BIO 001: GENERAL BIOLOGY LECTURE NOTE PART 5A

TOPIC: CELL DIVISION

Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

 Explain cell division

 Differentiate between two types of cells in eukaryotes
 Explain the major steps involved in mitosis and meiosis
 State the significance of the processes mentioned above in living organisms, the similarities and
differences between the two types of cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell separates into two or more daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle (which is the series of events that take place in a cell
that cause it to divide into two or more daughter cells). These events include the duplication of its DNA
(DNA replication) and some of its organelles, and subsequently the partitioning of its cytoplasm and
other components into two or more daughter cells in a process called cell division.

Types of cell in eukaryotes

Multicellular eukaryotes are made up of two fundamental cell types:
Somatic cells and Germ cells.
A somatic cell is any cell of the body except sperm and egg cells. Somatic cells are diploid, meaning that
they contain two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. Mutations in somatic cells can
affect the individual, but they are not passed on to offspring. They are not capable of producing offspring;
instead they form all the internal organs and tissues and contribute significantly to their functionalities.
A germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually.
It is the only type of cell that is capable of giving rise to entirely new organism.
In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division; mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis which is a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent
cell. In cell biology, mitosis is a part of the cell cycle, in which, replicated chromosomes are separated
into two new nuclei. Cell division in mitosis gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total
number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the
interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and cytokinesis; which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane of one cell into
two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.
Meiosis is a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is
reduced by half to produce haploid gametes. Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing
one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in
the first division, and sister chromatids are separated in the second division.

Mitosis in somatic cells

Stages/ phases of Mitosis
1. Interphase: This is the resting stage of the cell. Centrioles help to determine location of nucleus
and other organelles within the cell. It helps also to form spindle fibres that separates
chromosome during cell division.
 Figure 5.1A. Interphase stage
At this stage, chromosomes become elongated and form a network of fine threads called chromatids. The
nuclear membrane is clearly visible. The DNA duplicates (doubles) itself and chromosomes become
double threads. Two centrioles are formed just outside the nuclear membrane.
2. Prophase: In this stage there is early and late prophase. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
disappear at this stage and chromosomes become shorter, thicker and more visible. (Figure 5.2B)
3. Metaphase: The chromosomes (now paired chromatids) arrange themselves along the equator of
the spindle (Figure 5.3C). The chromatids are attached to the spindle by the centromeres.

4. Anaphase

Figure 5.4 D: Anaphase stage

 The chromatids of each chromosome separate.
 The chromatids starts migrating to the poles by the elongation of the spindle axis.
 The chromatids eventually reach the poles.
5. Telophase: The cell starts dividing into two by constricting
 The chromosomes now loose their thick appearance/unravel.
 The nuclear material and nucleolus reform, bonded by nuclear membrane.
 The spindle structure disappear
 Constriction is completed and two daughter cells are formed (Figure 5.6F) and the interphase
condition is restored.
 Figure 5.5 E and 5.6 F: Telophase stage

Cytokinesis

Finally, before the telophase finishes (i.e late telophase), the cytoplasm divides in two (process called
cytokinesis) with both sections surrounded by its own cell membrane to give two genetically identical
diploid cells - sometimes referred to as 'daughter cells' - which are genetically identical to the parent cell
- in humans, all will have a full set of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).

Life processes involved in Mitosis

i. Formation of new cells in the malpighian layer of the skin
ii. Production of red blood and white blood cells in the bone marrow.
iii. Cell division in the liver
iv. Cell division in meristamatic tissues in plants (terminal bud of the shoot, tip of roots and
shoots)
v. Binary fission
vi. Growth in spermatogenesis
vii. Repair of worn-out tissues.

Importance of Mitosis
1. Growth takes place as a result of mitosis. Multicellular organism growth from a fertilized egg to
an adult stage having many cells through mitotic division.
2. It ensures that the diploid condition of the cells is retained from generation to generation.
3. Repair of cells occur by mitosis.
4. It forms the basis of asexual reproduction for e.g. binary or multiple fission in protozoans like
Ameoba is as a result of mitosis. Also budding in hydra result from mitosis. Formation of
vegetative organs from parent plants such as bulbs and corms is by mitosis.

Summary of the overall change

 Human body cells are diploid because have two versions of each chromosome, one from the
individual's father and one from the individual's mother (23 pairs of chromosomes in total).
 On cell division, two identical cells are formed in mitosis, and both nuclei will contain the same
number of chromosomes as the original cell (i.e. both cells are once again diploid).
 Mitosis creates new cells for growth, replacing damaged cells or tissue, and many organisms
(both plant and animal) use mitosis for asexual reproduction.
 It should be noted that in asexual reproduction, there is no genetic variation.

NB: Mitosis is crucial to replacing damaged cells, growth of new tissue and asexual reproduction.
Figure 7: Diagram showing the main stages of meiosis. Please note there are two divisions taking
place here (meiosis I and II) and four daughter cells are produced, all genetically different from the parent
cell. The daughter cells all contain the haploid number of chromosomes rather than diploid chromosome
number as occurs in the parent cell.

Meiosis in Germ cells

It is important that gametes are haploid since at fertilisation half the chromosomes come from the male
gamete (e.g. sperm cell) and half from the female gamete (e.g. ovum) in order to produce a diploid
zygote. Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells during sexual reproduction and
involves two consecutive divisions.
  Meiosis I - where the chromosome number is reduced and crossing over takes place
 Meiosis II - where the two new haploid nuclei divide again in a division identical to that of
mitosis.

Like mitosis, meiosis is a gradual process but for convenience it is divided into the four phases of
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, these phases occurring once in each of the two
divisions.

The first stage of prophase in meiosis is similar to prophase in mitosis in that the chromosomes shorten
and fatten and become visible under a microscope. However, in meiosis the chromosomes associate in
their homologous pairs. The pairing of the chromosomes is called synapsis. Each pair of chromosomes,
one from the mother and one from the father, is called a bivalent chromosome.

Each bivalent consists of four strands made up of two chromosomes each divided into two
chromatids. These chromatids wrap around each other and then partially repel each other but remain
joined at points called chiasmata. At these points chromatids may break and recombine with a different
but equivalent chromatid. This swapping of pieces of chromosomes is called crossing over and is a
source of genetic variation.

During the first stage of metaphase of meiosis the pairs of homologous chromosomes arrange themselves
randomly on the equator of the spindle. Chance determines how the homologous chromosomes are
arranged on the equator and when they separate different combinations are produced. This random
distribution and consequent independent assortment of chromosomes produces new genetic
combinations.

The formation of gametes (sex cells) by meiosis

 Unlike mitosis, where two identical daughter cells are produced with the full compliment of
chromosomes (diploid), meiotic cell division reproduces four non-identical cells with only
half the normal number of chromosomes (haploid).
 It should be noted and understand the type of cell division in which a cell divides to form
gametes is called meiosis (details below).
 In order to make gametes with half the original chromosomes, cells divide by meiosis, a process
which involves two cell divisions. In humans, this can only happen in the reproductive organs -
sperm cells in the testes of males and egg cells in the female ovaries.
 In the case of human organisms, each haploid sperm/egg cell has 23 chromosomes - a single set
of chromosomes.
 This is a further source of genetic variation when gamete cells combine in sexual reproduction
because each of the four haploid gamete cells is genetically different from the others.
 So the division of a cell by meiosis as the production of four daughter cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation of genetically different haploid
gametes.
 This double cell division process is called meiosis and only occurs in the reproductive organs.
 Because these haploid gamete cells have different single sets of chromosomes, it explains why
sexual reproduction produces genetic variation.
 Gamete cells contain one copy of each chromosome (23 in human haploid cells).
 In human sexual reproduction two gametes (sex cells) combine to form a new individual with the
full compliment of chromosomes (46 in human diploid cells, 23 from mother's egg - female DNA,
23 from father's sperm - male DNA) and, because the offspring cells have a mixture of the two
sets of male and female chromosomes, each new individual is unique in genetic and phenotype
character.
 A new individual then grows and develops by this cell repeatedly dividing by mitosis.
  The fertilised cell has 23 + 23 = 46 chromosomes and so inherits characteristics from both parents
(male + female).

Figure 8: Reminder of the overall process from gametes to offspring

 After the gametes have fused together in the fertilization process, the resulting fertilized cell
divides by mitosis i.e. it makes a copy of itself.
 The mitosis cell division is repeated many times and all these new cells develop the embryo.
 Mitosis occurs rapidly in a newly fertilized egg.
 As an embryo develops, these new cells begin to differentiate into all the different types of
specialized cell that an organism needs to develop and mature.

Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis:

S.N. Differences Mitosis Meiosis

1 Type of Asexual Sexual

Reproduction

Yes, mixing of chromosomes can

2 Crossing Over No, crossing over cannot occur.
occur.
Number of
3 One Two
Divisions
Pairing of
4 No Yes
Homologs

Number of
5 Daughter Cells 2 diploid cells 4 haploid cells
produced
Chromosome
6 Remains the same. Reduced by half.
Number
Chromosomes
7 Does Not Occur Takes place during prophase I.
Pairing
8 Creates Makes everything other than sex Sex cells only: female egg cells or
 cells. male sperm cells.
9 Takes Place in Somatic Cells Germ Cells
Observed during prophase I and
10 Chiasmata Absent
metaphase I.
Disappear completely in Do not disappear completely in
11 Spindle Fibres
telophase. telophase I.
12 Nucleoli Reappear at telophase Do not reappear at telophase I.

(Meiosis 1) Prophase I,
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Metaphase I, Anaphase I,
13 Steps
Telophase. Telophase I; (Meiosis 2) Prophase
II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and
Telophase II.

Occurs in Telophase I and in

14 Cytokinesis Occurs in Telophase.
Telophase II.
The centromeres do not separate
Centromeres/sister The centromeres split during
15 during anaphase I, but during
chromatids split anaphase.
anaphase II.
16 Prophase Simple Complicated
Duration of prophase is short, Prophase is comparatively longer
17 Prophase
usually of few hours. and may take days.
Synapsis of Homologous
18 Synapsis No Synapsis chromosomes takes place during
prophase.
Two chromatids of a chromosome Chromatids of two homologous
Exchange of
19 do not exchange segments during chromosome exchange segments
Segments
prophase. during crossing over (Prophase 1).

Cellular reproduction and general Genetic diversity through sexual

20 Function
growth and repair of the body. reproduction.
Takes part in the formation of
21 Function Takes part in healing and repair. gametes and maintenance of
chromosome number.
The key differences and similarities can be summarized in the figure below. On the left side of the
diagram, you can see the key features of mitosis, on the right are the key features of meiosis, and
where the two circles overlap is where their similarities are listed.

Figure 9: Major differences and similarities between Mitosis and Meiosis

Importance of Meiosis
1. Meiosis ensures that the fertilized egg (zygote) has a diploid number of chromosomes. Meiosis
therefore brings about the reduction of chromosomes to half the original number both in the male
and female gametes.
2. During meiosis, random assortment of genes leads to variation among offsprings of the same
species. That’s why no two individuals can look exactly alike except identical twins.
3. It can lead to a marked gene change (mutation) which can also bring about variation among
individuals.

Life Processes involving Meiosis

1. Formation of spermatozoa
2. Formation of egg cell
3. Formation of pollen grains in flowering plants
4. Formation of ovules in flowering plants

LECTURE NOTE COMPILED BY NWANKWO, UCHECHUKWU G.