FV1001 Assignment

Name

University

Date
Question 1:
Explain Flashover and Backdraft. Describe the conditions necessary for each to occur.
(10 Marks)

A flashover is the sudden ignition of most combustible materials that are directly exposed to
a flame in an enclosed area due to thermal radiation feedback. For a flashback to occur, it
requires that the energy of the radiation feedback to the combustible materials produces a
rapid increase in temperature and simultaneous ignition. Thus, flashback is a temperature-
driven event, and occurs when at fully developed stage.

A backdraft is the sudden explosion of a smoke that occurs when more oxygen is supplied
into a smouldering fire and hot gases reach their flammable range, ignite and explode with a
huge force. Thus, unlike flashover, a backdraft is an event that is driven by air ant it occurs
during the decay stage. This explains why most fires are air-regulated rather than fuel-
regulated, making backdrafts very important. For a backdraft to occur, additional oxygen
must be supplied during the fire decay stage and the combustible materials must still be at
their ignition temperature (Fire Engineering, 2005).

Question 2:
Describe smoke production in fires. Explain how smoke affects escape time.
(10 Marks)

The smoke is a collection of volatile hydrocarbons, fumes, tiny particles, and hundreds of
different chemicals that evaporate from a burning material. However, visible smoke is mainly
carbon, tar, oils and ash. Smoke is produced when there is incomplete combustion of the
fuel due to insufficient oxygen. In a complete combustion, only carbon dioxide and water are
produced. The unburned particles and volatile hydrocarbons start vaporizing at around 300
℃ . These compounds can burst into a flame if the temperature gets high enough.

Smoke can cut off an escape. It can be so thick and dense within an escape route that
occupants may become disoriented and unable to make their escape on time due to visibility
problems. The production of smoke is also a sign that there is insufficient oxygen in the
building. Lack of enough oxygen for breathing can slow down the escape process, and in
some situations, occupants may become unconscious. In such a situation, they need help
from fire-fighters who may take more time to reach the victims. This can occur so quickly
that occupants become unable to reach accessible exits on time (Mózer, 2014).

Question 3:
Describe the flash point, fire point, and auto ignition temperature for combustible liquids.
Describe flame spread across the surface of a liquid.
(10 Marks)

Flash point for combustible liquid is the lowest temperature at which the liquid can form an
air-fuel mixture that is ignitable. Fire point is the temperature at which flammable liquid
vapours continue to burn even after removing the source of fire ignition. The temperature at
fire point is slightly higher than the temperature at flash point. The auto ignition temperature
for a combustible liquids is the temperature at which the liquid self-ignites without a source of
ignition, such as a flame or spark. Common combustible liquids have an auto ignition
temperature of 300-550℃ . (Benedetti, 2005)
As fire growth continues, flames spread across the fuel surface at varying rates. The rate of
spread of a flame across the surface of a liquid is dependent on many factors, including the
individual properties of the fuel, its position and orientation of the surface. Concurrent spread
of flame is upward on vertical surfaces, and the spread is downward in counter flow flame
spread. Flame spread on liquid surfaces depends on the preheat temperature of the liquid
before the flame in relation to its flash point. Below the flash point, the flames spread across
the surface of the liquid through fluid flow. Above the flash point, the spread of flame across
the surface of a liquid is as a result of the ignition of gases (International Association of Fire
Chiefs;International Association of Arson Investigators, 2017).

Question 4:
Explain detonation and deflagration. Describe the mechanism of BLEVE.
(10 Marks)

Detonation and deflagration are two ways in which combustion energy is released. If the
process of combustion progresses outward as speeds slower than the speed of sound, then
it’s a deflagration, but if explosion moves outward at speeds higher than that of sound, then
its detonation. In deflagration, there is rapid travelling of flames through a gas at sub-sonic
speed. Detonation is a destructive explosion that occurs when a decomposition reaction
releases a lot of energy within a very short period of time. It is characterized by significant
overpressure and a supersonic exothermic front that drives a shockwave ahead of the
explosion.
Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) refers to an explosion due to the rupture
of a container with a pressurized superheated liquid at temperatures above its boiling point.
The pressurized superheated liquid is suddenly released to the atmosphere due to vessel
failure, internal overheating, fire engulfment, manufacturing defects, a missile hit, corrosion,
etc. The sudden release of pressurized superheated liquid can lead to serious cataclysmic
impacts.
BLEVE begins with a vessel containing a liquid above its boiling temperature at normal
atmospheric pressure. Common substances stored as a liquid at boiling temperatures far
below room temperature include propane, CO 2 and other industrial gases. Boiling such
liquids in a closed container increases both temperature and pressure. The temperature at
which a liquid boils is also highly dependent on pressure. Increasing the pressure would
yield a high boiling point, and vice versa. As the liquid boils, it turns into gas, which builds the
pressure inside the enclosed vessel. If the pressurized vessel ruptures, the pressure which
limits the boiling of the liquid is lost. In a catastrophic rupture, a large mass of liquid at very
low pressure and at very high temperature is released. This results in a portion of the liquid
to boil instantaneously, causing a rapid expansion that can be thought of as an explosion
depending on the liquid, temperatures and pressures involved (Abbasi & Abbasi, 2007).

Question 5:
Describe the mechanism of burning of a candle. Explain laminar and turbulent flames.
(10 Marks)

The burning of a candle is a chemical reaction called combustion. During this reaction, the
wax reacts with oxygen to make a colourless gas – carbon dioxide. Wax is a carbon-based
material that is derived from petroleum. Also produced during the combustion process is
water, which is in the form of steam. Smoke is also produced since the wax is not completely
combusted to carbon dioxide and water. The smoke typically consists of tiny solid particles
and unburned carbon particles from the mixture of wax and steam. The steam is generated
from the blue part of the candle flame, where there is high supply of oxygen and hence,
complete combustion of the wax. The smoke is generated from the brighter part of the flame,
where the supply of oxygen is insufficient for complete combustion of wax. The figure below
illustrates the combustion of candle wax.
 Figure 1: Combustion of candle wax

For burning of candle to start, there must be some energy to kick-start the combustion
reaction process. This energy is called activation energy, and can be provided by a lighted
burning match. Once the match lights the candle wick, the heat from the flame causes the
wax below the wick to melt. The wick draws the melted wax through capillary action,
providing fuel to the flame which continues to burn. This process is sustained as long as
there is wax beneath the burning flame.
Depending on the flow behaviour of the combusting gases, the flame maybe laminar or
turbulent. A laminar flame is produced when the fuel and oxygen only meet at the mouth of
the burner, and mix by the process of diffusion as the burning continues. In this case, the
flame is typically flat, although analogous axisymmetric flames can also be produced by use
of concentric tubes. The flame propagates through a stationery mixture of combustion gases
at a given characteristic velocity. In a turbulent flame, fuel and oxygen are mixed by
turbulence for a time longer enough before combustion occurs. The action of vortices causes
the flame to be intermittent, and is characterized by increased surface area and wrinkles at
the front. The transition from laminar flame to turbulent flame occurs as the velocity of flow
increases (El-Mahallawy & Din Habik, 2002). The figure below illustrates the different types
of flames.

Figure 2: Laminar, transition and turbulent flames

Question 6:
Explain Upper and Lower Flammability Limits. Explain stoichiometric chemical reactions.
(10 Marks)

Lower Flammability Limit (LFL) or Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) is the lowest percentage of
gas or vapour concentration in air that can produce a fire flash in the presence of a source of
ignition, such as heat, arc or flame. On the other hand, the Upper Flammability Limit (UFL)
or Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) is the highest percentage gas or vapour concentration in air
that can produce a fire flash in the presence of a source of ignition. Gas or vapour
concentrations above UFL are too rich to burn (Charles E. Baukal, 2010).

Stoichiometric chemical reactions show the quantities of reactants and products involved in
a chemical reaction. In a balanced chemical reaction, both reactants and products have
equal number of elements. The stoichiometric coefficient is used to balance the number of
atoms, ions and molecules on the reactant and product sides of a chemical equation.

Question 7:
Define fuel load and mass burning rate. Explain the heat of combustion, heat release rate,
and combustion efficiency.
(10 Marks)

A fuel load is the amount of flammable fuel around a fire, and is measured by the fuel
available per unit area. Mass burning rate is the rate at which the fuel burns, and is
calculated in mass per second.
Heat of combustion is the amount of heat energy released when a specific amount of a
substance, usually one mole, is burned. The rate at which heat is generated by a fire is
known as heat release rate (HRR). HRR is measured in Watts or Joules per second.
Combustion efficiency is the ratio of the amount of heat output by the burning fuel to the
amount of heat input by the fuel. It is a measure of how well the burning fuel is utilized in the
combustion process. Combustion efficiency increases as more excess air becomes available
– to a point where heat loss through excess air exceeds the heat provided by efficient
combustion.

Question 8:
a) Consider an enclosure fire. Find the conductive heat flow rate through a concrete
wall 0.45 m wide (l), 4.2 m high and 7 m long when the temperature in the room is
800oK (T2) and the ambient temperature on the other side is 300 oK (T1). Find the
value of k from the table.

b) Find the thermal penetration time for a 1% and 50% increase in temperature rise
through a brick wall 0.15 m wide (x). Find the values of α from the table.
(5 Marks)

a)

From the tables, the thermal Conductivity (k) of concrete wall ranges from 0.8 W/m-K to 1.4
W/m-K. We can assume a value of k to be 1.4 W/m-K for this case.
kA(T 2−T 1)
Conductive heat flow rate(q)=
d
1.4 W /m−k∗( 4.2 m×7 m)∗(800 K−300 K )
¿
0.45 m
q=45,733.3Watts
¿ 45.73 kW

b)
For a brick wall,
Thermal Diffusivity (α) = 5.2x10-7 m2/s
Wall thickness, d = 0.15 m
2
d
Thermal penetrationtime =
16 α
2
0.15
−7
16(5.2 ×10 )
¿ 2,704 seconds
This is the time taken for the heat wave to penetrate the brick wall, irrespective of
temperature increase.

Question 9:
Find the heat flux due to radiation from a flame 3 m tall (a), 4 m wide (b) and 0.5 m thick(l) at
a distance 2 m away (c), when the absorption coefficient κ is 0.7, the temperature is 1000 oK
(T2) and σ = 5.67x10-8. Find the value of F12 from the table.
(10 Marks)

the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

b 4
X = = =1.3
a 3

l 0.5
y= = =0.17
a 3

From the configuration table provided, and using the values of X and y calculated above, F12
= 0.035

Emissive power of the flame, E=kσ T 4

¿ 0.7 ×(5.67 ×10−8)×1000 4

2
¿ 39,690 kW /m

Radiative heat flux, q=E F 12

¿ 0.17 ×39,690
2
¿ 6,747.3 kW /m
Question 10:

Balance the following chemical reactions:

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

C6H12 + 9O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
2C6H14 + 19O2 → 12CO2 + 14H2O
2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O
C9H20 + 14O2 → 9CO2 + 10H2O
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 9O2
2NaCl + F2 → 2NaF + Cl2
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

(10 Marks)

Question 11:
Calculate the average flame height for a burning pool of Jet A fuel with diameter 4 m.
(5 Marks)

The net energy content of jet A fuel is 43.15 MJ/kg

Burning rate of jet A fuel is
Q=m∗∆ H
Where:
Q – heat release rate (kW)
m – burning rate (kg/sec)
∆ H – Effective heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
Therefore,

Q=0.039 kg/ s∗43150 k J /kg

¿ 1682.85 kW

Using Heskestad’s equation to calculate the flame height,

2
L=−1.02 D+0.235(Q 5 )
Where:
L – Flame height
D- Flame diameter
Q – heat release rate of jet A fuel
¿−1.02∗4 m−¿
L=0.51m
 References

Abbasi, T. & Abbasi, S., 2007. The boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE):
Mechanism, consequence assessment, management. Journal of Hazardous Materials, pp.
489-519.
Benedetti, R. P., 2005. Inspecting Flammable Liquids. Massachusetts, United States: Jones
& Bartlett Learning.
Charles E. Baukal, J., 2010. Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion. New York: CRC Press.
El-Mahallawy, F. & Din Habik, S., 2002. Fundamentals and Technology of Combustion.
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Fire Engineering, 2005. Fire Engineering. [Online]
Available at: https://www.fireengineering.com/articles/2005/03/flashover-and-backdraft-a-
primer.html
International Association of Fire Chiefs;International Association of Arson Investigators,
2017. Fire Investigator: Principles and Practice to NFPA 921 and 1033. Massachusetts,
United States: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Mózer, V., 2014. An Analysis of Factors Affecting Available Safe Escape Time. Advanced
Materials Research, pp. 267-271.