 5: Solve the three equations for
the three variables.
18 28 10
𝐼1 = − 𝐴, 𝐼2 = 𝐴, 𝐼3 = 𝐴
11 11 11
Calculate I, Vab, and Vba.
20
I2
1 = 85 V 1
g f e
– I1 – I2 + I3 = 0
Rearrange to get variables in
“right” order: - 30 I1 - 41 I3 + 45 = 0
21 I2 + 41 I3 -130 = 0
load
Battery power
Power generated by the battery battery
(through chemical reactions): V
p = ε I = (R + r ) I 2
load
The power the battery delivers to the load (efficiency):
pload R
pload = V I = R I 2
efficiency = =
p R+r
The maximum power the battery can deliver to a load
R
ε = (R + r ) I We have pload = ε 2
From pload = R I
2
and
(R + r )2
Where the emf 𝜀 is a constant once the battery is given.
𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑅
efficiency = =
𝑝 𝑅+𝑟
Example
For maximum power delivered to the external circuit
by the battery, the internal resistance of battery r is
A. 10R
B. 4R/9
C. R/8
D. 10R/9
76
Magnets and the Magnetic Field
Magnets always have two poles: N and S
poles.
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Outside a magnet, field lines start from
the north pole, end at the south pole.
The magnetic field is a vector, and is
symbolized by 𝐵
Electric field
What generates the magnetic field?
The magnetic field is generated by:
moving charges
currents
changing electric field
Solution
Angle between 𝒗 and 𝑩 is 90° so
sin θ = 1.
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = (20 × 10–9 𝐶)(10 𝑚/𝑠)(5 × 10–5 𝑇)
𝐹 = 1 × 10–11 𝑁
82
Force on a Charged Particle
The magnetic force causes a
centripetal acceleration,
changing the direction of the
velocity of the particle
Equating the magnetic and
centripetal forces:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
Solving for r:
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
Solution
r = mv/qB
r = (1.67×10-27 x 1×106) / (1.6×10-19 x 0.2)
r = 0.052 m = 5.2 cm
𝑣⊥ = 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2
Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying
Conductor, a wire
A force is exerted on a
current-carrying wire
placed in a magnetic field
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐿
𝐹 = 𝑁𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵 sin 𝜃 = Δ𝑄 𝐵 sin 𝜃
Δt
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐅Ԧ𝐵 = 𝐼 𝐋
Ԧ ×𝐁
Torque on a Current Loop
The rectangular loop carries a
current I in a uniform magnetic field F
No magnetic force acts on sides 1 & 3.
The magnitude of the magnetic
force on sides 2 & 4 is F
F 2 = F4 = I a B
The direction of F2 is out of the page;
The direction of F4 is into the page
The forces form a couple. Front view
The couple produces a torque about
a vertical axis through the center of
the loop
Or around point O (bottom view)
The loop rotates about an axis
through point O.
bottom view
Torque on a Current Loop, Equation
The maximum torque is found by:
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹2 + 𝐹4 = 𝐼𝑎𝐵 + 𝐼𝑎𝐵 = 𝐼 𝑎𝑏 𝐵
2 2 2 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝒜𝐵
τ = 𝐼 𝒜Ԧ × B
Direction of a current loop and the Magnetic
Dipole Moment
The right-hand rule can be used to
determine the direction of 𝒜Ԧ
Curl your fingers in the direction of the
current in the loop
Your thumb points in the direction of 𝒜Ԧ
The product 𝐼 𝒜Ԧ is defined as the magnetic
(dipole) moment, 𝜇, Ԧ of the loop
SI units: A · m2
Torque in terms of magnetic moment:
𝜏Ԧ = 𝜇Ԧ × 𝐁
Example
A proton is moving with a velocity 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ in a region of
uniform magnetic field. The resulting force is 𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹0 𝑖Ƹ If the
proton is initially shot perpendicular to the magnetic field, find
the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field?
Solution
𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣0 𝑗Ƹ
𝐹
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 =
𝑞𝑣
𝐹0
𝐵=
𝑒𝑣0
𝐵 𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹0 𝑖Ƹ
Ԧ can the
For the same 𝑣Ԧ and 𝐹,
magnetic field have an x 𝐹0
𝐵= 𝑘 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗Ƹ
component? A y component? 𝑒𝑣0
Example
Find the maximum torque on a 100-turn square loop of
a wire of 10.0 cm on a side that carries 15.0 A of current
in a 2.00-T field.
Solution
The maximum torque corresponds to sin θ = 1, so
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁𝐼𝒜𝐵
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (100)(15.0 𝐴)(0.100 𝑚2 )(2.00 𝑇) = 30.0 𝑁𝑚.
93
Example
A proton is moving at 1 × 104 m/s from left to right in a
magnetic field of 0.4 T that’s points up in the plane of the
page. Find the magnitude of the force vector. Find the
direction. What would the force be if the particle was an 𝑒 – ?
Solution
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃 = 1.6 × 10−19 × 104 × 0.4 × sin 90°
𝐹 = 6.4 × 10−16 𝑁
94
Example
An electron travels at 2 × 107 m/s in a plane perpendicular
to a 0.01 T magnetic field. Describe its path and find the
cyclotron frequency.
Solution
The path is a circle of radius:
mv 9.1110 −31 2 107
r= = −19
= 1.14 cm
eB 1.602 10 0.01
y
B
x
R
I
L L
There is no magnetic force on the portions of the wire outside the magnetic field region.
First look at the two straight sections.
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 sin 𝜃
L ⊥ B, so
F1 = F2 = ILB F1 F2 B
R
Total force on the I
straight parts is L L
y
Fst = F1 + F2 = 2ILB x
Fy
Total force:
F1 F2 B
F = F1 + F2 + Fy R
I
L L
F = ILB + ILB + 2IRB y
F = 2IB (L + R ) x
How would the result differ if the magnetic field were directed
along the +x direction?
A semicircular closed loop of radius R carries current I. It is in a
region of constant magnetic field as shown. What is the net
magnetic force on the loop of wire?
FC
y
B
x
R
I
𝐹 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 sin 𝜃 B
R
L ⊥ B, and L=2R so
I
FS = 2IRB y
FS
x
Solution
𝜇0 𝐼
Solving 𝐵 = for the current I, we get
2𝜋𝑟
2𝜋𝑟𝐵 2𝜋𝑟
𝐼= = (2𝐵𝐸 )
𝜇0 𝜇0
2𝜋 × 5.0 × 10−2 𝑚 −5
𝐼= −7
2 × 5.0 × 10 𝑇 = 25 𝐴
4𝜋 × 10 𝑇𝑚/𝐴
102
Bio-Savart Law
The B-field due to an element of current in a wire is
given by the Bio-Savart law:
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑 𝑙Ԧ × 𝑟Ƹ
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2 I
dl θ
The B-field of a
straight line 𝒓ො r
follows from this x B
law by integration.
103
Magnetic field at the center of a circular loop of
wire with current I and radius R y
⚫ By Bio-Savart law:
𝜇0 Id𝑙Ԧ × 𝑟Ƹ 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 x
𝑑𝐵 = 2
= 2
𝑘 𝑟Ԧ
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵 =
𝑘 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑘
4𝜋 𝑅 2 2𝑅
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐 𝑹
Example
A long, straight wire carries current I. A right-angle bend is made
in the middle of the wire. The bend forms an arc of a circle of
radius r. Determine the magnetic filed at the center of the arc.
Use the results already obtained:
1 𝜇𝑜 I 𝜇𝑜 I
Straight section: 𝐵 = =
2 2𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
1 𝜇𝑜 I 𝜇0 𝐼
Arc: 𝐵= =
4 2𝑟 8𝑟
μo I μo I μo I μo I 2 1
The final answer: magnitude B= + + = +
4πr 8r 4πr 4r π 2
direction pointing into the page.
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
A solenoid is a long wire wound in the 𝑵
form of a helix. 𝑩 = 𝝁0 𝑰 = 𝝁0 𝒏𝑰
𝒍
Each loop produces a magnetic field that
adds together to form the total field.
uniformly distributed
107
Exercise:
A thin 10-cm long solenoid has a total of 400 turns of wire and
carries a current of 2 A. Calculate the magnetic field inside
near the center.
N
B = μ0 I
-7 T m ( 400 )
B = 4 π ×10 (2 A )
A ( 0.1 m )
B = 0.01 T
Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Wires
The wires each carry steady currents
The field 𝐁2 due to the current in wire
2 exerts a force on wire 1:
F1 = I1 ℓ B2
Substituting the equation for 𝐁2 gives
𝜇𝑜 I1 I2
𝐹1 = ℓ
2𝜋a
Ԧ
When the field is parallel to 𝐴,
F = BA (figure b)
Magnetic Flux Through Any surface
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 𝛥𝐴𝑖
𝑖=1
Magnetic Flux: Examples
What is the magnetic flux through
the loop of area A = 10 cm × 5 cm
shown in the figure if the magnetic
field has a strength of 0.5 T and
makes an angle of 30o with the
normal to the loop?
Solution
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝜱𝑩 = 𝑩⊥ 𝑨 = 𝑩𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 Φ𝐵 = 0.5 × 0.005 × cos 30°
Φ𝐵 = 2.2 × 10−3 𝑊𝑏
112
Example
A conducting circular loop of radius 0.250 m is placed in the xy-
plane in a uniform magnetic field of 0.360 T that points in the
positive z-direction, the same direction as the normal to the plane.
1. Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop.
Solution z
1. Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵 𝜋𝑟 2 cos 0°
Φ𝐵 = 0.360 𝑇 𝜋 × 0.2502 𝑚2 y
Φ𝐵 = 0.0706 Wb
113
Example
A conducting circular loop of radius 0.250 m is placed in the xy-
plane in a uniform magnetic field of 0.360 T that points in the
positive z-direction, the same direction as the normal to the plane.
1. Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop.
2. Suppose the loop is rotated clockwise around the x-axis, so the
normal direction now points at a 45.0° angle with respect to the
z-axis. Recalculate the magnetic flux through the loop.
Solution z
2. Φ′𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵 𝜋𝑟 2 cos 45°
2 2 2 y
Φ′𝐵 = 0.360 𝑇 𝜋 × 0.250 𝑚
2
Φ′𝐵 = 0.0499 Wb
x
114
Example
A conducting circular loop of radius 0.250 m is placed in the xy-
plane in a uniform magnetic field of 0.360 T that points in the
positive z-direction, the same direction as the normal to the plane.
1. Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop.
2. Suppose the loop is rotated clockwise around the x-axis, so the
normal direction now points at a 45.0° angle with respect to the
z-axis. Recalculate the magnetic flux through the loop.
3. What is the change in flux due to the rotation of the loop?
Solution
3. ΔΦ𝐵 = Φ′𝐵 − Φ𝐵
ΔΦ𝐵 = 0.0706 Wb − 0.0499Wb
ΔΦ𝐵 = −0.0207 Wb
115
Magnetic Flux: Exercise
A hexagon-shaped loop with area 0.5 m2 is
placed in a uniform B-field of 2 T such that
the loop’s normal is parallel to B.
a) Calculate ΦB through the hexagon.
b) Suppose the B-field strength is halved,.
Calculate ΦB and ΔΦB .
c) Suppose the loop is rotated 45° as shown
while B = 2T. Calculate ΦB and ΔΦB .
Solution
But, How?
Faraday’s Experiment
• Faraday tested this theory by winding two
solenoids around the same doughnut
shape of soft iron.
Faraday’s Experiment
He noted that while the switch remained closed, the induced current
disappears as shown by the zero reading of the ammeter.
Faraday’s Experiment
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
Changing B Changing θ
Faraday’s Law of induction
The induced current must be
driven by an induced emf in
the coil.
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s Law: Example
As the solenoid switches on,
creating upward magnetic
flux through the loop, the
I
current generated in the loop
will add downward flux.
𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵
The emf, potential difference, is:
ℰ = Δ𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
ΔΦ𝐵 𝐵𝑣ℓΔ𝑡 ℓ
ℰ= = = 𝐵𝑣ℓ
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
What about direction?
The downward flux through
the loop is decreasing, the loop
In time Δt the loop will move
will try to oppose this by
distance v Δt, so the area of lost
making more downward flux magnetic flux will be v Δt ℓ.
(Lenz’s law).
Example: Motional emf powering a resistor
Condition:
A bar moving on two
rails. The bar and the
rails have negligible
resistance. A resistor of
R is connected to the I
end of the two rails.
Result:
The emf = vBℓ, so the
Equivalent circuit
current I = vBℓ /R diagram
Bar moved by 𝐅Ԧ𝑎𝑝𝑝
Two issues need attention:
1. The moving bar experiences a force from the field, FB=IℓB
2. The magnetic flux in the enclosed area is ΦB=xℓB, and it is
changing with time as
ΔΦ𝐵 Δ Δ𝑥
= 𝑥ℓ𝐵 = ℓ𝐵 = 𝑣𝐵ℓ = 𝑒𝑚𝑓
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
Example, what is the terminal velocity?
A bar of mass m sides on two vertical
rails. A resistor is connected to the end of
the rails. The bar is released at t = t0.
(a) calculate the velocity of the bar at
time t,
(b) what is the terminal velocity?
Assuming that the rails are long and the
magnetic field is large. I
m
(a) When the bar starts to fall, an emf is 𝐅Ԧ𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔𝑖Ƹ
induced:
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑣𝐵 ℓ
The induced current is: 𝐼 = 𝑣𝐵ℓ/𝑅
2
The magnetic force on the bar points 𝑣 ℓ𝐵
𝐅Ԧ𝐵 = −𝐼ℓ𝐵𝑖Ƹ = − 𝑖Ƹ
opposite to the gravitational force: 𝑅
Example, what is the terminal velocity?
Construct the equation of motion:
𝑣 ℓ𝐵 2
Ԧ Ԧ
𝐅𝐺 + 𝐅𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑖Ƹ = 𝑚𝐚
𝑅
𝑣 ℓ𝐵 2 𝑑𝑣
𝑚𝑔 − =𝑚
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 I
m
𝐅Ԧ𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔𝑖Ƹ
Solve this equation
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑅
= − ,𝜏 ≡
𝑣 − 𝜏𝑔 𝜏 ℓ𝐵 2
𝑡
−𝜏
𝑣 = 𝜏𝑔 1 − 𝑒 ,∵ 𝑣 𝑡 = 0 = 0
137
Solution (a)
Area of loop: 𝐴 = 1.80 × 10−2 cm 2 = 3.24 × 10−4 m2
Flux at 𝑡 = 0:
Φ𝐵,𝑖 = 𝐵𝑖 𝐴 = 0.00 𝑊𝑏
Flux at 𝑡 = 0.800𝑠:
Φ𝐵,𝑓 = 𝐵𝑓 𝐴 = 0.500 T × 3.24 × 10−4 m2 = 1.62 × 10−4 Wb
Induced emf:
ΔΦ𝐵 1.62 × 10−4 𝑊𝑏
ℰ = −𝑁 = −25 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Δ𝑡 0.800 𝑠
−𝟑
𝓔 = −𝟓. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑽
138
Solution (b)
Induced current:
ℰ 5.06 × 10−3 𝑉
𝐼= = = 1.45 × 10−2 A
𝑅 0.350 Ω
139