Man and Society

MAN AND SOCIETY Unit I Concept of Society. Individual and Society. Basic Elements- Group, Community, Institution and Association- - Complexity of African Society - Demographic Characteristics of African Society. Page | 1 Demographic variables and Malthusian Theory. Concept of Society: The term society is the most fundamental one in sociology. We speak of the cooperative society, the agricultural society, the society of Jesus etc. Society means no more than an association. The term society is derived from the Latin word socius which means companionship or friendship. Companionship means sociability. As George Simmel points out, it is the element of sociability which defines the true essence of society. It indicates that man always lives in the company of other people. Man is a social animal said Aristotle centuries ago. Man lives in towns, tribes, cities, villages, but never alone Loneliness brings him boredom and fear. Man needs society for his living. Society has become an essential condition of human life. Definition: According to MacIver Society is a system of usages and procedures, of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and of liberties. According to Cooley Society is a complex of processes each of which is living and growing by interaction with the others, the whole being so unified that what takes place in one part affects all the rest. Characteristics of Society: 1. Society consists of people:. Without students and teachers there can be no college or university. Similarly without people there can be no society, no social relationships and no social life at all. 2. Mutual Interaction and Mutual Awareness: Society is a group of people in continuous interaction with one another It refers to the reciprocal contract between two or more persons. An individual is the member of the society as long as he engages in relation with the other members of the society. It means that individuals are in continuous interaction with other members of the society. Social interaction is made possible by mutual awareness. Without this awareness there can be no society.

3. Society depends on likeness: The principle of likeness is essential for society. Likeness refers to similarities. People have similarities with regard to their needs, work, aims, ideals, etc. Comradeship, intimacy, association of any kind or degree would be impossible without some understanding of each other and that understanding depends on likeness which each apprehends in the other. 4. Society rests on differences too: Society also implies difference. A society based entirely on likeness or uniformities is bound to be loose in sociality. If all men were exactly alike their relationships would be very much limited. There would be little reciprocity. More than that life becomes boring and monotonous if differences are not there.

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

5. Cooperation and division of labour: Primary likeness and secondarily difference create the division of labour. Division of labour involves assignment to each unit or group a specific task. Division of labour is possible because of cooperation. Cooperation and division of labour lead to social solidarity or social cohesion. Page | 2 6. Society implies interdependence also: Social relationships are characterized by interdependence. One depends on the other for satisfaction of needs. As society advances the interdependence also grows. 7. Society is dynamic: Society is not static; it is dynamic. Change is ever present in the society. It is the inherent quality if the human society. No society can remain constant for a long period of time. New associations and institutions may arise and the older ones may die. Existing ones can undergo change. Changes may occur slowly, gradually, suddenly or abruptly. 8. Social Control: Society has its own way of controlling the behaviour of its members. The behaviour or the activities of the people should be controlled or regulated. Society has various formal and informal means of social control. 9. Culture: Each society is distinct from the other. Every society has its own unique way of life called culture. Culture refers to the social heritage of man. It includes the whole range of our lives. Culture and society go together. Culture is not society but it is an element of the society. Individual and Society: The relation or type of unity between the part and the whole, between the individual and the society is not merely a physical unity, or a functional unity, or organic or systematic unity. It is something more than these. It is simply social that without the company of his fellowmen the individual cannot live at all, nor develop his personality. Still, the individual has a life of his own; his autonomy and character will not be fused or confused with the lives of other men. Social values are in the ultimate analysis of personal values. Even quality and power which belongs to society as such are realised only by its members. The life of the society has no meaning except as an expression of the lives of the individuals. The truth is that the society cannot be an organism; it is like an organism. Society has no body; it is an organisation of minds for a common purpose. Society is the sum of interacting individuals, and this interaction is what differentiates society from the mere aggregation of individuals. Society is a reality of its own kind, itself unique and different from every other natural object. Society gives us choices inviting us to accept or decline. Man in society and society in man: Everywhere and at all time we are members of groups. The isolated individual does not exist. The language we speak, the clothes we wear, the food that sustains us, the games we play, the goals we seek and the ideals we cherish are all derived from culture. Culture is a societal force. Society surrounds us in our infancy and follows us till the end. We depend upon the society and its processes not only for our livelihood but for our very lives. Society not only controls our movements, but shapes our identity, our thoughts and emotions. The structures of society become the structures of our own consciousness. Our bondage with the society is not simple but complex.

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Society is external to ourselves. It encompasses our entire life. We are in society, located in specific sectors of the social system. The institutions of the society pattern our actions and even shape our expectations. We are located in society not only in space but also in time. Our society is an historical entity that extends beyond the temporary life of the individuals. It was there before we were born in it and it will be there after we are dead. Page | 3 Basic elements of the society: Community Community is a group of social being living a common life including all the infinite variety and complexity of relations which result from that common life or constitute it. According to Mannheim Community is any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest only, but a whole set of interests. Community is a group of people living within a limited geographical area and carrying on a common interdependent life. Elements of Community 1. Group of people 2. Locality 3. Community sentiments 4. Permanency 5. Naturality 6. Likeness 7. Wider ends 8. A particular name 9. No legal status i. Group of people Community is a group of people. Whenever the individuals live together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life, we call them forming a community. ii. Locality The group of people forms a community when it begins to reside in a definite locality. A community always occupies a territorial areas. The area need not be fixed for ever. The people may change their area of habitation from time to time as nomadic community does. However most communities are now well settled and derive a strong bond of solidarity from the conditions of their locality. iii. Community sentiments Community sentiments mean a feeling of belonging together. It is we feeling among the members. In modern times this sentiment very much lacks among the people occupying a specific local area. Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Example: In big cities a man does not know even his next neighbour.

v. Permanency Page | 4 A community is not transitory like a crowd. It essentially includes a permanent life in a definite place. v. Naturality Communities are not made or created by an act of will but are natural. An individual is born in a community. vi. Likeness In a community there is a likeness in language, customs, mores etc. A community is a cluster of people living within a narrow territorial radius, who share a common way of life. vii. Wider ends In communities the people associate not for the fulfilment of a particular end. The ends of a community are wider. These are natural and not artificial. viii. Particular name Every community has some particular name. it points identity, it indicates reality, it points out individuality, it often describes personality and each community is something of a personality. ix. No legal status A community is not a legal person. It cannot sure, nor can it be used. In the eyes of law, it has no rights and duties. Association: Men have diverse needs, desires, interests and ends which demand their satisfaction. They have three ways of fulfilling their ends. Firstly they may act independently, without bothering about others. Secondly, men may seek their ends through conflicts with one another. Finally men may try to fulfil their needs through cooperation and mutual assistance. This cooperative pursuit has a reference to association. Definition: According to MacIver An association is an organisation deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of some common interest or a set of interests which its members share. Characteristics of Association: 1. Association a human group: An association is formed or created by people. It is basically a social group. Without people there can be no association. However all groups are not associations, because an association is an organised group. 2. Common interest or interest: An association is not merely a collection of individuals. It consists of those individuals who have more or less the same interests.

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

3. Cooperative Spirit: An association is based on cooperative spirit of its members. People work together to achieve some definite purposes. 4. Organisation: Association denotes some kind of organisation. An association is known essentially as an organised group. Organisation gives stability and proper shape to the association. Page | 5 5. Regulations of relations: Every association has its own ways and means of regulating the relations of its members. Organisation depends on this element of regulation. They may assume written or unwritten forms. 6. Association as Agencies: Associations are means or agencies through which their members seek to realise their shared or similar interests. Such social organisations necessarily act not merely through leaders, but through officials or representatives. 7. Durability of Association: An association may be permanent or temporary. There are some long standing associations like religious associations and family. Some associations may be purely temporary in nature. Difference between association and community: Association 1. Membership of an association is voluntary. Individuals are at liberty to join them. 2. An association has interests or interest. some specific Community 1. By birth itself an individual becomes the member of the community. In this way the membership is rather compulsory. 2. A community has some general interests. 3. A community is marked by its locality

3. An association does not necessarily imply spatial aspects. 4. An association may be stable and long and long lasting or it may not be so 5. Associations may have their legal status. 6. Associations have their own rules and regulations to regulate the relations of its members. The may be either written or unwritten 7. Association is partial. It may be regarded as a part of the community. 4. A community is relatively more stable and permanent. 5. A community has no legal status. 6. A community regulates the behaviours of its members by means of customs, traditions, etc. It does not have written rules or laws. 7. Community is integral. It may have within its boundaries several associaltions.

Institutions: The concept of institutions is one of the most important in the entire field of sociology. Institutions are regarded as the organs that conserve what is best in the past of the human race. Definition: Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

According to MacIver and Page Institutions may be defined as the established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity. According to Kinsley Davis Institution can be defined as a set of interwoven folkways, mores and laws built around one or more functions. Page | 6 Characteristics of institutions: The main characteristics of social institutions may be described hare: Social in nature: Institutions come into being due to the collective activities if the people. They are essentially social in nature. After all, institutions are the products of secular and repetitive forms of social relationships of the individuals. Universality: Social institutions are ubiquitous. They exist in all societies and at all stages of social development. The basic institutions like family, religion and some kind of political institutions are even observed in tribal and primitive societies. Institutions are standardised norms: An institution must be understood as standardised procedures and norms. They prescribe the way of doing things. They also prescribe the rules and regulations that must be followed. Institutions as means of satisfying needs: Institutions are established by men themselves. They cater to the satisfaction of some basic vital needs of men. The basic needs are need for self preservation, the need for self perpetuation and the need for self expression. Institutions are controlling mechanisms: Institutions like religion, morality, state, government and law control the behaviour of men. These mechanisms preserve the social order and give stability to it. Institutions are like wheels on which the human society marches towards its desired direction. Relatively permanent: Institutions do not normally undergo sudden or rapid changes. Changes take place slowly and gradually in them. Many institutions are rigid and enduring. They, in course of time become conservative elements of the society. Abstract in nature: Institutions are not external, visible or tangible things. They are abstract. Thus marriage cannot be kept in a museum; religion cannot be rated or quantified, etc. Oral and written traditions: Institutions may persist in the form oral or written traditions. For primitive societies they may be largely oral. But in modern and complex societies they may be observed in written as well as oral forms. Synthesising Symbols: Institutions may have their own symbols, material or non-material. Ex: the state has its emblem, national anthem and its symbols. Institutions are interrelated: Institutions though diverse are interrelated. Understanding of one institution requires understanding of other related institutions. The religious, moral, educational, political and other institutions are essentially interlinked. Primary and secondary institutions: Institutions are often classified into primary and secondary institutions. The most basic institutions that are found even in primitive societies like religion, family, marriage, property and some kind of political system are primary in nature. As the societies grew in size and complexity, institutions Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

became progressive and more differentiated. Accordingly a large number of institutions are evolved to cater to the secondary needs of the people. They may all be called secondary institutions. Ex. Education, law, constitution, etc.

Page | 7 Difference between association and institution: Association An association is a group of people organised for the purpose of fulfilling a need or needs Institution Institution refers to the organised way of doing things. It represents common procedure.

Association denotes membership. We belong to Institution denotes only a mode or means of associations, to political parties, trade unions, service. We do not belong to institution. We do youth clubs, families, etc. not belong to marriage, property education or law Associations consists of individuals Associations are concrete An institution consists of laws rules and regulations. Institutions are abstract.

An association has a location; it makes sense to An institutions does not have locations. The ask where it is. Thus the family can be located in question where it is does not make any sense at a space. all. We cannot locate marriage, etc. Associations are mostly created or established Institutions are primarily involved

An association may have its own distinctive Institutions do not possess a specific name, but name. has a structure and may have a symbol. Associations may be temporary or permanent. Institutions are relatively more durable.

Groups: Group is one of those terms in common usage lack exactness. We use the word group to mean such groups as family group, kin group, racial group and so on. Even in sociology the word group is not used consistently by sociologists. Definition: According to MacIver and Page social group is any collection of human beings who are brought into relationships with one another. According to Bogardus social group is a number of persons, two or more, who have common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate in similar activities. Characteristics of a social group: 1. Collection of individuals: Social group consists of people. Without individuals there can be no group.

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

2. Interaction among the members: Social interaction is the very basis of group life. Hence mere collection of individuals does not make a group. The members must have an interaction. A social group is in fact a system of system of social interaction. The limits of social groups are marked by the limits of social interaction. Page | 8 3. Mutual Awareness: Group life involves mutual awareness. Group members are aware of one another and their behaviour id defined by mutual recognition. This may be due to consciousness of kind. 4. We feeling: We feeling refers to the tendency of the members to identify them with the groups. It represents group unity. We feeling fosters cooperation among the members. It helps the group members to defend their interests collectively. 5. Group unity and solidarity: Group members are tied by a sense of unity. The solidarity and the integration of the group is largely dependent upon the frequency, the variety and emotional quality of interaction of its members. A family or friends group or a religious group is united and integrated because its members are related by several common interests and have frequent social contacts with one another and express high degree of morale and loyalty. Unity is maintained more often by a conscious effort. 6. Common interests: The interests and ideals of a group are common. Groups are mostly formed or established for the fulfilment of certain interests. In fact men not only join groups but also form groups for the realisation of their objectives or interests. Form of the group depends upon the interests. 7. Similar behaviour: The members of the group behave more or less in the same way for the pursuit of common interests. Social groups represent collective behaviour. 8. Group norms: Every group has its own rules or norms which the members are supposed to follow. The norms may be in the form of customs, folkways, mores, traditions, conventions. Laws, etc. They may be either written or unwritten. Every group has its own way of correcting or punishing those who go away from the rules. The continued group life of man becomes practically impossible without norms. 9. Size of the group: Every group involves an idea of size. Social groups vary in size. A group may be as small as that of dyad or as big as that of a political party having thousands of members. Size will have its own impact on the character of the group. 10.Groups are dynamic: Groups are not static but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow or rapid. Due to some external or internal pressures or forces the group may undergo changes. 11.Stability: Groups are stable or unstable; permanent or temporary in character. Some groups like the crowd or mob or audience are temporary and unstable. But many groups are relatively permanent in character. 12.Influence on personality: Social groups directly or indirectly shape the personality of their members. The also provide opportunities for the expression of individuality. Difference between group and society: Group A collection of human beings Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W Society A system of relationships DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

An artificial creation Membership is voluntary Page | 9 Group is always organised Has a specific purpose Marked by cooperation Group may be temporary

A natural growth Membership is compulsory Society may be unorganised General purposes Marked by both cooperation and conflict Society is permanent

Difference between group and institution: Group Group is a collection of human beings Group is an artificial creation Group may be temporary Institution Institution is a set of folkways and mores Institution is a natural growth Institution is comparatively permanent

Difference between group and community: Group Group is an artificial creation Group is formed to realise some specific purpose or purposes Membership voluntary Group is temporary of the group is Community Community is a natural growth Community includes a whole circle of life Membership compulsory in a community is

comparatively

Community is permanent Community is a whole

Group is a part of the community

Types of groups: Social groups have been classified in various ways. The German sociologists Simmel considered size as a criterion for classification of groups. Since person, that is the individual with is societal conditions is the most elementary unit of sociology he began with the nomad- the single person as a focus of group relationships and pursued with the dyad and the triad. Dwight Sanderson suggested a three fold classification of social groups by structure. He classified them into involuntary, voluntary and delegated groups. A involuntary group is based on kinship such as family. A man has no choice to what family he belongs. A voluntary group is the one in which a Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

man joins of his own volition. He agrees to be a member and is free to withdraw at any time from its membership. A delegated group is the one in which a man joins as a representative of a number of people either elected by them or nominated. Cooley classified groups on the basis of kind of contacts into primary and secondary groups. In a Page | 10 primary group there is face to face intimate relationship such as in family. In a secondary group such as a political party or the state the relationship is indirect, secondary or impersonal. F,H.Giddings classifies group into genetic and congregate. The genetic group is the family in which a man is born involuntarily. The congregate group is the one in which a man joins voluntarily. Social groups may be disjunctive or overlapping. A disjunctive group is the one which does not allow a person to be a member of other groups. An overlapping group is one whose members also belong to other groups of the same type. George Hasan classifies groups on the basis of their social relations with other groups into unsocial, pseudo social, anti social or pro social. An unsocial group is the one which largely lives to itself and for itself and does not participate in the larger society of which it is a part. It does not mix up with other groups and remains aloof of them. A pseudo social group participates in the larger social life but manly for its own gain and not for the greater good. An anti social group is the one that acts against the interests of the society. A pro social group is the reverse of anti social group. It works for the larger interests of the society. It is engaged in constructive tasks, foe the welfare of the society. Miller divided groups into horizontal and vertical groups. The former is large, inclusive. The latter is small divisions of the society. Since the vertical group is a part of the larger group the individual is a member of both. Charles Elwood distinguished among involuntary and voluntary, institutional and non institutional and temporary and permanent groups. Leopold classified human groups into crowds, groups and abstract collectivities. Park and Burgess distinguished between territorial and non-territorial groups. Sumner made distinction between in-group and out-group. The groups with which the individual identifies himself is called an in-group such as family, tribe etc. The out-group is defined by the individual in relation to the in-group. It consists of persons towards whom we feela sense of indifference. Demographic characteristics of Zambia: The word demography is derived from two Greek words demos and graphien meaning study of the human population. This article is about the demographic features of the population of Zambia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Historical and archaeological evidence indicates that by the year 1500, much of modern Zambia was occupied by Bantu-speaking horticulturalists, farming people who were ancestors of the present inhabitants. In the late nineteenth century, various parts of what was to become Northern Rhodesia were administered by the British South Africa Company. In 1924, the British Colonial Office assumed responsibility for administering the territory, and in 1953, Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) joined Nyasaland (Malawi) to form the Central African Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, despite the opposition of Northern Rhodesias Africans. The Federation was, however, dissolved in 1963. In October 1964, Zambia gained political independence and adopted a multiparty system of government. In December 1972, Zambia became a one-party state. The current multiparty system was implemented in 1991. Page | 11 Zambia's population comprises more than 70 Bantu-speaking ethnic groups. Some ethnic groups are small, and only two have enough people to constitute at least 10% of the population. The majority of Zambians are subsistence farmers, but the country is also fairly urbanised, with 42% of the population being city residents. The predominant religion is a blend of traditional beliefs and Christianity. Expatriates, mostly British or South African, as well as some white Zambian citizens (about 120,000), live mainly in Lusaka and in the Copperbelt in northern Zambia, where they are either employed in mines, financial and related activities or retired. Zambia also has a small but economically important Asian population, most of whom are Indian Muslims. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated Population: The 1980, 1990, and 2000 national censuses reported total populations of 5.7 million, 7.8 million and 10.3 million, respectively, with a growth rate of 2.9 percent per annum in 2000 (see Table 1.1). During the 1990-2000 intercensal period, the growth rates varied by province, ranging from 1.3 percent in Copperbelt province to 4.3 percent in Northern Province. Table 1.1 Demographic characteristics. Selected demographic indicators, Zambia, 1980, 1990, and 2001 Census year Indicator Population (millions) Density (pop./sq. km.) cent urban Total fertility rate Completed family size (women age 45-49) Infant mortality rate Life expectancy at birth Male Female 1980 5.7 7.5 39.9 7.2 6.6 97 50.4 52.5 1990 7.8 10.4 38 6.7 7.1 123 46.1 47.6 2000 10.3a 13.7 36 6.0 6.8 110 47.5 51.7

The population density in Zambia increased from 7.5 people per square kilometre in 1980 to 10.4 in 1990 and 13.7 in 2000. The average density in 2000 ranged from 65 people per square kilometre in Lusaka province to 5 people per square kilometre in North-Western province. In addition to being the most densely populated provinces, Lusaka and Copperbelt are also the most urbanised. The decline in the economy has gradually reduced the proportion of the population in urban areas. The proportion of the population living in urban areas has decreased steadily from 40 percent in 1980 to 38 percent in 1990 and 36 percent in 2000. The proportion of the urban population varies by province, from 91 percent in Copperbelt province to 9 percent in Eastern province (CSO, 2002b).

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Total fertility rates estimated from the 1969 and 1980 censuses are in the neighbourhood of 7.0 births per woman. The rate declined to 6.7 births per woman in 1990 and to 6.0 in 2000. Life expectancy at birth for males was 50 years in 1980 and was estimated to have declined to 46 years by 1990. In 2000, it increased to 48 years. Zambian women live, on average, 4 years longer than men. Mortality levels are highest in Luapula followed by Western and Eastern provinces, with Lusaka, Copperbelt and Page | 12 North-Western provinces experiencing the lowest mortality rates (data not shown). Life expectancy at birth ranged from 44 years in Western Province to 56 years in North-Western province (CSO, 2002b). The overall infant mortality rate declined from 141 deaths per 1,000 live births in the mid-1960s (based on the 1969 census) to 99 in the late 1970s, after which it increased to 123 in the late 1980s. In the late 1990s, it declined again to 110 although this level is still higher than that experienced in the late 1970s. 1.3 THE POPULATION POLICY AND NATIONAL POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME OF ACTION For the first decade and a half after independence, Zambia did not view the high rate of population growth as a development problem. The results of the 1980 Population and Housing Census exposed the rapidity with which the population was expanding and the implied adverse effect on development and individual welfare. This led the government to reappraise the role of population in national development efforts. In 1984, the then National Commission for Development Planning (NCDP) was given a mandate to initiate a draft population policy which would aim at achieving a population growth rate consistent with the growth rate of the economy (NCDP, 1989). The National Population Policy was accepted in May 1989. Since then, the countrys population growth rate has remained high and continues to be a serious impediment to sustainable development. The original population policy was revised in December 1996. New objectives of the policy take account of concerns regarding HIV/AIDS, poverty, and gender issues. Among the objectives of the revised policy are: 1. To ensure that population issues and other development concerns are mutually integrated in the planning and implementation processes so as to attain development; 2 To ensure that all couples and individuals have the basic right to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children and to have the information, education and means to do so in order to enhance the health of families; 3. To contribute to the reduction of maternal, infant and child mortality in order to increase life expectancy; 4. To contribute to the reduction of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections so as to improve the general health status of the population; 5. To improve the populations access to appropriate, affordable and high-quality reproductive health services including family planning and sexual health in order to have a healthy nation; 6. To promote and maintain equal access to education for both sexes at all levels in order to Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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raise literacy levels. The objectives of the policy will be achieved through related policies and strategic frameworks such as the Reproductive Health Policy and the Gender Policy. Institutions from all sectors are involved in implementing activities for the strategic frameworks. Page | 13 11,261,795 (July 2005 est.) 10,307,333 (July 2003 est.) 9,582,418 (July 2000 est.) note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. Age structure 0-14 years: 46.5% (male 2,626,911/female 2,609,857) 15-64 years: 51.1% (male 2,848,402/female 2,904,376) 65 years and over: 2.4% (male 118,043/female 154,206) (2005 est.) 0-14 years: 46.3% (male 2,396,313; female 2,378,567) 15-64 years: 50.9% (male 2,626,961; female 2,621,818) 65 years and over: 2.8% (male 131,196; female 152,478) (2003 est.) 0-14 years:48% (male 2,290,559; female 2,270,945) 15-64 years:50% (male 2,369,317; female 2,413,070) 65 years and over:2% (male 105,443; female 133,084) (2000 est.) Median age total: 16.46 years male: 16.26 years female: 16.67 years (2005 est.) total: 16.5 years male: 16.4 years female: 16.6 years (2002) Population growth rate 2.11% (2006 est.) Birth rate Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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41.38 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) 39.53 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) 41.9 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Page | 14 Death rate 20.23 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) 24.3 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) 22.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) -0.33 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2005 est.) at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2003 est.) at birth:1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years:1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years:0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over:0.79 male(s)/female total population:0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 88.29 deaths/1,000 live births male: 95.63 deaths/1,000 live births Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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female: 80.72 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) total: 99.29 deaths/1,000 live births female: 91.77 deaths/1,000 live births Page | 15 male: 106.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) total 92.38 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 39.7 years male: 39.43 years female: 39.98 years (2005 est.) total population: 35.25 years male: 35.25 years female: 35.25 years (2003 est.) total population:37.24 years male:37.08 years female:37.41 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 5.47 children born/woman (2005 est.) 5.25 children born/woman (2003 est.) 5.62 children born/woman (2000 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate Main article: HIV/AIDS in Zambia 16.5% (2003 est.) 21.5% (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS 920,000 (2003 est.) 1.2 million (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths 89,000 (2003 est.) 120,000 (2001 est.) Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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Ethnic groups African 98.7%, European 1.1%, other 0.2% Page | 16 Religions Christian 75%, traditional beliefs 23%, small Muslim and Hindu groups Languages English (official), major vernaculars - Bemba, Kaonde, Lozi, Lunda, Luvale, Nyanja, Tonga, and about 70 other indigenous languages (Ambo - Aushi - Bisa - Chikunda - Cishinga - Chokwe - Gova Ila - Inamwanga - Iwa - Kabende - Kosa - Kunda - Kwandi - Kwandu - Kwangwa - Lala - Lamba Lenje - Leya - Lima - Liyuwa - Luano - Lucazi - Lumbu - Lundwe - Lungu - Lunda - Makoma Mambwe - Mashasha - Mashi - Mbowe - Mbukushu - Mbumi - Mbunda - Mbwela - Mukulu Mulonga - Ndembu - Ng'umbo - Nkoya - Nsenga - Nyengo - Nyiha - Sala - Seba - Senga - Shanjo Shila - Simaa - Soli - Subiya - Swaka - Tabwa - Tambo - Toka - Totela - Tumbuka - Twa - Unga Wandya - Yombe) Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write English total population: 80.6% male: 86.8% female: 74.8% (2003 est.) total population: 78.2% male: 85.6% female: 71.3% (1995 est.) Demographic Variables: Population and Demographic Variables Humans throughout history have generally favored large familiesfor the most part to assure survival of a particular family line or racial group. High death rates from plagues, predators, and wars led people to produce as many offspring as possible. However, the situation has changed dramatically in the 20th century as technological advances of one sort or another have caused a global population explosion, with the world currently gaining 90 million people each year (most of this increase in poorer countries). Given this trend, the global population will exceed 6 billion in the early 2000s, and 8 billion by the 2020s. Understandably, sociologists around the world exhibit urgent concern about increases in the global population. Demography (from the Greek word meaning description of people) is the study of human populations. The discipline examines the size and composition of populations, as well as the movement of people from locale to locale. Demographers also analyze the effects of population growth and its control. Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Several demographic variables play central roles in the study of human populations, especially fertility and fecundity, mortality and life expectancy, and migration. Fertility and fecundity A population's size is first affected by fertility, which refers to the number of children that an average Page | 17 woman bears during her reproductive yearsfrom puberty to menopause. People sometimes confuse the term fertility with fecundity, which refers to the number of children an average woman is capable of bearing. Such factors as health, finances, and personal decision sharply affect fecundity. To determine a country's fertility rate, demographers use governmental records to figure the crude birth rate (the number of live births for every thousand people in a population). They calculate this rate by dividing the number of live births in a year by the total population, and then multiplying the result by 1,000. As one might expect, the governmental records used in this type of research may not be completely accurate, especially in third-world countries where such records may not even exist. While the world's average fertility rate is about 3 children per woman, its fecundity rate is about 20 per woman. The highest fertility rate (nearly 6 children per woman) in the world occurs in Africa, whereas the lowest occurs in Europe (about 1.5). The fertility rate for women in the United States is about 2. Mortality and expectancy Mortality, or the number of deaths in a society's population, also influences population size. Similar to the crude birth rate, demographers calculate the crude death rate, or the number of deaths annually per 1,000 people in the population. Demographers calculate this figure by dividing the number of deaths in a year by the total population, and then multiplying the result by 1,000. The crude death rate in the United States normally stays around 8 or 9. Infant mortality rate, which is the number of deaths among infants under age one for each 1,000 live births in a year, provides demographers with another measure. Compared to other countries, North American infant mortality rates tend to be low. Still, the figures can vary considerably within a society. For example, African Americans have an infant mortality rate of about 19 compared to those of whites who have a rate of about 8. A low infant mortality correlates with a higher life expectancy, which is the average lifespan of a society's population. U.S. males and females born today can look forward to living into their 70s, which exceeds the life expectancy of those in low-income countries by 20 years. Migration Finally, migration (the movement of people from one place to another) affects population size. While some migration is involuntary, such as when slaves where brought to America, other migration is voluntary, such as when families move from cities into suburbs. Migration into an area, called immigration, is measured as the immigration rate, which is the number of people entering a region per each 1,000 people in the population. Migration out of an area, or emigration, is measured as the emigration rate, which is the number leaving per each 1,000 people in the population. Internal migration is the movement from one area to another within a country's borders. Population growth Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Fertility, mortality, and migration all influence the size of a society's population. Poorer countries tend to grow almost completely from internal causes (for example, high birth rates due to the absence of reliable contraception), while richer countries tend to grow from both internal causes and migration. Demographers determine a population's natural growth rate by subtracting the crude death rate from the crude birth rate. The world's low-growth nations tend to be more industrialized, such as the United Page | 18 States and Europe. The high-growth countries tend to be less industrialized, such as Africa and Latin America. Population composition Demographers also take an interest in the composition of a society's population. For example, they study the gender ratio (or sex ratio), which is the number of males per 100 females in a population. The sex ratio in the United States is about 93 males for every 100 females. In most areas of the world, the gender ratio is less than 100 because females normally outlive men. Yet in some cultures that practice female infanticide, such as among the Yanomamo, the ratio can reach well above 100. Malthusian theory: The younger son of eight children born to Daniel and Henrietta Malthus, Robert Malthus grew up in The Rookery, a country house near Westcott in Surrey. Petersen describes Daniel Malthus as "a gentleman of good family and independent means... [and] a friend of David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau".[14] The young Malthus received his education at home in Bramcote, Nottinghamshire, and then at the Dissenting Warrington Academy. He entered Jesus College, Cambridge in 1784. There he took prizes in English declamation, Latin and Greek, and graduated with honours. He took the MA degree in 1791, and was elected[by whom?] a Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge two years later.[16] In 1797, he took orders and became an Anglican country curate at Okewood near Albury in Surrey.[17] Malthus married his cousin, Harriet, on April 12 1804, and had three children: Henry, Emily and Lucy. In 1805 he became Professor of History and Political Economy at the East India Company College (now known as Haileybury) in Hertfordshire.[21] His students affectionately referred to him as "Pop" or "Population" Malthus. In 1818 Malthus became a Fellow of the Royal Society. The Principle of Population Between 1798 and 1826 Malthus published six editions of his famous treatise, An Essay on the Principle of Population, updating each edition to incorporate new material, to address criticism, and to convey changes in his own perspectives on the subject. He wrote the original text in reaction to the optimism of his father and his father's associates, (notably Rousseau) regarding the future improvement of society. Malthus also constructed his case as a specific response to writings of William Godwin (17561836) and of the Marquis de Condorcet (17431794). Malthus regarded ideals of future improvement in the lot of humanity with skepticism, considering that throughout history a segment of every human population seemed relegated to poverty. He explained this phenomenon by pointing out that population growth generally preceded expansion of the population's resources, in particular the primary resource of food. In evaluating Malthus one can usefully distinguish between his primary (and virtually irrefutable) axioms, and the consequences he drew from the axioms, which have not always met with consensus agreement. Postulates of Malthusian theory:

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

I think I may fairly make two postulata. First, That food is necessary to the existence of man. Secondly, That the passion between the sexes is necessary and will remain nearly in its present state. These two laws, ever since we have had any knowledge of mankind, appear to have been fixed laws of our nature, and, as we have not hitherto seen any alteration in them, we have no right to conclude that they will ever cease to be what they now are, without an immediate act of power in that Being who first arranged the system of the universe, and for the advantage of his creatures, still executes, Page | 19 according to fixed laws, all its various operations. ... Assuming then my postulata as granted, I say, that the power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man. Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Malthus 1798, Chapter 1

Primary theory: the axioms The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man. Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power in comparison with the second. [22] Secondary theory: the consequences Yet in all societies, even those that are most vicious, the tendency to a virtuous attachment is so strong that there is a constant effort towards an increase of population. This constant effort as constantly tends to subject the lower classes of the society to distress and to prevent any great permanent amelioration of their condition. [23] The way in which, these effects are produced seems to be this. We will suppose the means of subsistence in any country just equal to the easy support of its inhabitants. The constant effort towards population... increases the number of people before the means of subsistence are increased. The food therefore which before supported seven millions must now be divided among seven millions and a half or eight millions. The poor consequently must live much worse, and many of them be reduced to severe distress. The number of labourers also being above the proportion of the work in the market, the price of labour must tend toward a decrease, while the price of provisions would at the same time tend to rise. The labourer therefore must work harder to earn the same as he did before. During this season of distress, the discouragements to marriage, and the difficulty of rearing a family are so great that population is at a stand. In the mean time the cheapness of labour, the plenty of labourers, and the necessity of an increased industry amongst them, encourage cultivators to employ more labour upon their land, to turn up fresh soil, and to manure and improve more completely what is already in tillage, till ultimately the means of subsistence become in the same proportion to the population as at the period from which we set out. The situation of the labourer being then again tolerably comfortable, the restraints to population are in some degree loosened, and the same retrograde and progressive movements with respect to happiness are repeated. [24] Malthus also saw that societies through history had experienced at one time or another epidemics, famines, or wars: events that masked the fundamental problem of populations overstretching their resource limitations: The power of population is so superior to the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man, that premature death must in some shape or other visit the human race. The vices of mankind are active and able ministers of depopulation. They are the precursors in the great army of destruction, and often finish the dreadful work themselves. But should they fail in this war of extermination, sickly seasons, Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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epidemics, pestilence, and plague advance in terrific array, and sweep off their thousands and tens of thousands. Should success be still incomplete, gigantic inevitable famine stalks in the rear, and with one mighty blow levels the population with the food of the world. [25] The following passage suggests that techniques of animal husbandry could apply to humans, anticipating the idea which, in 1883, Francis Galton called eugenics: It does not... by any means seem impossible that by an attention to breed, a certain degree of improvement, similar to that among animals, might take place among men. Whether intellect could be communicated may be a matter of doubt; but size, strength, beauty, complexion, and perhaps longevity are in a degree transmissible... As the human race, however, could not be improved in this way without condemning all the bad specimens to celibacy, it is not probable that an attention to breed should ever become general. [26] Proposed solutions Malthus argued that population was held within resource limits by two types of checks: positive ones, which raised the death rate, and preventative ones, which lowered the birth rate. The positive checks included hunger, disease and war; the preventative checks, abortion, birth control, prostitution, postponement of marriage, and celibacy. [27] In the second and subsequent editions, with his name on the title page, Malthus put more emphasis on moral restraint. By that he meant the postponement of marriage until people could support a family, coupled with strict celibacy (sexual abstinence) until that time. "He went so far as to claim that moral restraint on a wide scale was the best meansindeed, the only meansof easing the poverty of the lower classes."[28] This plan appeared consistent with virtue, economic gain and social improvement.
[citation needed]

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This train of thought counterpoints Malthus's stand on public assistance to the poor. He proposed the gradual abolition of poor laws by gradually reducing the number of persons qualifying for relief. Relief in dire distress would come from private charity. [29] He reasoned that poor relief acted against the longer-term interests of the poor by raising the price of commodities and undermining the independence and resilience of the peasant.[citation needed] In other words, the poor laws tended to "create the poor which they maintain".[30] It offended Malthus that critics claimed he lacked a caring attitude towards the situation of the poor. He wrote in an addition to the 1817 edition: I have written a chapter expressly on the practical direction of our charity; and in detached passages elsewhere have paid a just tribute to the exalted virtue of benevolence. To those who have read these parts of my work, and have attended to the general tone and spirit of the whole, I willingly appeal, if they are but tolerably candid, against these charges ... which intimate that I would root out the virtues of charity and benevolence without regard to the exaltation which they bestow on the moral dignity of our nature...[31] Some, such as William Farr[32] and Karl Marx,[33] argued that Malthus did not fully recognize the human capacity to increase food supply. On this subject Malthus wrote: "The main peculiarity which distinguishes man from other animals, is the means of his support, is the power which he possesses of very greatly increasing these means.[citation needed]

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Malthus on religion As a believer and a clergyman, Malthus held that God had created an inexorable tendency to human population growth for a moral purpose, with the constant harsh threat of poverty and starvation designed to teach the virtues of hard work and virtuous behaviour.[7] Page | 21 The issue has occurred to many believers: why should an omnipotent and caring God permit the existence of wickedness and suffering in the world? Malthus's theodicy answers that evil energizes mankind in the struggle for good. "Had population and food increased in the same ratio, it is probable that man might never have emerged from the savage state" [cite this quote]. The principle of population represented more than the difference between an arithmetic and a geometric series; it provided the spur for constructive activity: "Evil exists in the world not to create despair, but activity." [35] Malthus saw "the infinite variety of nature" which "cannot exist without inferior parts, or apparent blemishes"[cite this quote]. Such diversity and struggle functioned to enable the development of improved forms. Without such a contest, no species would feel impelled to improve itself.[citation needed] Without the test of struggle, and the failure or even death of some, no successful development of the population as a whole would take place.[citation needed] For Malthus, evil invigorates good and death replenishes life. [citation needed] Malthus painted a picture of fecundity in the face of enduring resource-scarcity, in which adversity and evil can stimulate beneficial outcomes.[36] Reactions to Malthusian ideas Malthus became subject to extraordinary personal criticism. People who knew nothing about his private life criticised him both for having no children, and for having too many. In 1819, Shelley, berating Malthus as a priest, called him "a eunuch and a tyrant" (though the Church of England does not require celibacy, and Malthus had married in 1804).[37] Marx repeated the lie, adding that Malthus had taken the vow of celibacy, and called him "superficial", "a professional plagiarist", "the agent of the landed aristocracy", "a paid advocate" and "the principal enemy of the people." [38] In the 20th century an editor of the Everyman edition of Malthus claimed that Malthus had practised population control by begetting eleven girls.[39] (In fact, Malthus fathered two daughters and one son.) Garrett Hardin provides an overview of these personal insults.[40] Early responses William Godwin responded to Malthus's criticisms of his own arguments with On Population (1820). Other theoretical and political critiques of Malthus and Malthusian thinking emerged soon after the publication of the first Essay on Population, most notably in the work of the reformist industrialist Robert Owen, of the essayist William Hazlitt[41] and of the economists John Stuart Mill and Nassau William Senior,[42] and moralist William Cobbett. Note also True Law of Population (1845) by politician Thomas Doubleday, an adherent of Cobbett's views. Marxism Other opposition to Malthus's ideas came from the middle of the nineteenth century with the writings of Karl Marx (Capital, 1867) and Friedrich Engels (Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy, 1844). Engels and Marx argued that what Malthus saw as the problem of the pressure of population on the means of production actually represented the pressure of the means of production on population. They thus viewed it in terms of their concept of the reserve army of labour. In other words, the seeming excess of population that Malthus attributed to the seemingly innate disposition of the poor to reproduce beyond their means actually emerged as a product of the very dynamic of capitalist economy. Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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Engels called Malthus's hypothesis "...the crudest, most barbarous theory that ever existed, a system of despair which struck down all those beautiful phrases about love thy neighbour and world citizenship." [43] In the Marxist tradition, Lenin sharply criticized Malthusian theory and its neo-Malthusian version,[44] calling it a "reactionary doctrine" and "an attempt on the part of bourgeois ideologists to exonerate Page | 22 capitalism and to prove the inevitability of privation and misery for the working class under any social system". _____________________________________________________________________________

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Unit II Socialization: concept, Importance and Functions. Agencies of Socialization. Culture : concept, Characteristics Influence on Individuals, Cultural Conflict, Impact of Cultural Change Cultural lag. Page | 23 Socialization: Concept Human society is not an external phenomenon but exists solely in the minds of its members. The human infant comes into the world as a biological organism with animal needs. He is gradually moulded into a social being and he learns social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding the society could not continue itself, nor could culture exist, nor could the individual become a person. This process of moulding is called socialization. Definition: According to Mac Iver Socialization is the process by which social beings establish wider and profounder relationships with one another, in which they become more bound up with, and more perceptive of the personality of themselves and of others and build up the complex structure of nearer and wider association. Lundberg says that socialization consists of the complex processes of interaction through which the individual learns the habits, beliefs, skills and standards of judgement that are necessary for his effective participation in social groups and communities. The Process of Socialization: Every man tries to adjust himself to the conditions of his social environment. This process of adjustment itself is socialization. The social order is maintained largely by socialization. Individuals learn to conform to the norms of the group. This helps the group to maintain social order. Socialization is the process of transforming the human animal into a human being, of converting the biological being into a social being. The internal forces relevant to the process of socialization are Reflexes Instincts Urges Capacities Comprehension and educability

Socialization is a continuous process: Socialization is the process of inducting the individual into the social world. It consists in teaching culture which he must acquire and share. Socialization is social learning. This learning is not intermittent but continuous. The more we try to learn the more remains to be learnt. Perfection in social learning is rarely achieved. The process of socialization is something that continues throughout our lives. Man belongs to different groups at different stages of his life. As these groups change one must learn new rules and new patterns of behaviour. Moreover one does not remain in the same role. As Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

members of the family all our life, we are constantly changing roles within it, acquiring new roles dropping or modifying old ones. Thus throughout our life we are involved in the socialization process. Timing: Timing is important in socialization. Physical maturity by itself cannot produce perfect human adults Page | 24 without socialization. Socialization and maturation may proceed together in the early years of our life cycle. Our attempts to teach the child will have varying effects depending upon the point reached in the maturation of the child. Ex: We cannot expect a child to be quiet before he is capable of sustained inhibition. Factors of Socialization: Socialization is the process of learning group norms, habits and ideals. There are four factors in this process of learning. These are imitation, suggestion, identification and language. 1. Imitation: Imitation is copying by an individual the actions of another. Mead defines it as self conscious assumption of anothers acts or roles. Thus when a child attempts o walk impressively like his father he is imitating. Imitation may be conscious or unconscious, spontaneous or deliberate, perceptual or ideational. Imitation is the main factor in the process of socialization of the child. Through it he learns many social behaviour patterns. The child as compared to adults possesses the greatest capacity to imitate. Language and pronunciation are acquired by the child through imitation. It is because of the tendency to imitate that children are so susceptible to the influence of their parents and friends whose behaviour they imitate indiscriminately. 2. Suggestion: According to McDougall suggestion is the process of communication resulting in the acceptance with conviction of the communicated proposition in the absence of logically adequate grounds for its acceptance. Suggestion is a process of communicating information which has no logical or self evident basis. It is devoid of rational persuasion. It may be conveyed through language, pictures or some similar medium. Suggestion influences not only behaviour with others but also individual behaviour. The suggestibility in childhood is greater than that of adults because the child is devoid of maturity and reason. 3. Identification: In his early age the child cannot make distinction between his organism and environment. Most of his actions are random. They are natural reactions of which he is not conscious. As he grows in age, he comes to know of the nature of things which satisfy his needs. Such things become the object of his identification. The speed and area of identification increase with the growth in age. Through identification he becomes sociable. 4. Language:

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

Language is a medium of social intercourse. It is the means of cultural transmission. At first the child utters some random syllables which have no meaning, but gradually he comes to learn his mother tongue. There in language moulds the personality of an individual. Importance and functions of socialization Page | 25 Agencies of Socialization: Personalities do not come readymade. They are moulded or shape through the processes of socialization. The process of socialization is operative not only in childhood but through out life. Socialization helps the child to become a useful member of the society. Socialization is not a mere accident rather it has been given an institutional framework and controlled through institutional channels. The following are the agencies that have been established by culture which socialised the child. 1. Family and parents: The process of socialization begins for everyone of us in the family. The parental and particularly maternal influence on the child is very great. The intimate relationship between the mother and child has a great impact on the shaping of childs abilities and capacities. The parents are the first persons to introduced to the child the culture of his group. The child receives additional communication from his older siblings who have gone through the same process with certain differences. 2. Peers or agemates: Peer groups means those groups made up of the contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in playground, etc., He learns from these children, facts and facets of culture that they have previously learnt from their parents. The members of peer groups have other sources of information about the culture their peers in still other peer groups. As time passes by, the peer group surpasses the parental and family groups in importance. The peer culture becomes more important and effective than the parental culture in the adolescent years of the child. The advice of ones agemates whether overtly or covertly communicative, sets the standards in almost every aspect of conduct. However we should not assume that the socialization process is completed by the time teen ages are reached. On the other hand, this is the time when pressures for conformity are perhaps at their heights. 3. School: The school is on other important agency of socialization. In the school the child gets education which moulds his ideas and attitudes. A good education can make the child a good citizen, while a bad education can turn him into a criminal. Education is of great importance in socialization. A well planned system of education can produce socialized individuals. 4. Religion: Religion has been an important factor in society. In the early society religion provided a bond of unity. In modern society the importance of religion has diminished, yet it continues to mould or believes and ways of life. In every family some or the other religious practices are observed on one or the other occasion. The child imitates his parents performing religious ceremonies. He listens to the religious sermons which may determine his course of life and shape his ideas. Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

Man and Society

5. State The state is an authoritarian agency. It makes lose for the people and lays down the modes of conduct expected of them. The people have compulsorily to obey these laws. If they failed to adjust their behaviour in accordance with laws of the state they may be punish for such failure. Thus the state also moulds our behaviour. Sociology ch. No 39 p.no 759 Culture: Concepts Definition: According to Tylor Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the society. According to Graham Wallas Culture is an accumulation of thoughts, values and objects, it is the social heritage acquired by us from preceding generations through learning, as distinguished from the biological heritage which is passed on to us automatically through the genes. Characteristics of culture: Pg no 762 Culture is a system of learned behaviour shared by and transmitted among the members of the group. By picking up the culture and by tapping the heritage of the past, man becomes distinctively human. The following are the characteristics of culture: 1. Culture is an acquired quality: Culture is not innate. Traits learned through socialization, habits and thoughts are what is called culture. Culture is learned. Any behaviour which is socially acquired is called learned behaviour. 2. Culture is social, not individual heritage of man: It is inclusive of the expectations of the members of the group. It is a social product which is shared by most of the members of the group. 3. Culture is idealistic: Culture embodies the ideals and norms of a group. It is a sum total of the ideal patterns and trhe norms of behaviour of a group. It is the manifestation of the human mind in the course of history. 4. Culture is the total social heritage: Culture is linked with the past. The past endures because it lives in culture. It is passed from one generation to another through customs and traditions. 5. Culture fulfils some needs: Culture fulfils some social and ethical needs of the groups which are ends in themselves. Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.

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6. Culture is an integrated system: Culture possesses an order and system. Its various parts are integrated with each other and any new element which is introduced is also integrated. Page | 27 7. Language is the chief vehicle of culture: Man lives not only in the present but also in the past and the future. This he is enabled to do because of the language he possesses which transmits to him what was learnt in the past and enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom. 8. Culture evolves into more complex forms: Culture evolves into more complex forms through division of labour which develops special skills and increases the inter-dependence of the societys members. The Functions of Culture: pg no 774, 775 We may consider the functions of culture under two heads 1. For the individual and 2. For the group Important to the individual: For the individual culture has got a great value. It forms an important element in his social life. The following advantages of culture for an individual may be pointed out. i. Culture makes man a human being: It is culture that makes the human animal a man, regulates his conduct and prepares him for group life. It provides him a complete design for living. An individual abstracted from culture is less than human; he is what we call a feral man. The individual to be truly human must participate in the cultural stream. Just as it is necessary that fish must live in water, so it is necessary and natural that man must live within a cultural framework. In short the qualities required to live a social life are acquired by man from his culture. ii. Culture provides solutions for complex situations: Secondly, culture provides men with a set of behaviour even for complicated situations. It has so thoroughly influenced him that often he does not require any external force to keep himself in conformity with social requirements. His actions become automatic, e.g., forming a queue when there is rush in the booking window. In the absence of culture he would have been baffled in even at the simplest situations. Even in such matters as to what food can be eaten he would have faced numerous problems. As culture provides him ready made set of patterns which he needs only to learn and follow he need not go through painful trial and error learning. Horton and Hunt writes: From before he is born until after he is dead man is a prisoner of his culture.

Ms. Tresa Sugirtha, B.S.W., M.S.W

DMI ST. EUGENE UNIVERSITY, LUSAKA, ZAMBIA.