ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Instrumentation and measurement

Assignment 1
By Yeabsira Gashaw (ETS 1173/08)

Submitted to. Mr. Demise M.

December 31, 2020
Question 2.1

Active means is that some component inside requires power, either a battery or an external voltage
source for working, but in some cases, it may be other forms of energy, such as pneumatics or
hydraulics. Examples of active components include transistors, LED lights, and op-amps or other
IC chips. Instruments that contain these components are active instruments. Therefore, Active
instruments are the instruments in which the quantity to be measured activates the magnitude of
external power input source that produces the measurement. Hence, additional external energy
input source is required.

Designing of the active instruments is complex. As a result of complexity in design and a higher
number of elements, active instruments are costlier when compared to passive instruments. Active
instruments have a high resolution. The resolution can be adjusted by adjusting the magnitude of
the external energy input. Examples of active instruments include liquid level indicator, flow
indicator etc.

Passive means that no components inside need to be powered. Common passive components
include resistors, capacitors, and most potentiometers like a volume knob. Instruments that contain
these components are passive instruments. Hence, Passive instruments are instruments where the
output is produced completely by the quantity that is measured. Therefore, additional energy input
source not required.

Passive instruments are simple to design. Consequently, passive instruments are cheaper and
economical. On the other hand, Passive instruments have a relatively lower resolution when
compared to active instruments. In addition, the resolution cannot be easily adjusted. Examples of
passive instruments are pressure gauge, voltmeter, Glass thermometer, ammeter etc.

Question 2.2

Null Type of measuring instrument

A measuring instrument in which zero or null indication shows the magnitude of measured
quantity such type of measuring instrument is called a null type measuring instrument. It uses a
null detector which indicating the zero or null condition when the measured quantity and the
opposite quantity are same.
Advantages
➢ The accuracy of the null type measuring instrument is high because the opposing effect is
measured with the help of the standards which have a high degree of accuracy.
➢ The null type measuring instrument is highly sensitive. As in null type measuring
instrument, the balance is measured out. The detector is to cover a small range around the
balanced point and hence it is highly sensitive.
➢ In null type measuring instrument, the detector need not be measured it has only to detect
the presence and direction of unbalance and not the magnitude of unbalance.

Disadvantages
➢ Null type measuring instrument requires many controls before ‘0’ conditions are achieved
and hence it is not suitable for dynamic measurement. Because in dynamic measurement
the value changes rapidly with the time and to make rapid changes in controls is not
possible.

Deflection type of measuring instruments

A measuring instruments in which pointer deflection is used to show the measured value(output).

Advantages
➢ It is very easy to read the output of deflection type measuring instruments.
➢ These are better suited to measure transient quantities because changes in a quantity can
be better followed by a pre-calibrated pointer.
➢ Due to their convenient use, these measuring instruments are readily used for calibrations.

Disadvantages
➢ They are less accurate than null type of measuring instruments.
➢ The sensitivity of these measuring instruments is lower than null type of measuring
instruments.
➢ Less reliable because measured quantity depends on the calibration of the instruments.

What are null type instruments used for and why?

Null type measuring instruments mainly used for accurate measurements and for calibration of
other instruments as the accuracy of Null type instrument is far higher because of calibration done
against a pre-calibrated system; but these are much more suited to measure stable quantities
because of the problem of manual control involved in most of them.

However, for calibration duties, the null-type measuring instrument is preferable because of its
superior accuracy. The extra effort required to use such a measuring instrument is perfectly
acceptable in this case because of the infrequent nature of calibration operations.

For example, Galvanometer and Wheatstone bridge.

Question 2.3

Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system. when the input is either held constant
or varying very slowly. If the instrument is made to measure under these conditions, its
performance can be evaluated with the static characteristics. Which are:
Accuracy: The closeness of the instrument output to the true value of the measured quantity. It
depends on the systematic errors.
Precision: is defined as the ability of the instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings within
a given accuracy. The precision of the instrument depends on the factors that cause random errors.
Repeatability is defined as the ability of the instrument to reproduce a group of measurements of
the same measured quantity, made by the same observer, using the same instrument, and under the
same conditions.
Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of
use and time of measurement.
Resolution: is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be detected
in the output signal.
Range or Span: the difference between minimum & maximum values of a quantity that the
instrument is designed to measure.
Static Sensitivity: The ratio of the change of output signal to the change of input signal that causes
the output.
Linearity: The closeness to which a curve approximates to a straight line. It is one of the most
desirable features of any instrument but can’t be attained completely.
Dead Zone: It is the largest change of the measured quantity in which theinstrument does not
respond.
Drift: The variation of output for a given input caused due to change in the sensitivity of the
instrument due to certain interfering inputs like environmental changes. The drift can be either
zero drift (bias) or sensitivity drift.
Hysteresis: The magnitude of error caused in the output for a given value of input when
approached from opposite. It is caused by backlash, elastic deformation, magnetic characteristics,
and frictional effect.
Loading Effect: the error caused due to loading. Loading means that the input signal source would
extract some energy, thereby changing the value of the measured variable. This error can never be
zero but it can be reduced.
Overall Instrument Error and Uncertainty: An estimate of the overall instrument error is made
by combining the estimates of all known errors. The estimate is computed from the square root of
the sum of the squares of all known uncertainty values.

Question 2.4

Accuracy of an instrument refers to the closeness of the measured value to the actual value or the
true value of the quantity. While precision refers to the closeness of measured values to each other.
So, if we take repetitive measurements the values should be near to each other to be precise. But
in order to be accurate the measurements should be close to the true value of the measurement. An
instrument is best when it is both accurate and precise. The following figure shows the concepts
of accuracy and precision.

Accurate but not precise precise but not accurate both accurate and precise
Question 2.5

Given
mV 4.37 8.74 13.11 17.48
oC 250 500 750 1000
Required: Sensitivity?
Solution
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change of output signal to the change of input signal that
𝑑𝑣
causes the output given by the equation 𝑆 =
𝑑𝑇

Interval 1
8.37 − 4.37
𝑆= = 0.0175 𝑚𝑉/℃
500 − 250
Interval 2
13.11 − 8.37
𝑆= = 0.0175 𝑚𝑉/℃
750 − 500
Interval 3
17.48 − 13.11
𝑆= = 0.0175 𝑚𝑉/℃
1000 − 750
Hence, we have the same values we can conclude that the sensitivity of the
thermocouple is 0.0175 mV/oC.

Question 2.6

A drift is caused when an environmental change is interfering in the input of instrument which
alters the sensitivity of the instrument. These drifts are two types. Zero (null) drift or bias and
sensitivity drift.

Zero drift happens when there is a change in the zero scale of the measurement instrument. This
will cause constant error that extends all over the range of the measurement by the instrument. The
factors that cause this drift can be due to shifting or slippage during calibration of instrument, and
or under warning of electronic circuit that can gradually change the zero scale.

Sensitivity drift occurs when the sensitivity of the instrument change as ambient condition
changes. This causes error in the reading of the measurement. It is quantified by sensitivity drift
coefficients that define how much drift there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter
that the instrument is sensitive to. The Factors that causes this drift can be Ambient variation of
environmental factors like temperature and pressure, External factors and or Loss of transducers
sensitivity because for the same input variation the transducer responds with smaller variation than
expected.

Question 2.7
a. At 20 oC

Given
Y 13.1 26.2 39.3 52.4 65.5 78.6
X 5 10 15 20 25 30
Required: Sensitivity?
Solution
𝑑𝑦
We are given sensitivity as 𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥

Interval 1
26.2 − 13.1
𝑆= = 2.62 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
10 − 5
Interval 2
39.3 − 26.2
𝑆= = 2.62 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
15 − 10
Interval 3
52.4 − 39.3
𝑆= = 2.62 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
20 − 15
Interval 4
65.5 − 52.4
𝑆= = 2.62 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
25 − 20
Interval 5
78.6 − 65.5
𝑆= = 2.62 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
30 − 25
Hence, we have the same values we can conclude that the sensitivity of the
instrument is 2.62 units
 b. At 50 oC

Given
Y 14.7 29.4 44.1 58.8 73.5 88.2
X 5 10 15 20 25 30
Required: Sensitivity?
Solution
𝑑𝑦
We are given sensitivity as 𝑆 =
𝑑𝑥

Interval 1
29.4 − 14.7
𝑆= = 2.94 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
10 − 5
Interval 2
44.1 − 29.4
𝑆= = 2.94 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
15 − 10
Interval 3
58.8 − 44.1
𝑆= = 2.94 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
20 − 15
Interval 4
73.5 − 58.8
𝑆= = 2.94 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
25 − 20
Interval 5
88.2 − 73.5
𝑆= = 2.94 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
30 − 25
Hence, we have the same values we can conclude that the sensitivity of the
instrument is 2.94 units

The sensitivity drift is defined as the difference in sensitivity between two temperatures.

Sensitivity drift = Sensitivity at 50 oC - Sensitivity at 30 oC

= 2.94 – 2.62

= 0.82 units
Question 2.8

Starting from the general relation between input and output considering step changes in measured
quantities only. We have an equation
𝑑 𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 (𝑛−1) 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎 (𝑛−1) (𝑛−1)
+ ⋯ + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If all the coefficients a3 . . . an. other than a0, a1, a2 in the above equation are
assumed zero, then the equation will be
𝑑2 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Applying operator D = d/dt
𝑎2 𝐷2 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑞𝑜 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖
Rearranging the equation
𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖
𝑞𝑜 =
𝑎2 𝐷2 + 𝑎1 𝐷 + 𝑎0
Finally,
𝑞𝑜 𝐾
= 2 2
𝑞𝑖 𝐷 /𝜔 + 2𝜉𝐷/𝜔 + 1
𝑏
Where 𝐾 = 𝑎𝑜 , K – static sensitivity
𝑜

𝜔 = √𝑎0 /𝑎2 , 𝜔 − undamped natural frequency

𝜉 = 𝑎1 /2√𝑎0 𝑎2 𝜉 − damping ratio

A. Heavily Damped (overdamped system) (𝜉 > 1). overdamped systems do not oscillate when
𝑞𝑜
subjected to a step input. Instead, they approach the final value = 𝐾 slowly and
𝑞𝑖

monotonically.
𝑞𝑜
B. Critically damped system (𝜉 = 1). the output approaches the final condition = 𝑘 the
𝑞𝑖

fastest and without oscillation.

C. Light damping (underdamped system) (𝜉 < 1). The sine and cosine terms indicate that the
output will oscillate after the step input is applied.
For all indicating instruments slightly less than critical damping is preferred.
𝑇 1
= 1+𝑆𝑇 where S- sensitivity and T- time constant
𝑓

𝑇 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑓 𝑆 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑛2