aesTABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION a 4,2 SEVEN WEAR TYPES 8 st ai ABRASIVE WEAR i s i soe A ADHESIVE WEAR 5 CORROSIVE WEAR 67 EROSIVE WEAR .... sas 8 CAVITATION EROSION - ee CONTACT STRESS FATIGUE 10 FRETTING CORROSION a auras 14 CONCLUSION sss 12 FORWARD ‘This booklet contains a summary of key concepts and procedures in wear analysis, Seven ‘common types of wear are discussed anaillustrated. This information ic intended! to sorvo as a relerence bocklet for those who Nave attended the Caterpillar Applied Failure Analysis Course. Anyone wanting more information about applied failure analysis should contact their local Caterpillar deaier (HB caterpitcar © 1988 Caterpier ineINTRODUCTION Belore we can etticiently analyze weer tailures, we need to know our customers, their equipment and ite application, and their operation and maintenance Procecures. Then, as we find abnormal wear of a certain type, we may be ablo to physically undorstand how the wear occurred and whal corrective action is neeced, tenes emea sha Py When abnormal wear is found, it is always benoficial to use an organized approach to find the rat cause and satisty ‘customers. We have found that The 8 Steps of Applied Failure Analysis help us to remember good analyss procedure and to avoid preconceived ideas. Lee ma MaCer-te lea} AS we follow the 6 sieps, we should gather facts, identity wear types. and let “roadsigns’ found in facts and weer typos guide us to the rect cause.Obtain Wear Facts ; We shoud be especialy careful to gather fects about © Location location of weer. typeo! wear, andloading that nas been Speled to produce the wear This wil help us identity Sanya See nao oterhonicemiorene en Hof-Co| Obtain System Facts Sa Uie\cait-l Sa KeJan) efeseetv lcci evo) 0 ~ Lubricants Many times abnormal wear results from hostile system environments. Therefore, we always investigate these possibilities and gather system facts about materials, temperatures, pressures and lubricants. Obtain Lubricant Facts \We should aways gather oth quantty and quailty facts about ubricants. How much ol wasn the sump! What F type of of was used? What other materials did the SOS Quality "por entity? (ee TaihiySEVEN COMMON WEAR TYPES Although there are many, many types of wear, the sevenlisted below account for most woar failures, A brief description of eachis given to helpus cistinguish between wear types. The remaining pages of this booklet wilillustrate the appearance ©} each wear type. Later, when doing failure analysis, we should ask ourselves What typeof wear is present andhow did itoceur?” As we study jailed parts witn good lighting and magnification, we will find “roadsigns" among the facts which will help us answer these questions. ABRASIVE WEAR: The mosi common type of abnormal wear — surfaces scratched, cut, gauged ar grocved ~ surface temperatures usually kept cool by lubricants — much self-genorated, secondary debris may be present, Always identify the original abrasive material. ADHESIVE WEAR: The fastest progressing wear ~ eurface tomperaturos not controlled often no lubricant present — wear surfaces melt and stick together. If enough energy is present, material is torn from the weaker wear surface and Secondary abrasive wear occurs. CORROSIVE WEAR: Chemical or electrochemical attack of metal surfaces - rusting, pitting, and scaling are commonly seen, General wear or Wear grooves can also develop prematurely when hostile corrosive environments are present EROSIVE WEAR: Removal ol surface material—moving particles strike the surface and breakaway smallpieces. Erosive wear is generally controlied by filtering fluids to limit the size and quantity of erosive particles. CAVITATION EROSION: Romoval of surface material as a result of formation and collapse of vapor bubbles at the Surface. Heaviest damage occurs when vapor budbies collapse |imploda) and fluids rush in and impact on the surface. End result is surface pitting CONTACT STRESS FATIGUE: Cyclic flexing of surtace material (caused either by sliding or rolling loads) which causes fatique cracks todevelop. End results surfacepitting and spalling, We should check for excessiveloading, misalignmont. lube problems, ote FRETTING CORROSION: Movement of two surfaces against each other followed by microwelding of surface asperitios and metal pullout. Fretting eorresion usually occurs when surface contact forces ere high, whereas general fretting caus when surface contact forces ate low (arts ate loose). Fretting corrosion, then, woUld incicate tight ft, Butenough load to cause par'-to-part movement. Therefore, when we find fretting corrosion we need to invastigate for possible abnormal loading, for somewhat lovr torque on retaining belts, etcABRASIVE WEAR ROADSIGNS Abrasive Wear In abrasive wear, foreign particles bridge oil film thickness, allowing transter of icad from one surface to another. Generated head is removed by lubricants, but surfaces are cut and gouged, sending secondary self generated debris into the system, Large foreign particles are commonyy introduced during assembly or repair. whie smaller particles can be introduced during maintenance operations. Filters should alwaysbe opened and carefully inspected when abnormal abrasive wear is found These bearings show typical ebrasive wear caused by large foreign material. We should identity the toregn material and its source.ABRASIVE WEAR ROADSIGNS ee CNR In abrasive wear, foreign particles bridge oil film thickness, allowing transfer of load from one surface 10 anather, Generated head is removed by lubricants. but surfaces are cut and gouged, sencing secondary self- Generated debris into the system. Large foreign particles are commonly introduced curing assembly or repair. while smaller particles can be introduced during maintenance operations. Filters snouldalwaystbe opened andcarefully inspected when abnormal abrasive wear is found. ‘These bearings show typical abrasive wear caused by large foreign material We shoulc entity the toreqn ‘material and its source.ADHESIVE WEAR PCIe ols During adhesive wear, surfaces make physical contact anc small high spots (asperities) make contact, generate heat, and microweld. Because lubricant is often absent, heat continues 10 build until more general melting and adhesion develops. Where bearing surfaces are smeared’ or highly polishad, they werehotenough to meft the load-tin overlay. Thie suggests rarginallubrication (cil quality or quantity problems), increased frictional heat generation, and poor heat removal. Check the facts to find out why marginal system lubrication was present. Locations in which molting and adhesion have occurred were physically hotter than other undamaged areas. This piston skirt was hot in the 4-corner areas, indicating overheating or interference fit. Why wastheckirt hot? Got lube, coolant and tit-up facts.CORROSIVE WEAR == | Corrosion Whenmetaisarerefined, they are changed froma stable, oxidized stata to an unstable, refined state. They would like to roturn to the more stable, oxidized state through corrosion Oneinr|) SCE lilie} q nt Corrosion can be general or galvanic, both being electrochemical in nature and requiring the presence of an e'cctralyte. \We could also think of high temperature oxidation as a type of corrosion for it produces oxidation of metais, pitting and scaling, General corrosion can occur when water contacts Unprotected metal surfaces. The crystalline structure ot tho motal contains many anodes and cathodes and the water acts as the electrolyte. Metal is removed from anodic areas, creating pitting.Moisture createdduring combustion can form dropletson valve stems (especially if coolant temperatures are too low), act as an electrolyte, and start corrosive pitting Areas of tight fit are common places for corrosion, as we see here where a baffle plate held this oil cooler tube. Also, in cases where a more active metal is used with a less active metal, the more active metal will become the anode. give up metal and become pitted High temperatures make metal atoms more active and allovr oxygen to penetrate quickly and deeply. Hot surfaces can develop significant oxide scalo.and pittingin @ matter of minutes, especially when meta’ melting temperatures are approachedEROSIVE WEAR Erosion Erosive wear is found at restrictions or at turns which force moving particles to change direction, Erosive wear has occurred above and telow thispiston pin bore because the piston has restricted the movemient of some foreign object. Notice the wear is more severe above the bore than itis below the bore, teling us the energy of foreign material was greater when it struok the top than when it struck the bottom (pisten accaleration/decealeration 's greater at siroke top than at stroke bottom), We should notice these ‘Tazdsigns” as we study wear facts, Notice that the erosive damage on this piston is heavier above the ring land than it is below the ring land, also telling of more forceful contact at the top than at the bottom!CAVITATION EROSION Cavitation erosion damage occurs either when vapor bubbles form in low pressure areas, or when they collapse in high pressure areas. Most severe damage 'S done, however, when bubbles collapse. Bubble Population is influenced by suction ar leaks or restrictions, by high flud levels (rotating parts “dip” and aerate fluids), by severe loading, etc Cavitation Erosion ey Pressure Cavitation erosion can cause serious pitting of surface materials, lecking andjor malfunction, “This close-up view of a Caterpillar bearing shows that the lead-tin overlay has been slowly broken away by cavitation erosion. Because there are some trapped vapor bubbles in lube oll, we should expect this wear at high mileage. Cavitation erosion which breaks large pi€ces trom the aluminum layer. however. should be considered abnormal.CONTACT STRESS FATIGUE Contact Stress Fatigue (Sliding or Rolling) In contact stress fatigue, line fatiqueccacks develop ator below tho surface ard lead to pitting and spaling. This can be caused by cveroad of the surface metal, e misalignment, poor quality or quantity lubrication, etc oF Toa Kole Keitel ® Misalignment With sliding loads, cracks startat the surface, progress downward, join together, and produce surface pitting. Notice that the pitting is off-center on this camshaft. Aithough slight sloping o/ the cain is dane to rotate sliding ifters, pitting should not occur, Check lubrication facts (installation and operation) and valve lash facts. With rolling loading, cracks start below the surface, often between the hard surface and the softer core. The oracks progress upward to the surface andlarge pieces broak loose, a process called spalling. This bearing has spalling on one side, indicating misalignment which is tkely a result of low preload. 10[EE — ed Fretting corrosion usually occurs when two parts thatareneld tantly together are caused tomave against each other. itis Payal high frequency, low empituce movement, and often leads to asperity microwelding, metal puliout, end pitting, & fedaish brown oxide powder or hard oxide buildup may alse ke present. If this darmage is cone in highicad areas, working stroeses can d¢ concentrated by the pitting anc fatique fractures may occur, as seen with this broker rod bolt re Close inspection of iretting corrosion on the parting face _Thismain bearing cap was reused with fretting corrosion Otaconnecting rod heips usuncerstand the microwelding _pits presentand has suffered a fatigue fracture In the ad and pullout that occurs, area, The crack started at the bottom of a fretting corrosion pit Parts with pitting in high load areas shouid either be reconditioned or replaced to avoid fatigue fractures. 4CONCLUSION ~ Identify the Root Cause of Failure Mesh) FD euskal esa a acy Every abnormal wear analysis should be pursued untl the most probable roct cause of the wear has boon identified, Tis isdone by lolowingan orderly enalysisprocedure, suchas the & Steps of Applied Failure Analyss, thinking mth the facts, and using the doublecheck question ‘Is there any possible way the other party could have caused this failure?” The doublecheck quastion helps broaden our vsion to environmental conditions of heat, 26, appicatien, operation, and maintenance which often contain the root cause. ( er lM 0) . lie say the jobis finished when we have identified the rootcause, ive miss Out onthe payolt - the needed factory, dealer or customer improvement, the satisfied customer, and the repeat purchase of product. parts and service. Only through commuricating the root cause to other involved parties, through professional repairs, ard through follow-up with ech customer will maximum payoff be obtained. y) 12