College of Engineering

Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in

ACE 14
Basic Electronics

LABORATORY REPORT COMPILATION

Submitted to:
Dareal Alann B Garcia, EcE
Electronics Engineering Department

Submitted by:
Taray, Feolo Riel B.
BS Mechanical Engineering – (3rd Year)
Contents:
0. Format
1. Experiment 1: Title
2. Experiment 2: Title
3.
Format:
I. Objective/s:

II. Context

III. Circuit

IV. Measured Data

a. Voltages/Currents (when applicable)
b. Signal Waveforms (when applicable)
c. Calculations (when applicable)
V. Deliverables

VI. Conclusion
Experiment 0: Ohm’s Law (SAMPLE)
I. Objective/s:
The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate Ohm’s Law with a simple electronic
circuit, and introduce the learner with the LTspice software environment.
II. Context
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that
describes this relationship:
I = V/R
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.
III. Circuit

IV. Measured Data

a. Voltages/Currents

V. Deliverables

VI. Conclusion
Experiment 1: Diodes in a rectifier
VII. Objective/s:
The purpose of this activity is to discuss the operation and application of rectifiers,
identify the pathway of current through a rectifier and describe how diodes control
this current flow, and implement a full-wave rectifier with filtering to convert an
AC signal to DC.
VIII. Context
Rectifiers convert Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC) using a
component that allows electrons to flow in one direction. In the previous lab, we
explored half-wave rectifiers, which only allowed half of an AC waveform to pass
through. While the output is unidirectional, it is pulsating and requires more
filtering to establish a useful DC current. To achieve steady DC from a rectified AC
supply, there needs to be a smoother circuit or filter. Prior to the early 1900s power
conversion devices were electromechanical in design.

These early systems used a form of rotary or resonant vibration and were
magnetically driven to reverse the current. Dynamos were eventually replaced with
cheaper alternators that produced power that was easier to distribute. This was
when tube type rectifiers were developed, and the semi-conductor diode was
invented.
IX. Circuit

X. Measured Data
a. Voltages/Currents (when applicable)
b. Signal Waveforms (when applicable)

XI. Deliverables

1-1. What is the main purpose of a rectifier?

- B. To convert AC power to DC power. Ans.

1-2. What is the role of a diode in a half-wave rectifier?

- 1. A diode in a half-wave rectifier allows for only half of an
AC waveform to pass through. Ans.

1-3. Hypothesize the pathway of current for the negative half of

 the sine wave and the positive half of the sine wave.
- In negative half of the sine wave, current flows from the
negative terminal of source LED3-R1-LED1 to the source’s
positive terminal. While in the positive half of the sine wave,
the current flows from the positive terminal of source -
LED2-R1-LED4 to the negative terminal of the source.

1-4. Does the signal measured through the resistor confirm your
hypothesis about the path of the current for both phases of
the sine wave? Explain how the diodes are routing the AC
current through the resistor.
- Yes, it does measure through the resistor because the resistor
experiences current in both phases, the current direction
simply switches from time to time. The AC current is routed
from LED2- R1-LED4 during the positive phase. Then, in
the negative phase, AC current is routed from LED3-R1-
LED1. After each phase, the current direction simply flows
alternately.

1-5. In your own words, discuss the operation and application of

rectifiers.
- A rectifier is a device that transforms alternating electricity
into a one-way direct current. It is used to allow to flow of
AC into DC. The half-wave rectifier only allows half of the
wave signal flow through while on the other hand, full-wave
rectifier allows the whole signal to flow through on either
negative or positive terminal. Rectifiers are found in almost
all electronic equipment's power supply. Linear power
supplies and switched-mode power supplies are the two basic
categories of AC/DC power supplies.
1-6. In your own words, identify the pathway of current through
a rectifier and describe how diodes control current flow.
- The pathway of current through a rectifier flows alternately
in positive and negative signal. In the positive signal, all
current flows from the positive terminal while in the negative
signal, all of the current will flow from the source’s negative
terminal.
1-7. Explain how you converted an AC signal to DC using a full-
wave rectifier with filtering.
- Full-wave rectifiers achieve this by using a group of diodes.
Using four diodes ensures that current only travels in one
direction. We apply a filter to decrease the ripples at the
output and be used by attaching capacitors to the DC output
terminals. The capacitor's output terminals will thus generate
a significantly more stable supply.

1. Conclusion
A rectifier is a device that transforms alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC). To reduce the power loss and reduce the ripples at the output, full wave
rectifier will be used. The full wave rectifier rectifies both positive and negative
half cycles of the input AC signal. Even though the full wave rectifier rectifies both
positive and negative half cycles, the output DC signal retains some ripples. We
apply a filter to decrease the ripples at the output. Therefore, the essential
components for this simulation's rectifier are four diodes, an alternating current
source, and a resistor. The diodes play the most important function because they
cause the electricity to flow in just one direction. There will be no distinct direction
for a current to travel without the full-wave rectifier since it always alternates in
both positive and negative cycle.

Experiment 2: Zener Diodes

I. Objective/s:
The purpose of this activity is to discuss the operation and application of Zener
diodes, the potential uses of a Zener diode towards applications such as voltage
regulation, and implement a voltage regulating circuit using a Zener diode.
II. Context
A Zener diode is an important component in Intrinsically Safe (IS) circuits. Zener
diodes are specifically designed to have a lower breakdown voltage than a
conventional diode. Conventional diode allows current to flow if it is reverse-biased
above its reverse breakdown voltage. IS equipment and instrumentation designed
for use in hazardous areas usually operates with low voltage and current. In
addition to protection from over voltage, Zener diodes are used to regulate the
operational voltages of these devices.

Zener diodes are useful because they may be used to limit electrical current by
connecting numerous resistors in series and to limit electrical voltage by connecting
multiple Zener devices to ground. It is also vital for the application of overvoltage
protection.
III. Circuit

IV. Measured Data

a. Voltages/Currents (when applicable)
 b. Signal Waveforms (when applicable)

Modifying the resistance

V. Deliverables
1-1. What is the main purpose of a rectifier?
- B. A Zener diode is similar to a normal diode because it
allows current to flow in a forward direction. Ans.

1-2. What is the difference between a conventional diode and a

Zener diode?
- 1. A conventional diode is subject to high current in its
breakdown region, while a Zener diode has a controlled
breakdown at a low breakdown voltage.
Ans.

1-3. At what approximate voltage value across the load/diode

(along the y-axis) does the graph level out? You can use the
cursors to measure the values more closely.
- As what we can see in the graph, the voltage across the
load/diode levels off at around 7 volts, or 6.9659 volts if we
use the cursor to be precise.
1-4. What physical property of the circuit does the value
calculated above correspond to?
- It corresponds to the controlled voltage, which allows only
roughly 7 volts to flow through when the Vin exceeds the
estimated value.

1-5. Consider that R1 forms a voltage divider with the parallel

combination of D1 and the potentiometer. What must
happen to the voltage drop across R1 once the voltage across
D1/R2 levels out?
- The voltage drop will be maintained across R1 once the
levels is out then it will change since there will be current
flowing through R2 in which it will be considered when
 calculating the voltage drop. When the voltage across R2 is
not leveled out yet, therefore there will be no current flowing
through it.

1-7. In your own words, discuss the operation and different

applications of a Zener Diode.
- The Zener diode operates just like the normal diode when in
the forward-bias mode. Zener diodes are used for voltage
regulation because it produces such a constant and stable
voltage across its terminals when its breakdown voltage is
surpassed, it can serve as a continuous output voltage for a
load connected in parallel with it.

1-8. Explain how you implemented a voltage regulating circuit

using a Zener diode.
- Zener Diode can be used with a series resistor to produce a
Zener Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit. When the voltage
across R2 reaches about 7 volts, the voltage across the diode
will be stabilized. Because of the diode, only 7 volts will pass
through R2. The voltage across R2 is fully dependent on the
Zener diode and if Vz varies, so does the maximum
allowable voltage to flow through R2.

1-9. Describe and explain the specific role of a Zener diode in a

regulator.
- Zener diodes are a type of diode that allows current to flow
in the forward direction. When the voltage exceeds a
specified threshold, Zener diodes enable current to flow in
the opposite direction. When the source voltage is too high
for a given load, the Zener diode's role is to minimize the
voltage through the particular load.

VI. Conclusion
Zener Diodes may generate a steady voltage output with low ripple under variable
load current conditions. As shown in this activity, we can identify that Zener diodes
can be used as voltage regulators. Zener diodes provide several functions, including
voltage regulation and voltage shifter. We may apply Zener diodes in our circuits
for certain applications that require what Zener diodes are designed for.
Experiment 3: Bipolar Junction Transistors
VII. Objective/s:
The purpose of this activity is to discuss the characteristics, operation and application
of a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), identify the regions of operation of a BJT, and
manipulate the input to a BJT to operate the BJT as a switch.
VIII. Context
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a device with three terminals capable of
amplifying a signal. Bipolar transistors use both electrons and holes to conduct
current in the same device. In order for a bipolar transistor to function as a current
amplifier, the collector-base junction must be reverse biased and the emitter-base
junction must be forward biased.

BJT can also be utilized as an amplifier, filter, rectifier, oscillator, or even a switch, as
shown in the first section. If the transistor is biased into the linear zone, it will work
as an amplifier or other linear circuit.

IX. Circuit

BJTs Circuit 1

BJTs Circuit 2
 X. Measured Data
a. Voltages/Currents (when applicable)
b. Signal Waveforms (when applicable)
BJTs Circuit 1

BJTs Circuit 2
XI. Deliverables
1-1. What is the main purpose of a rectifier?
- C. A BJT is a device with three terminals capable of amplifying
signals. Ans.

1-2. At what approximate voltage value do the different plots start

separating from each other?
- They start separating from each other in approximate voltage
value at 1mA based on the plot data. We can identify the
different voltage values by using the DC sweep simulation in
Multisim.

1-3. Use the chart below to compare the procedures from the
simulation, the IV Analyzer and the instrumentation
measurement activities. What are their advantages and
disadvantages?
- The advantages of using the simulations are that we can be able
to determine the values and data before we can apply them in
actual in order to see if circuits will break or not. The
disadvantage is that for us students we cannot use other
features since it needs a premium account which prevents us
from determining some data.
XII. Conclusion