Block 3

BGYET-141
ORE GEOLOGY AND

Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
INDUSTRIAL
MINERALS Volume 2
BGYET – 141
ORE GEOLOGY AND
Volume
2
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
BLOCK 3
METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC MINERAL DEPOSITS 13
BLOCK 4
MINERAL EXPLORATION AND MINERAL ECONOMICS 141
1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. Pankaj Kumar Srivastava Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Former Director University of Jammu, Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences Jammu School of Sciences, IGNOU
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. R. Krishnamurthy Dr. M. Prashanth
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Indian Institute of Technology Discipline of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Roorkee School of Sciences, IGNOU
Prof. R. Pavanguru (Retd.) Prof. Kiran Pal Verma (Retd.) Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Osmania University Geological Survey of India Discipline of Geology
Hyderabad Faridabad School of Sciences, IGNOU
Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Prof. Meenal Mishra Dr. Omkar Verma

NIT, Surathkal, Discipline of Geology Discipline of Geology
Mangalore School of Sciences, IGNOU School of Sciences, IGNOU
Preparation Team of Volume 2: Industrial Minerals

Course Contributors
Dr. M. Prashanth (Units 9 & 10) Dr. Kakoli Gogoi (Units 11,12 & 14) Prof. Pankaj Kumar Srivastava
School of Sciences School of Sciences (Units 13 & 15)
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi University of Jammu, Jammu
Mr. Nilanjan Konwar (Unit 14) Content and Language Editor

Selan Exploration Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) (Block 3 & 4)
Technology Ltd. Department of Geology
Haryana University of Delhi, Delhi
Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Course Coordinators: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi and Dr. M. Prashanth
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Dr. Kakoli Gogoi & Prof. Meenal Mishra
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinators
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Meenal Mishra, for thoroughly reading the course material
and providing her valuable suggestions to improve the course. Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of CRC and
some of the figures. Ms. Sujang Khiamniungan for preparation of the maps of Units 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Cover Page designed by: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
September, 2021© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used
only for educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original
authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s
office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD,
IGNOU. Printed by:
2
BGYET-141: ORE GEOLOGY AND
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
Unit 1 Basics of Ore Geology
Unit 2 Classification of Ore Deposits
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
Unit 4 Mode of Occurrence of Ore Bodies
Block 2 Ore Genesis

Unit 5 Magmatic and Metamorphic Processes
Unit 6 Hydrothermal Processes
Unit 7 Volcanogenic and Sedimentary Processes
Unit 8 Weathering Processes
Block 3 Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits

Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
Unit 10 Non-Ferrous Ores
Unit 11 Industrial Minerals
Unit 12 Mineral Fuels
Block 4 Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics

Unit 13 Basics of Exploration
Unit 14 Exploration Methods
Unit 15 Mineral Economics
3
List of audio / video materials related to this course
1. Geology Around Us - Part I
Links: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6cglc12wd0&t=301s
http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/65950
SCAN the following QR Code to watch the video.
2. Geology Around Us - Part II

Links: https://youtu.be/BtmJ8lOfxek
3. Introduction to Ore Deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53454
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w2Pg6_V19G4
4
4. Classification of Ore Deposits
https://youtu.be/MVZ9_NhZB38
5. Early Magmatic Deposits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQr0xMYRCLk
6. Hydrothermal Mineralisation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Red8n1UOKx0
5
7. Contact Metasomatic and Contact Metamorphic Deposits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8uoDoJwNHCc
8. Late Magmatic Deposits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJoZujIj3bs
9. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation-Specific

Gravity and Sense
https://youtu.be/UFXBMcMrQJc
6
10. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation : Hardness
and Tenacity
https://youtu.be/eUPWtaMeOAA
11. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Forces

https://youtu.be/POWD1V85HyI
12. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation: Cleavage,

Striations and Fracture
https://youtu.be/DbJQE3RaQoM
7
13. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation: Form and
Habit
https://youtu.be/0SfrT76_IiA
14. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Light

https://youtu.be/FjuZ-hn8Qyo
15. Basics of Petroleum

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xh-H6v4v08o
8
16. Hydrocarbon Source Rock
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyvDHOnawfA
17. Hydrocarbon Provinces

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfIs06Ehwsk
18. Petroleum Industry Value Chain

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rlMIvHhb1OE
9
19. Soil: Product of Weathering
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y-SENU4Abv8
20. Weathering its Types and Significance

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBYijIPPVgc
SCAN the following QR Code to watch the video
Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

pertaining to the course, you may visit YouTube page of the School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Alternatively, you can visit eGyankosh website at
http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575
10
VOLUME 2: INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
The course BGYET-141 Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals consists of four blocks, which have
been packaged in two volumes.
In Volume 1 of this course, you have already read the first two blocks i.e., Block 1 and Block 2
which deal with introduction to ore geology and ore genesis. In Block 1 you have learnt the basics
of ore geology. You also learnt how to classify ore deposits. Temporal and spatial distribution of
mineral deposits and mode of occurrence of ore bodies has also been discussed. Block 2 deals
with the ore genesis. The block will familiarise you with the various processes like magmatic,
metamorphic, volcanogenic, sedimentary and weathering responsible for the formation of mineral
deposits.
Volume 2 contains last two blocks i.e., Block 3 and Block 4 which pertain to metallic and non-
metallic deposits. It also deals with mineral exploration and mineral economics.
Block 3: Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits comprise four units. In this block we will
discuss about the physical and chemical properties of some of the ferrous and non-ferrous ores
with their geological occurrence and geographical distribution. We will discuss the non-metallic
minerals used in refractory, fertilizer, abrasive, drilling, cement, ceramic and glass and cosmetic
industries and minerals used as building and precious stones. The origin, occurrence and
distribution of coal, lignite and petroleum in India will be discussed. We will also discuss about
atomic minerals, rare metals and rare Earths.
Block 4: Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics comprises three units. The block will
acquaint you with the basics of mineral exploration and different exploration methods such as
geophysical, geochemical, geobotanical and remote sensing. It will, also aware you about the
national mineral policy, mineral conservation laws, exclusive economic zones and seabed mining
laws.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this volume, you should be able to:
❖ describe the physical and chemical properties, mode of occurrence and geographical
distribution of ferrous and non-ferrous ores;
❖ discuss the non-metallic minerals used in the refractory, fertilizer, abrasive, drilling, cement,
glass, cosmetic and ceramic manufacturing industries;
❖ describe building and construction materials like granite, marble, quartzite and sandstone etc.;
❖ discuss the basics of exploration and different exploration methods such as geophysical,
geochemical, geobotanical and remote sensing; and
❖ elucidate the national mineral policy, mineral conservation and seabed mining laws.
Hope you will enjoy reading this volume!

Wishing you success in this endeavour!!
11
12
BGYET – 141
ORE GEOLOGY AND
Block
3
METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC MINERAL DEPOSITS
UNIT 9
Ferrous Ores 19
UNIT 10
Non- Ferrous Ores 41
UNIT 11
Industrial Minerals 67
UNIT 12
Mineral Fuels 105
Glossary 137
13
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Prof. Pankaj Kumar Srivastava Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
Former Director University of Jammu, Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences Jammu School of Sciences, IGNOU
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. J. P. Shrivastava (Retd.) Prof. R. Krishnamurthy Dr. M. Prashanth
Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Indian Institute of Technology Discipline of Geology
University of Delhi, Delhi Roorkee School of Sciences, IGNOU
Prof. R. Pavanguru (Retd.) Prof. Kiran Pal Verma (Retd.) Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Osmania University Geological Survey of India Discipline of Geology
Hyderabad Faridabad School of Sciences, IGNOU
Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Prof. Meenal Mishra Dr. Omkar Verma

NIT, Surathkal, Discipline of Geology Discipline of Geology
Mangalore School of Sciences, IGNOU School of Sciences, IGNOU
Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors Content and Language Editor
Dr. M. Prashanth (Units 9 & 10) Dr. Kakoli Gogoi (Units 11 & 12) Prof. J.P. Shrivastava (Retd.)
School of Sciences School of Sciences Department of Geology
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi
Transformation: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Course Coordinators: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi and Dr. M. Prashanth
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Dr. Kakoli Gogoi & Prof. Meenal Mishra
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinator
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Sunil Kumar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU A.R. (P), SOS, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Meenal Mishra, for thoroughly reading the course material and
providing her valuable suggestions to improve the course. Ms. Savita Sharma for preparation of CRC and some of the
figures. Ms. Sujang Khiamniungan for preparation of the maps of Units 9, 10, 11 and 12.
September, 2021 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021

ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only
for educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s
office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD,
IGNOU. Printed by:
14
BGYET-141: ORE GEOLOGY AND
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Block 1 Introduction to Ore Geology
Unit 1 Basics of Ore Geology
Unit 2 Classification of Ore Deposits
Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics
Unit 4 Mode of Occurrence of Ore Bodies
Block 2 Ore Genesis

Unit 5 Magmatic and Metamorphic Processes
Unit 6 Hydrothermal Processes
Unit 7 Volcanogenic and Sedimentary Processes
Unit 8 Weathering Processes

Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
Block 4 Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics

Unit 13 Basics of Exploration
Unit 14 Exploration Methods
Unit 15 Mineral Economics
15
BLOCK 3: METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC MINERALS
Earth materials are indispensable to man. From the earliest times to present, the advancement of
man, his growing culture and civilisation has been closely linked with minerals and other earth
materials. Mineral deposits are the naturally occurring body of minerals within the earth surface,
are wholly or partly of economic value. Rocks and minerals of economic value have a variety of
use. The occurrence of metallic minerals is noticed in all types of rocks. Nevertheless, the metallic
ore concentrations that are to be mined for the profitable extraction of metal occur relatively less
in the associated rocks. Metallic mineral deposits are the metalliferous deposits containing metals
like lead, zinc, etc. Non-metallic minerals form the back bone of several industries such as
chemical, ceramic, fertilizer, refractory, etc. They are used in various industries to produce a
variety of products and also used in the production of fertilizers and manufacturing of refractories.
Non-metallic mineral deposits include useful non-metallic materials like coal, petroleum, mica,
gypsum, etc. Non-metallic minerals are mined for their commercial value and are used in the
industries based on their physical and/or chemical properties. Fossil fuels have been widely used
as source of energy since the time of industrial revolution. The absolute dependence of man on
metals for his progress makes the knowledge of geology no less important than any other
branches of science. For the purpose of extraction of metals and alloys, and for the use of rocks
and minerals as fuels, geological knowledge has their own importance.
Block 3 Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals will familiarise you with important ferrous and
non-ferrous deposits, their physical and chemical properties, mode of occurrence and
geographical distribution. You will study about the industrial minerals and their geographical
distribution. The block will also familiarise you about the origin, occurrence and distribution of
fuel minerals.
This block consists of 4 units.
In Unit 9: Ferrous Ores, you will be introduced to the ferrous ores namely iron, manganese
and chromium. We will also discuss the mode of occurrence of these metallic minerals and
their distribution in India.
In Unit 10: Non-Ferrous Ores, we will discuss the physical and chemical properties, mode of
occurrences of some non-ferrous ores such as aluminium, copper, lead, zinc and gold and
their distribution in India.
In Unit 11: Industrial Minerals, we will discuss in detail about some of the non-metallic
minerals used in refractory, fertilizer, abrasive, drilling, cement, ceramic and glass and
cosmetic industries. We will also discuss minerals used as building and precious stones.
In Unit 12: Mineral Fuels, we will discuss about origin, occurrence and distribution of coal,
lignite and petroleum in India. We will also discuss about atomic minerals, rare metals and
rare Earths.
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this block, you should be able to:
❖ list the important ores of iron, manganese, chromium, aluminium, copper, lead, zinc and
gold;
❖ explain the mode of occurrence of iron, manganese, chromium, aluminium, copper, lead,
zinc and gold;
16
❖ elaborate the geographical distribution of iron, manganese, chromium, aluminium,
copper, lead, zinc and gold with special reference to India.
❖ explain the minerals used in the refractory, fertilizer, abrasive, drilling, cement, glass,
cosmetic and ceramic manufacturing industries;
❖ describe building and construction materials like granite, marble, quartzite and
sandstone etc.; and
❖ discuss origin, formation and mode of occurrence of coal, lignite and petroleum;
❖ discuss atomic minerals, rare metals and rare-earth elements.
In order to evaluate your learning while reading the self-learning material of this block, we have
provided self-assessment exercises under the caption “Self Assessment Questions (SAQ)” at a
few places and at the end “Terminal Questions” in all units of the block, which invariably end
with answers to the questions, set in these exercises. You should attempt the exercises yourself
and not be tempted to look up the answers given under the caption “Answers” beforehand. It
should be noted that the check your progress is provided as study tools to help you keep on the
right track as you read the units. In some of the units you have been provided with the links of
audio/video materials related to this course. They are blended with the self-learning material.
You are instructed to watch/listen these audio/video programmes and answer the questions
given under the caption “Audio/video material-based questions”.
We advise that as you read the units, jot down important points in the space provided in the
margins of each page. In fact, broad margins in the booklet are provided for you to write your
notes on. Make your notes as you work through the materials. This will help you prepare for the
term end examination (TEE) and also in assimilating the content.
Your feedback pertaining to this block will help us undertake maintenance and timely revision of
the block. Send your feedback to us to the address given below or e-mail to
kakoligogoi@ignou.ac.in or mprashanth@ignou.ac.in :
The Course Coordinator BGYET-141
Discipline of Geology
School of Sciences
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi
New Delhi – 110068 (India)
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.

Wishing you success and all the best in this endeavour!!
17
18
UNIT 9
FERROUS ORES
Structure____________________________________________________
9.1 Introduction 9.4 Chromium
Expected Learning Outcomes Ores
9.2 Iron Mode of Occurrence
Ores Distribution in India
Mode of Occurrence 9.5 Summary

Distribution in India 9.6 Activity
9.3 Manganese 9.7 Terminal Questions
Ores 9.8 References
Mode of Occurrence 9.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Distribution in India 9.10 Answers
9.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read in Unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course that metallic minerals are found in all types of
rocks. But metallic ore concentrations that are mined with profitable extraction of metal occur
relatively less in the associated rocks. Commonly, the most significant metallic minerals belong to
the ores of iron, manganese, copper, chromium, aluminium, gold, silver, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel,
tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, mercury, tin, magnesium, titanium and platinum. However, the
ferrous metals especially iron has a significant place in the history of mankind due to its
indispensable usage since prehistoric times. Use of other ferrous metals such as the manganese
and chromium has a predominant place in the society due to its vital usage in day-to-day life.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
In the previous units, you have learnt about different processes involved in the
ore genesis. You have been introduced to early magmatic processes, late
magmatic processes, contact metamorphic and metasomatic processes
(including skarn formation). We have also discussed about the nature, evolution
and chemistry of ore forming fluids, wall rock alteration, cavity filling and
replacement deposits. Further, we deliberated upon the processes involved in
oxidation, supergene enrichment, mechanical and residual concentration of
ores. In this unit, you will be introduced to the ores of iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn) and chromium (Cr). In addition, we will also discuss the mode of
occurrence and geographical distribution of these metallic minerals.
Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

After reading this unit, you would be able to:
 list important ores of iron, manganese and chromium;
 explain mode of occurrences of iron, manganese and chromium ores; and
 elaborate geographical distribution of ores of iron, manganese and
chromium with special reference to India.
9.2 IRON
You might have seen many vehicles moving on the roads. Did you ever think of
the materials from which they are made-up of? Indeed, most of the materials
used in making these vehicles are iron and its alloys such as steel. You may be
surprised to know that most of the extracted iron in the world is used for making
steel and it accounts nearly 90% of the total metals used in day-to-day life. We
use iron for various purposes for the manufacture of automobiles, electrical
machines, construction industry, etc. It is also an important constituent of
hemoglobin in human body. It transports oxygen to all parts of the body through
the blood vessels. Surprisingly, iron occurs in human body in parts per million.
After oxygen, silicon and aluminium, iron ranks fourth in abundance and
constitutes 5.05% of the composition of Earth’s crust. After aluminium, iron is
the second most abundant metal present in the crust. It rarely occurs in native
state, except in the meteorites and some eruptive rocks. It is widely
disseminated in rock forming silicate and oxide minerals. But economically iron
can be extracted only from some concentrated ore bodies/deposits. Majority of
ore deposits were formed in the early history of the earth, probably during the
Precambrian period when content of oxygen was very low in the atmosphere.
These deposits were formed by the reaction of iron with other gases present in
the atmosphere. In particular, iron ore occurs normally as oxides, rarely as
carbonates and very rarely it combines with phosphorous and sulphur.
In the history of mankind, the iron metal finds it usage for more than 3000
years. The prehistoric period the tools were made-up of iron, therefore it was
named as ‘Iron Age’. However, demand for the metal grew owing to beginning
of the industrial revolution. Iron is a bright, shiny metal which is malleable,
ductile and has high strength. It is corrosive in nature, due to its reaction with
the oxygen in presence of moisture in the atmosphere.
20
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
The three metallic elements, namely, iron, nickel and cobalt fall in the ‘Iron
family’, because of its more or less similarity in their physical and chemical
properties. Magnetism is one of the significant properties of the minerals of this
family.
9.2.1 Ores
You have already read in Unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course that iron is an
important metal due to its commercial viability. It occurs in association with
number of minerals. It forms chemical compounds with other elements. The
main ores of iron are in the form of oxides, carbonates, hydroxides, sulphides
and silicates. Out of these oxides are found abundantly in the earth’s curst.
Hematite and magnetite are the two iron oxides, which are commercially much
useful (Fig. 9.1a and b). Pyrite which is a sulphide ore of iron is mainly used in
the production of sulfur dioxide (Fig. 9.1c). The important ores of iron are listed
in Table 9.1.
Fig. 9.1: Photographs of important iron ores: a) Hematite; b) Magnetite; and c)

Pyrite. [Source: www.gsi.gov.in for (b)]
Table 9.1: Chief ores of Iron.

Compositions
Minerals
Ores
Fe %
Diagnostic
Chemical
Physical Properties
Properties
Colour: red, brownish red or Cherry red, red-

greyish brown; Streak: cherry brown streak,
red, red-brown; Lustre/luster: metallic to sub-
Hematite
Oxides
69.9%
Fe2O3
metallic to sub-metallic; Form: metallic luster.

earthy, granular; Hardness: 5-6;
Fracture: uneven; Cleavage:
absent; Specific gravity: 5.26;
Crystal system: hexagonal.
21
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
Colour: black to silver grey; Strong magnetic
Streak: black; Lustre/luster: character, colour
Magnetite
metallic to sub-metallic; Form: and streak.
72.4%
Fe3O4
crystalline; Hardness: 5.5-6.5;
Fracture: uneven; Cleavage:
Crystal system: cubic.
Colour: brownish black; Streak: Weak magnetism
yellowish brown, ochre yellow; and yellowish-
Lustre/luster: adamantine, silky, brown streak.
Fe2O3.H2O
Goethite
80 - 90%
metallic, dull; Form: radial,
acicular, massive, crystalline;
Hardness: 5 to 5.5; Fracture:
uneven; Cleavage: perfect;
Specific gravity: 3.3 to 4.3;
Crystal system: orthorhombic.
Colour: light brown to brown and Brown colour,
Hydrated Oxides
at places reddish-yellow; Streak: brownish yellow

brownish yellow to yellow; Lustre: streak and earthy
2Fe2O3.3H2O
Limonite
earthy; Form: massive; luster.

59.8%
Hardness: 4 to 5.5; Fracture:

absent; Cleavage: absent;
Crystal system: amorphous to
cryptocrystalline.
Colour: red, yellowish brown to Colour, streak and
blackish brown; Streak: dark form.
Lepidocrocite
yellow brown; Lustre: sub-

62.85%
metallic; Form: fibrous, bladed,

Fe2O3.nH2O
massive; Hardness: 5; Fracture:

uneven; Cleavage: perfect;
Specific gravity: 4; Crystal
system: orthorhombic.
Colour: yellowish brown, brown, Colour, crystal
yellowish grey; Streak: white; form and white
Carbonates
Lustre: vitreous; Form: massive, streak. Gives

Siderite
48.2%
FeCO3
botryoidal, tabular, granular; effervescence with

Hardness: 4; Fracture: dil. HCl
conchoidal to uneven; Cleavage:
perfect; Specific gravity: 3.7 to
3.9; Crystal system: hexagonal.
Colour: pale yellow to brass Pale yellow to
yellow; Streak: greenish black to brass yellow
brownish black; Lustre: metallic; colour, greenish
Sulphides
46.67%
Pyrite
FeS2
Form: crystalline; Hardness: 6.0- black to brownish

6.5; Fracture: conchoidal; black streak and
Cleavage: absent; Specific hardness.
gravity: 4.9 to 5.1; Crystal
system: cubic.
22
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
Colour: pale brass yellow; Pale brass yellow
Streak: greyish or brownish colour, greyish or
black; Lustre: metallic; Form: brownish black
Marcasite
46.67%
FeS2
crystalline; Hardness: 6 to 6.5; streak and
Fracture: uneven; Cleavage: hardness.
present; Specific gravity: 4.8 to
4.9; Crystal system:
orthorhombic.
Colour: bronze yellow, dark Weakly magnetic,
silver grey; Streak: greyish-black; greyish-black
Lustre: metallic; Form: prismatic, streak.
Pyrrhotite
tabular, massive and granular;

60.4%
Fe1-x S
Hardness: 3.5 to 4.5; Fracture:

uneven; Cleavage: absent;
Crystal system: hexagonal,
monoclinic.
Watch the following videos to know more about physical properties of

minerals. To watch these videos, you can also scan the QR Codes of
these videos given in page no. 4 to 10.
 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation-
Specific Gravity and Sense
 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation:
Hardness and Tenacity
 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Forces
Cleavage, Striations and Fracture
Form and Habit
 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Light
23
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….…......
9.2.2 Mode of Occurrence
Iron occurs in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks in different
geological units. Hematite and magnetite are products of contact
metamorphism. However, magnetite also forms by the process of magmatic
segregation. In almost all parts of the world, the sedimentary hosted iron ores
are mostly exploited for the extraction of metal. In tropical and subtropical
humid regions, the lateritic iron ore deposits deposited over ferruginous
basement rocks.
We have discussed that the sedimentary rocks host larger quantities of iron ore
deposits. Let us study the classification of these deposits. James in 1966,
classified sedimentary iron ores into two categories:
1. Banded Iron Ore Formation (BIF): The Precambrian period dominates in
hosting the largest concentration of Banded Iron Ore Formation. They are of
volcano-sedimentary origin.
2. Ironstones: These deposits are of Phanerozoic age. The hematite and
goethite are predominant with feeble banding, interbedded with non-cherty
and oolitic ores.
As BIFs form important deposits, let us study these deposits in detail.
Banded Iron-ore Formation (BIF) is composed of alternate bands of silica and
iron-ore. It forms an economically important deposit. It is a chemically
precipitated (chemogenic) sedimentary rock and made-up of dark-coloured
bands of iron oxides (hematite/magnetite) separated by light-coloured bands of
chert consisting of silica (Fig. 9.2). The BIFs is classified into three types based
on the episodes of formation. They are:
Fig. 9.2: Banded Hematite Jasper
i) Algoma: The Algoma type is the oldest (Archaean age) and mostly
connected with the volcanic arcs. These deposits are comparatively small
and normally extend less than a few meters and with a thickness of less than
hundred meters. The dominant iron oxide is magnetite.
24
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
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ii) Late Superior Type: The Lake Superior type of BIF is predominantly formed
on continental shelves during the Paleoproterozoic. The iron oxide in the
Lake Superior type deposits is mostly hematite. But, sometimes, magnetite
is also found. The rocks extend to a length of more than hundred kilometers
with a thickness of more than hundred meters.
iii) Rapitan Type: The Rapitan type iron ore deposit is predominantly contains
hematite and is less important compared to other two types of deposits.
The Algoma, Superior and Rapitan type iron ore deposits were formed between
3500-3000 Ma (Millions of years ago), 2500-2000 Ma and 1000-500 Ma
respectively during the Precambrian Period.
Indian iron ore deposits can be divided into five basic types based on their
origin and mineralization. Let us discuss in brief about the mode of occurrence
of iron ores in India.
 Precambrian Iron Ore Deposits: The rich hematite deposits are found in
the Iron-ore Series of Jharkhand and Odisha, Bailadila Series of
Chhattisgarh, and Dharwar Supergroup of Goa and Mysore. The high-grade
iron ores are hosted on the top with downward decrease of grade till the ore
touches the bed rock. The vanadiferous-titaniferous magnetite ores of
Precambrian ultramafic intrusions are found in the form of lens shape
deposits in Jharkhand, Odisha and Karnataka. In fact, these deposits are
rarely used because of the difficulties faced in the separation of titanium from
the iron ore. The Precambrian rocks covering some parts of the Eastern
Ghats are enclosed by several meter-thick ferruginous laterites which are
promising future deposits of our country.
 Cuddapah and Vindhyan Supergroups: In Cuddapah and Vindhyan
Supergroups, the minor amount of hematite occurs along the fault and
fissure zones. The irregular and lens shaped ore bodies that occur in the
fault zones traversing the strike length for several kilometers. The iron ores
also occur in association with ferruginous quartzites in Gwalior, Rewa,
Bijawar areas of Madhya Pradesh and Kadapa and Kurnool districts of
Andhra Pradesh.
 Gondwana Supergroup: The Barakar and Barren Measures of the Lower
Gondwana sequence are hosting siderite and limonite ores as beds, lenses
and pockets.The iron-stones and siderite ores are present in the Raniganj
(West Bengal) and Auranga coalfields (Jharkhand).
 Deccan Traps: Ferruginous lateritic ores occur on hill tops as laterite caps
in several areas of Deccan Traps hills, although, the iron content is very less
that varies from 25 to 30%. It is not used as ore presently and may become
prospective ore in future. Moreover, some of the laterites also host bauxite
deposits.
 Tertiary Iron Ore Deposits: Minor iron ore occurrences are reported form
the Lower Siwalik Subgroup covering some parts of the Uttaranchal and
North-eastern states such as Assam. Insignificant occurrences are also
noticied in the Malabar and Travancore areas in the South India, where the
ore is concentrated in the form of thin beds in the Miocene sandstone.
25
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Earlier mining actvity was carried out in these areas and in the course of
time it has become insignificant.
9.2.3 Distribution in India

India is one of the world largest producers of iron ore. But currently it ranks
fourth in terms of quantity production in the world. The important iron ore
producing states are Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Goa,
and Karnataka (Fig. 9.3; Table 9.2). The total production of iron-ore from these
states accounts to around 95% of the total country’s production. In abundance,
maximum reserves are reported from Odisha, followed by Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. In addition, minor occurrences
of iron ore are also reported from West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Assam, Kerala, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Haryana and
Union Tertiary of Jammu and Kashmir.
Fig. 9.3: Map showing spatial distribution of iron ore deposits.
26
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Table 9.2: Distribution of iron ores in different states of India.
States Occurrences
Odisha BIF’s hosting high grade hematite deposits is reported from
Keonjhar, Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Cuttack, and Koraput
districts. Titaniferous magnetite ores are found in Bisoi-
Rairangpur, Bisoi-Joshipur and Baripada-Udasa of
Mayurbhang district.
Chhattisgarh High grade hematite deposits of BIF is found in the Bailadila,
Kanker, Parrekaro and Rowghat of Bastar district and Rajhara
and Dhalli areas of the Durg District.
Jharkhand Titaniferous-vanadiferous magnetite ore deposit occurs in the
Noamundi, Notoburu, Jamda, and Gua areas. Apatite-
magnetite ore is found in Pathargora, Kumaria and Singri of
Singhbhum district. In Palamau district, magnetite deposits
are found in the Gore Pahar and Biwabathan areas. Ironstone
with siderite is found in the Rajabar, Balunagar and Mowai,
Auranga coal field areas.
Karnataka BIF with good hematite deposits are found in the Bellary,
Hospet, Shimoga, Chitradurga, Chikmaglur districts. The rich
magnetite deposits are also reported from the Kudremukh and
Bababudan hills of Tumkur district.
Maharashtra BIF exposures are enriched with iron content and are found in
the Sindhudurg, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Bhandara and
Ratnagiri districts.
Goa Good variety of hematite ore is associated with the BIF and
belongs to the Dharwar Supergroup. It is found in the
Bicholim, Sirigao and Kosti areas. Minor occurrences of
magnetite, limonite and goethite are also reported in the Goa.
Andhra Rocks of the Dharwar Supergroup host most of the iron ore
Pradesh and deposits. The Upper Gondwanas and the laterite capping at
Telangana the summits of the Deccan traps are also known for the low-
grade iron ore deposits. The hematite deposits are found in
the Kadapa, Kurnool, Anantapur and Nellore districts of
Andhra Pradesh. The Warangal and Khammam districts of
Telangana also host the hematite deposits.
Learners, you have learnt the important ores, mode of occurrence and
geographical distribution of iron ores with respect to India. Before going to the
next section, spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 1
a) List any three ores of iron with their chemical composition.
b) What is the percentage of iron present in the ferruginous lateritic ores of the
Deccan Traps?
c) Which are the important iron producing states in India?
27
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9.3 MANGANESE
You have studied about iron in the previous section. Now, let us study about
manganese (Mn). It is similar in properties to that of iron and forms important
alloy with iron in the manufacture of steel. Generally, it occurs in the Earth’s
crust in different forms of oxides, carbonates and silicates. Manganese is
known from the earlier period in one form or the other, but it drew attention of
the world when it was first isolated by Scheeli in 1774. The end of the 18 th
century is marked with the increase in the usage of manganese ore as raw
material for manufacturing of medicines and paints. The demand for the ore
increased manifold with the intervention of new technologies in the manufacture
of steel. In India, the traces of systemic mining of manganese ore were
recorded in 1891 from Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh. India was the
leading producer of manganese ore in the world for a period of 21 years
from1907 to 1928. However, after 1928 India lost its global leading position and
Russia and Brazil took its place.
Our country is self-sufficient in manganese ore reserves and exports almost
three-fourths of the ore produced. Due to its affinity in alloying with iron, it is not
only used for the manufacture of manganese-steel and carbon-steel, but it is
also used in the manufacture of special steels with specific properties. Almost
90 to 95% of the Mn ore produced in the world is used in iron and steel
metallurgical industry. The highly pure variety of Mn ore is used in the
manufacture of glass, paints, pigments, dyes and fertilisers. The Mn ore is also
widely used in the manufacture of chemicals, dry cell batteries, photographic
film and leather industry.
9.3.1 Ores
As we have already mentioned that the Mn ore is widely distributed and it never
occurs in its native state. Manganese is a pinkish grey metallic element, having
high tensile strength, high melting (1260°C) as well as boiling points (1980°C)
and specific gravity (i.e.,7.2). The Mn has similar properties as that of the iron
and is placed as transitional element in the periodic table. It occurs in different
valency states. It forms isomorphous compound series with several metals like
Fe,Ti, Al, Zn, V and Cd . More than 150 ores of Mn are presently known to
occur in nature in different forms of oxides, sulphides, silicates and carbonates.
Some of the common oxide ores are psilomelane and pyrolusite (Fig. 9.4a and
b). The chief ores are listed in Table 9.3.
Fig. 9.4: Photographs of manganese ores: a) psilomelane; and b) pyrolusite.
28
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
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Table 9.3: Chief ores of manganese.
Compositions
Ore Minerals
Ore Types
Mn %
Diagnostic
Chemical
Physical Properties
Properties
Colour: light to dark steel-grey; Black streak

Streak: black; Luster/luster: and hardness
metallic; Form: massive, columnar (soils the
Pyrolusite
63.2%
MnO2
or fibrous; Hardness: 6 to 6.5, 2 finger)

when massive; Fracture: uneven;
Cleavage: perfect; Specific
gravity: 4.5 to 5.06; Crystal
system: tetragonal.
Colour: dark-steel grey to iron- Prismatic
black; Streak: reddish brown to columnar to
black; Lustre: sub-metallic; Form: fibrous form
Manganite
MnO.OH
62.4%
prismatic, columnar to fibrous; and reddish

Hardness: 4; Fracture: uneven; brown to
Cleavage: perfect; Specific black streak.
gravity: 4.33; Crystal system:
monoclinic.
Colour: dark grey to black; Streak: Hardness,
(Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10
black; Lustre: sub-metallic; Form: botryoidal

Psilomelane
Oxides
45 - 60 %
massive and commonly botryoidal; form and

Hardness: 5 to 6; Fracture: black streak.
conchoidal to uneven; Cleavage:
Crystal system: monoclinic.
Colour: pink, rose, red, yellowish- Colour, white
grey, brown; Streak: white; streak
Rhodochrosite
Lustre: vitreous; Form: rarely rhombohedral

Carbonate
crystalline, massive, globular, cleavage and

MnCO3
58%
botryoidal; Hardness: 4; Fracture: hardness.

uneven, conchoidal; Cleavage:
rhombohedral present; Specific
gravity: 3.6; Crystal system:
hexagonal.
Colour: red, pink, brownish-red; Red, pink,
Streak: white or colourless; brownish-red
Lustre: vitreous, pearly; Form: colour, white
Rhodonite
Silicate
MnSiO3
rarely crystalline, massive, streak,

42%
granular; Hardness: 6; Fracture: hardness.

uneven, conchoidal; Cleavage:
perfect; Specific gravity: 3.5 to
3.75; Crystal system: triclinic.
29
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Hydrothermal, sedimentary and residual concentration of ore-forming
processes play an important role in the formation of manganese deposits. The
existing Mn ores were formed when the manganese minerals present in
pegmatites, schists, sedimentary rocks, fissure veins underwent weathering
and deposited as manganese deposits. The precipitation of manganese along
with iron in moderately deep waters during sedimentation process yielded rich
nodular deposits. The manganese ores are also formed by metamorphism of
manganese rich sedimentary and residual deposits.
Mn ore deposits in India occur in two different forms namely, 1) Bedded, and 2)
Lateritoid or detrital.
1) Bedded Deposits: The bedded deposits rest directly above the
Precambrian rocks (like gondites and kondurites) and occur as thin sheets
of oxide ore bodies rich in the Mn content. It occurs in the forms of lenses
and sinuous bands of variable thicknesses. They are further classified into:
a) Syngenetic and b) Supergene deposits.
a) Syngenetic Deposits: Mn rich syngenetic deposits are represented by
the following:
 Primary Oxide Deposits: These deposits occur as thin lenticels rich in
braunite with subordinate amount of manganese silicates. The deposits
that overlie the basal rocks of the Kolhan Formation near Chaibasa,
Jharkhand are good examples for such type of deposits.
 Gondite Deposits: Gondite derives its name from the ‘Gond tribe’ in
Central India. Gondite refers to a rock formed by regional and thermal
metamorphism of Mn-rich sediments, in which the ore bodies were
initially formed as syngenetic deposits under oxidising conditions and
further produced as recrystallised ore bodies due to the regional
metamorphism. These deposits are found in Balaghat and Chhindwara
districts of Madhya Pradesh, Gangpur district of Odisha), and
Bhandara and Nagpur districts of Maharashtra.
 Khondalite Deposits: The Mn ores of Khondalite type were deposited
in the rocks of the Eastern Ghats of India. The host rock composition
varies from acid to ultrabasic with hybrid variety of granulite rocks rich
in garnet and garnetiferous quartzite.
b) Supergene Deposits: These deposits are rich in psilomelane with lesser
amount of pyrolusite, braunite and manganese rich magnetite. These ores
are associated with the rocks rich in iron and phosphorous but poor in
silica. Generally, the ore bodies are irregular in shape, but exceptionally
they occur in large dimensions as those found near Garbham and Kodur
areas of Andhra Pradesh.
2) Lateritoid Deposits or Detrital Deposits: These deposits are formed by
the surface alteration of the Mn rich rocks such as phyllites, schists and
ferruginous quartzites. In the rocks of the Dharwar Supergroup, the residual
concentration of Mn ores takes place by the removal of weathered material
by weathering process. As a result, the Mn rich ores were formed that
30
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
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includes pyrolusite and psilomelane. The detrital deposits are found in
Sandur (Karnataka), Keonjhar (Odisha) districts and Goa state.
India is one of the largest producers of the manganese in the world. The states
which are rich in manganese ore reserves are Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
Karnataka, and Maharashtra (Fig. 9.5; Table 9.4). In addition, minor
occurrences are reported from Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Jharkhand and Telangana.
Fig. 9.5: Map showing spatial distribution of manganese ore deposits.
Table 9.4: Distribution of manganese ores in different states of India.
States Occurrences
Madhya High-grade manganese ore comes from the districts of

Pradesh Balaghat, Chhindwara, Jabalpur and Jhabua. The ores
found in the Gondite Series are associated with the
metamorphosed bedded sedimentary deposits.
31
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Maharashtra Weathering of gondite-bearing rocks has given rise to

residual enrichment of the Mn ore deposits is usually found
in the Bhandara and Nagpur districts.
Odisha Mn ore deposits are associated with the Kodurite Series in

the Kalhandi, Bolangir, Ganjam and Koraput districts of
Odisha. Lateritoid deposits are found in the Sundargarh,
Keonjhar district.
Karnataka Lateritoid deposits of Mn ore of the Dharwar Schist Belt are

found in the Bellary, North Kanara, Sandur, Tumkur,
Chitradurga and Shimoga districts. Minor occurrences of Mn
ore deposits as veins, nodules, lenticles are also reported in
the different places of Karnataka.
Andhra Mn ore deposits are found in the Srikakulam and

Pradesh Visakhapatnam districts and are associated with the
Kodurite rocks of the Khondalite Formation.
Gujarat Mn ores found in the Panchmahal and Vadodara districts

are associated with the less metamorphosed Dharwar rocks.
9.4 CHROMIUM
You have studied in the previous section that the manganese forms an
important ferrous alloy. In the same way, chromium alloys with iron is also used
in the manufacture of non-corrosive and non-abrasive high-quality steels.
Chromite is the only economic mineral of chromium. It is a mixture of oxides of
iron and chromium with 32% FeO and 68% Cr2O3 content. But, in nature, the
hypothetical composition is hardly ever found and the iron is partly replaced by
the magnesium and to some extent chromium is substituted by aluminium.
Chromite is a metallic mineral, brownish black in colour and mostly occurs in
association with the ultrabasic igneous rocks such as serpentine, peridotite and
dunite. In the past, chromium was mainly used in refractories. Owing to the
advancement in technology, the demand of chromium had increased.
Moreover, it has become a prized alloy because of its special properties, such
as hardness, toughness and high temperature tolerance. Chromium salts are
used in several purposes, such as tanning of leather, glass industry,
photography, dyeing and preparation of safety matches. It also forms an
important strategic mineral due to its usage in ammunition industry.
9.4.1 Ores
We are familiar that the chromite is the major ore mineral of chromium metal,
which forms a ferro-alloy. It is mostly used in the manufacture of stainless steel
and in making refractories. The other varieties of chromium rich minerals
occurring in small percentage are classified under picotite or spinel-chrome. In
spite of the fact that chromium is found in association with some of the silicate
minerals and sharing percentage when compared to other minerals is very
small i.e. less than 2%. The most important of them are chrome-garnet
(uvarovite), chrome-diopside (pyroxene), chrome-epidote (tawmawite), chrome-
mica (fuchsite) and chrome-chlorite (kammerite). Let us discuss important
32
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
properties of the chromite which is the only mineral of chromium that has
significant value (Table 9.5).
Fig.9.6: Chromite ore.
Table 9.5: Chief ore of chromium.
Ore Chemical Cr % Physical Properties Diagnostic

Mineral Composition Properties
Colour: brownish black, It is

Chromite FeCr2O4. 46.46% yellowish red, dark brown; identified by
Streak: brown; its brown
Lustre/luster: metallic (Fig. streak and
9.6); Form: rarely crystalline, its common
typically massive, fine association
granular to compact; with olivine
Hardness: 5.5-6; Fracture: and
uneven; Cleavage: absent; serpentine.
Crystal system: cubic.

On the basis of the structures, the Indian chromite occurs in forms like
a) banded, massive
b) banded, crystalline
c) disseminated
The ores in Kondapalli District in Andhra Pradesh and Chaibasa District in
Jharkhand are banded, massive; while the Sukinda and Nausahi Districts in
Odhisa are banded crystalline. Disseminated chromite ores are found in
Kondapalli and Nausahi.
The chromite deposits are characteristically formed by the process of early
magmatic crystallization and are closely associated with the deep seated
ultrabasic intrusive. Moreover, field and microscopic evidence support that the
chromite ores were concentrated during early magmatic segregation process.
In addition to this, chromite deposits are also formed by the late magmatic and
hydrothermal processes.
The chromite deposits in India occur in different geological units. They are:
33
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i) Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt Rocks: The chromite deposits in these rocks are
associated with the Eastern Ghat orogeny. They occur as lens shaped ore
bodies replicating stratification in an assemblage with bronzitite,
hypersthene, pyroxenite and in association with the charnockites. The N-S
trending en-echelon lensoidal ore bodies occur in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu.
ii) Iron-Ore Group: The chromite ores in these rocks are related to the iron-ore
orogeny. They occur as lenses and bands with folded structure. They are
found in association with peridotite and pyroxenite. These ores are found in
Odisha and Jharkhand.
iii) Dharwarian Rocks: In these types of rocks, the chromite ores were
emplaced during the Dharwar orogeny. The deposits are enclosed within the
Dharwar schists and are associated with the ultramafic rocks like peridotite,
pyroxenite and dunite. The chromite ores of Karnataka and Maharashtra
form good examples.
iv) Tertiary Rocks: The chromite deposits found in the Kargil (Union Territory of
Ladakh) and Ukhrul, Manipur East (Manipur) fall under this category.
Sporadic occurrences of chromite deposit in association with the peridotite
and serpentinite emplaced within the Tertiary rocks of the Manipur. In
Ladakh, the chromite deposits occur in association with dunite and
serpentinite within the Dras volcanics of Cretaceous age.
Chromite deposits of India amount to about 2% of the total world resources.
The Odisha state accounts for more than 93% of the chromite deposits. Minor
deposits are reported from Manipur, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 9.7). The detailed distribution of chromite
deposits in India is given in Table 9.6.
Table 9.6: Distribution of chromium in different states of India.
States Occurrences
Odisha Together with the nickel ore, the chromite occurs in bands
and lenses in the Sukinda area of the Cuttack district, Katpal
area in the Dhenkanal district. Nausahi locality of the
Keonjhar district also host good chromite deposits.
Karnataka Chromite deposit is associated with the ultrabasic rocks in
the Dharwar schists reported from the Sindhuvalli in Mysore
and the Byrarapur in Hassan districts. Minor deposits are
reported from other districts.
Jharkhand Important occurrences are found in Jojohatu near Chaibasa
in Singhbhum district.
Tamil Nadu Chromite occurs as lensoid body in charnockite rocks located
in the Sittampundi anorthosite complex in the Salem district.
Maharashtra Chromite ore is found in Pauni of Bhandara district and
Byarapur of Ratnagiri district in ultramafic rocks.
Manipur Deposits are known to occur in Ukhrul and east of Manipur.
34
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
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Fig. 9.7: Map showing spatial distribution of chromimum ore deposits.
Watch the following videos to know more about early and late
magmatic deposits and hydrothermal mineralization. To watch these
videos, you can also scan the QR Codes of these videos given in
page no. 4 to 10.
 Early magmatic deposits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQr0xMYRCLk
 Late magmatic deposits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJoZujIj3bs
 Hydrothermal mineralization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Red8n1UOKx0
35
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In the previous sections, you have studied about the important ores, mode of
occurrence and distribution of manganese and chromium in India. Before going
to the next section, spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 2
a) Write the diagnostic properties of psilomelane.
b) Where do we find the Mn deposits of Kondalite type?
c) Rhodonite is the mineral of _________.
d) The chromite ore is associated with the Charnokite in _________ district of
Tamil Nadu.
9.5 SUMMARY
Let us summarize what you have learnt in this unit:
 Iron is bright, shiny metallic mineral which is malleable and ductile. Due to its
high strength, it has good commercial viability. The most viable iron ores are
hematite and magnetite.
 In almost all parts of the world, sedimentary rocks host the larger quantities
of the iron ore deposits. The largest concentration of BIF is mostly hosted in
the rocks of Precambrian age. Ironstone deposits are found in the rocks of
the Phanerozoic age.
 Important iron ore producing states are Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Goa and Karnataka.
 Manganese has high tensile strength which is similar in properties to that of
iron. It occurs in different forms of oxides,sulphides,silicates and carbonates.
 Indian manganese ores occur as bedded and lateritoid deposits. The Mn ore
producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Karnataka and
Maharashtra.
 Chomite ores are mostly associated with the ultrabasic igneous rocks and
they occur in different geological units in India.
 Odisha is the major producer of chromite. The minor producers are Manipur,
Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharastra,Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
9.6 ACTIVITY
 Given below is the blank outline map of India (Fig. 9.8). You can use this
map or map from other sources and plot the important iron, manganese,
and chromium ore producing regions.
36
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
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Fig. 9.8: An outline map of India.
9.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss Precambrian iron ore occurrences in India.
2. Explain the geographical distribution of iron ores in India.
3. Describe bedded deposits of manganese ores.
4. List the properties of chromite and write any three uses of chromium.
5. Which state accounts more than 90% of chromite deposits? Elucidate the
major occurrences of chromite ore in Odisha, Karnataka and Jharkhand.
Audio/video material-based questions

 Name the minerals that you can identify by its feel.
 List the types of odour by which you can identify minerals.
 What is Mohs Scale of Hardness?
 Name some common minerals having two and three cleavage directions.
 Discuss the physical properties of mineral depending upon specific gravity,
senses and forces.
 Discuss the types of magmatic deposits.
37
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9.8 REFERENCES
 Berry, L.G, Mason, B. and Dietrich, R.V. (2004) Mineralogy. CBS
Publishers, New Delhi. 561p.
 Krishnaswamy, S. (1972) India’s Mineral Resources. New Delhi, Oxford &
IBH Pub. Co. xi, 503 p.
 Prasad, U. (2011) Economic Geology, Economic Mineral Deposits. CBS
 Sharma N.L and Ram K.S.V., (1966) Introduction to Geology of Coal and
Indian Coalfields.
 Tiwari, S.K. (2011) Ore Geology, Economic Minerals and Mineral
Economics. Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi. 748p.
 https://www.scribd.com/document/98029602/Iron-Ores-in-India
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromite
 www.gsi.gov.in
(All the websites accessed between 1st June 2020 and 31st Nov. 2020).
9.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Krishnaswamy, S. (1972) India’s Mineral Resources. New Delhi, Oxford &
IBH Pub. Co. xi, 503 p.
 Sharma N.L and Ram K.S.V., (1966) Introduction to Geology of Coal and
Indian Coalfields.
9.10 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Hematite (Fe2O3), Goethite (Fe2O3.H2O), Siderite (FeCO3).
b) The precentage of iron present in the ferruginous lateritic ores of the
Deccan Traps is 25 to 30%.
c) The important iron ore producing states are Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, and Karnataka.
SAQ 2
a) Diagnostic properties of psilomelane by which it can be identified are
botryoidal form, hardness and black streak.
b) Mn deposits of Kondalite type are found in the rocks of Eastern ghats of
India.
c) Manganese
d) Salem
38
Unit 9 Ferrous Ores
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Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to sub section 9.2.2.
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40
UNIT 10
NON-FERROUS ORES
Structure_____________________________________________________________________
10.1 Introduction 10.5 Gold
Expected Learning Outcomes Ores
10.2 Aluminium Mode of Occurrence
Ores Distribution in India
Mode of Occurrence 10.6 Summary

Distribution in India 10.7 Activity
10.3 Copper 10.8 Terminal Questions
Ores 10.9 References
Mode of Occurrence 10.10 Further/Suggested Readings
Distribution in India 10.11 Answers
10.4 Lead and Zinc
Ores
Mode of Occurrence
Distribution in India
10.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read in Unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course that non-ferrous metals were used noticed since the
beginning of the civilization. The discovery of copper in 5000 BC marked the beginning of the Copper
Age and termination of the Stone Age. The Copper Age was succeeded by the Bronze Age with the
invention of bronze - an alloy of copper and tin.
Further, the ushered use of iron started with the discovery of iron which led to the dominance of the
Iron Age.
……………………………………………………………..…………………………………………….….............….…......
In general, non-ferrous metals are expensive. They are different from the
ferrous metals due to their distinctive properties. These distinctive properties
are non-magnetic, low weight, high conductivity and more resistant to corrosion
which differentiate non-ferrous metals from the ferrous metals. Commonly, the
most significant non-ferrous metals include aluminium, copper, lead, zinc,
nickel, tin and titanium.
In the previous unit, you have studied about the ferrous ore minerals such as
iron, manganese and chromium, which find consistent application in day-to-day
life. You have been introduced to the physical and chemical properties, mode of
occurrence and geographical distribution of different ores of iron, manganese
and chromium. In this unit, we will discuss about physical and chemical
properties, mode of occurrences and geographical distribution of some non-
ferrous ores of such as aluminium, copper, lead, zinc and gold.
Expected Learning Outcomes__________________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 list various types of ores of aluminium, copper, lead, zinc and gold;
 discuss mode of occurrences of various types of ores of aluminium,
copper, lead, zinc and gold; and
 elaborate the geographical distribution of several ores of aluminium,
copper, lead, zinc and gold with special reference to India.
10.2 ALUMINIUM
You have already been introduced to aluminium in the Unit 13 of BGYCT-133
course. Aluminium/Aluminum is the third most abundant element after oxygen
and silicon that constitutes nearly 8% of the Earth’s crust. It is placed in the
periodic table with the atomic number 13. It is considered as one of the most
abundant metals present in the Earth’s crust. It is relatively less abundant in the
mantle.
Aluminium is a valuable non-ferrous metal and has gained importance due to its
remarkable properties and capacity to form light alloys. The aluminium metal
and its alloys are being used in large scale for various purposes, such as
manufacturing of aeroplanes, electrical appliances, building materials, trains
and machines. Aluminium has gained immense industrial importance due to
relatively soft, light weight, non-magnetic, durable, malleable and ductile nature,
corrosive resistance as well as relatively high electrical and thermal
conductivity. Aluminium is being used for different purposes due to its light
weight and has replaced copper in electrical industry, iron and steel in transport
industry. The powdered form of the metal is used in paints and pigments
industry. It also acts as a good reducing agent and used in the making of
several metal alloys.
10.2.1 Ores
Out of several other aluminium minerals and its compounds, bauxite is the
mineable mineral for commercial use (Fig.10.1). The bauxite never occurs in
42
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pure form, it occurs consistently with a number of impurities such as iron-

oxides, kaolinite, halloysite and nontronite. In nature, there are a few minerals
of aluminium such as diaspore, boehmite and gibbsite that usually occur in
combination with the bauxite (Table 10.1).
Table 10.1: Chief aluminium ores.
Ore Minerals
Compositions
Chemical
Diagnostic
Al%
Physical Properties
properties
Colour: white, greenish grey, greyish Perfect

brown, yellow; Streak: white; cleavage and
Lustre/luster: vitreous, pearly; Form high
and Habit: tabular, platy, bladed, hardness.
Al2O3.H2O
Diaspore
prismatic, rarely crystalline;

orthorhombic; Hardness: 6.5 – 7;
Fracture and Cleavage: conchoidal;
45%
perfect; Specific gravity: 3.3 – 3.5.

[Note: It has the same chemical
composition as boehmite but have
different crystal structure.]
Colour: white, light yellow, yellowish Form and
green; Streak: white; Lustre: vitreous; mode of
Boehmite
Al2O3.H2O
Form and Habit: massive, crystals are occurrence.

45%
tabular or short prismatic and rare;

orthorhombic; Hardness: 3 – 3.5;
Fracture and Cleavage: uneven; good;
Specific gravity: 3 – 3.03.
Colour: yellow, dirty white, grey, reddish Pisolitic and
brown, orange, red, pink; Streak: usually oolitic form,
Al2O3.2H2O
white, but iron stain can discolour; and dirty white

Bauxite
39%
Lustre: dull; Form and Habit: mostly with patches

pisolitic (Fig.10.1b) and oolitic, massive, of different
botryoidal, nodular; amorphous; colours and
Hardness: 2-4; Fracture and Cleavage: dull lustre.
uneven; absent; Specific gravity: 2–3.5.
Colour: white; greyish, greenish, or Low specific
reddish white; Streak: white; Lustre: gravity and it
Hydrargillite
Al2O3.3H2O
Gibbsite/
pearly, vitreous; Form and Habit: gives clay

34.6%
crystals rare, tabular, radiating, compact odour when

earthy; monoclinic; Hardness: 2.5–3.5; smelled.
Fracture and Cleavage: uneven;
perfect; Specific gravity: 2.38–2.42.
43
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Fig. 10.1: Bauxite: a) Granular; and b) showing pisolitic structure.
Watch the following videos to know more about physical properties

of minerals. To watch these videos, you can also scan the QR Codes
of these videos given in page no. 4 to 10
 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation-
Specific Gravity and Sense
Hardness and Tenacity
 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Forces
Cleavage, Striations and Fracture
Form and Habit
 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Light

You have studied in the previous section that bauxite is the only mineral of
aluminium having commercial importance. Let us study the mode of occurrence
of Indian bauxites. The bauxite deposits occur as:
(i) blanket, (ii) interstratified, (iii) pocket, and (iv) detrital or transported
deposits.
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You have been introduced to these terms in Unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course. Let
us discuss them in detail:
i) Blanket Deposits: These deposits are generally found as caps on high
plateau regions under less soil cover and are associated with the high-grade
laterites of the Quaternary sequences. The Indian blanket deposits are
formed in the long course of time due to changes in the subaerial
environment, tropical climatic conditions and alternate changes in the dry
and wet seasons. In the Eastern Ghat region, the blanket deposits overlay
as caps on Khondalites, whereas bauxite deposits on the Deccan Traps
occur in the states of the Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. In
Jammu and Kashmir, the deposits are overlying the Permo-Carboniferous
Sirban limestone; in Tamil Nadu, they overlie the Charnockites; the deposits
overlie the Tertiary and Archaean rocks in the Kerala and granite gneisses
in the Jharkhand areas.
ii) Interstratified Deposits: These deposits occur as beds or lenses in
stratigraphic sequences. In Saurashtra and Kachchh regions, the bauxite
deposits are hosted between the overlying Gaj beds of the Tertiary
sequence and underlying Deccan Traps in association with the laterite
deposits.
iii) Pocket Deposits: These deposits were derived from the limestones in
association with the low-level laterites. They occur in isolated pockets and
are restricted to calcareous rocks. They are described as karst bauxites.
Good examples of pocket deposits are the coastal deposits of Odisha lying
above the Upper Gondwanan rocks, particularly sandstones. Coastal
deposits of the Maharashtra overlie gneissic rocks. Coastal deposits of the
other states like Karnataka, Gujarat, Goa, Diu and Daman overlie different
rock types.
iv) Detrital or Transported Deposits: A few bauxite deposits are also formed
by weathering and transportation. The transportation may be near to the
source area that resulted in the formation of pseudo-brecciated bauxites.
The other types of transported deposits are carried far away from the source
area and well-marked with the rounded pebbles and grains of the bauxite in
association with the conglomerates and grits. The bauxite deposits of
Kachchh district of Gujarat, coastal bauxites of Ratnagiri, Maharashtra,
western part of the Chota Nagpur area, and the Jharkhand bauxite deposits
are a few good examples of transported deposits.
India occupies first position amongst top ten producers of aluminium in the
world. The chief aluminium producing states are Odisha, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya
Pradesh (Table 10.2; Fig. 10.2). In addition, some minor occurrences are
reported from Kannur, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram districts of the Kerala;
Banda, Lalitpur and Varanasi districts of the Uttar Pradesh; Kota district in the
Rajasthan; Udhampur district in the Jammu and Kashmir, and some parts of
Goa, Daman and Diu.
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Fig. 10.2: Distribution of aluminium ore deposits in India.
Table 10.2: Distribution of aluminium ores in India.
States Occurrences
Odisha High grade bauxite deposits are reported from Kalahandi

and Sambalpur districts. The other districts which host
bauxite deposits are Koraput, Bolangir, Kalahandi, Keonjhar,
Sundergarh and Kandhamal.
Andhra The famous aluminous laterite occurrences are reported
Pradesh from the Eastern Ghat belt extending from Vishakhapatnam
to East Godavari district. The bauxite capping in Anantagiri
hills in Vishakhapatnam district cover a large area.
Gujarat The state is bestowed with all grades of bauxite ore. The
deposits are found in the districts of Kutch, Junagadh,
Kheda, Amreli, Bhavnagar, Valsad, Jamnagar and
Sabarkantha.
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Jharkhand High grade ores are reported from the district of Lohardaga
and its adjoining areas. Extensive deposits of bauxite ore are
found in the districts of Palamu, Ranchi and Gumla. Small
occurrences are also known from the Dumka and Munger
areas.
Maharashtra Rich deposits that cap the Deccan basalt are reported from
the surrounding areas of the Kolhapur district. The other
districts where aluminium deposits are reported include,
Satara, Ratnagiri and Thane.
Chhattisgarh Bauxite deposits are located in the districts of Kanker, Korba,
Surguja, Bastar, Jashpur and Kabirdham.
Tamil Nadu Salem, Nilgiri and Madurai are the main districts that
produce metallurgical and low-grade bauxite ores.
Madhya Maikala range covering Mandla, Shahdol and Balagat
Pradesh districts and some areas of the Jabalpur (Katni) district are
important producers of bauxite in the state.
Karnataka Bauxite deposits with high grade of alumina are reported
from the Deccan Traps of the Belgaum, Chikmangalur, North
and South Kannad districts.
10.3 COPPER
You have read that the copper was used by the mankind before the prolific
usage of iron; therefore, it has a high cultural value. But today copper is a metal
which has vital use in the country after iron. Copper mining is mentioned in the
famous ancient book of Katuliya’s Arthshastra in 3rd Century BC.
Archaeological studies revealed that almost in all the parts of the country the
ancient copper mining industry flourished and many evidences of mining and
metallurgical sites were unearthed.
Copper is a soft metal, which occurs in native form as-well-as in other mineral
forms such as oxides, sulphides and carbonates. It has an important position in
the list of metals in the periodic table and has exceptional properties like highly
malleable and ductile, good conductor of heat and electricity, corrosion
resistant and its readiness to form alloys with other metals. Due to its special
properties, copper is used in the electrical industry, defense and allied
industries, manufacture of coins and utensils, making of metallic alloys. It is
interesting to note that most of the copper produced in the world is substantially
used in electrical industry.
10.3.1 Ores
Copper is widely distributed and occurs in native state. The ores are also found
in the mineral forms like oxides, sulphides and carbonates. There are more
than 150 copper ores, but in this unit we will discuss some important and
commonly occurring ores (Table 10.3).
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Table 10.3: Chief ores of copper.
Composition
Ore Minerals
Ore Types
Chemical
Cu %
Diagnostic
s
Physical Properties
Properties
Colour: brass-yellow (Fig. 10.3a); Crystals

Streak: greenish black; Lustre/luster: distinctive,
Chalcopyrite
metallic; Form and Habit: crystals golden
CuFeS2
34.5%
common, massive compact, yellow and
sometimes botryoidal; tetragonal; greenish
Hardness: 3.5-4; Fracture and black
Cleavage: uneven; distinct; Specific streak.
gravity: 4.1-4.3.
Colour: copper-red to golden brown; Copper-red
Streak: greyish brown; Lustre: to golden
Cu5FeS4
Bornite
metallic; Form and Habit: generally brown

63.3%
massive; orthorhombic; Hardness: 3; colour,

Fracture and Cleavage: conchoidal greyish
to uneven; imperfect; Specific brown
gravity: 5.06-5.08. streak.
Colour: dark grey to black; Streak: Low
blackish lead grey; Lustre: metallic; hardness,
Chalcocite
Sulphides
Form and Habit: crystals rare, black,

79.8%
Cu2S
generally massive; monoclinic; slightly

Hardness: 2.5-3; Fracture and sectile.
Cleavage: conchoidal; indistinct;
Specific gravity: 5.5-5.8.
Colour: indigo-blue or darker, brass Colour and
yellow and dark-red; Streak: lead- perfect
grey to black; Lustre: metallic; Form cleavage.
Covellite
66.45%
CuS
and Habit: mostly massive and

crystals uncommon; hexagonal;
Hardness: 1.5-2; Fracture and
Cleavage: uneven; perfect; Specific
gravity: 4.6-4.76.
Colour: greyish black or iron black; Perfect
Streak: black; Lustre: metallic; Form cleavage,
Enargite
Cu3AsS4
and Habit: crystals common, form and

48.4%
massive, granular or prismatic; colour.

orthorhombic; Hardness: 3; Fracture
and Cleavage: uneven; perfect;
Specific gravity: 4.45.
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Colour: steel-grey, iron-grey, black; Absence of
Tetrahedrite
Streak: black; Lustre: metallic; Form cleavage
Cu8Sb2S7
and Habit: crystals uncommon, and form.
52.1%
massive, granular; cubic; Hardness:
3-4.5; Fracture and Cleavage:
subconchoidal to uneven; absent;
Colour: red, nearly black; Streak: Lustre,
brownish red; Lustre: sub-metallic to colour and
adamantine or earthy; Form and form.
Cuprite
88.8%
Cu2O
Habit: crystals common, massive,

granular, earthy; cubic; Hardness:
3.5 – 4; Fracture and Cleavage:
Oxides
conchoidal; distinct; Specific gravity:

6.10.
Colour: grey, black; Streak: black; Colour,
Lustre: dull; Form and Habit: scaly, black
Tenorite
79.8%
CuO
earthy, and massive; monoclinic; streak, dull

Hardness: 3.5-4; Fracture and lustre.
Cleavage: conchoidal; absent;
Colour: bright green (Fig. 10.3b); Bright green
CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Streak: pale green; Lustre: silky or and

Malachite
dull; Form and Habit: distinctive botryoidal

57.3%
crystals rare, commonly massive, form.

mammillary, botryoidal, fibrous;
monoclinic; Hardness: 3.5-4;
Carbonates
Fracture and Cleavage: uneven;

perfect; Specific gravity: 3.6-4.05.
Colour: azure-blue (sky blue) to dark Hardness,
blue, light blue; Streak: light blue; colour and
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
Lustre: vitreous; Form and Habit: commonly

Azurite
55.1%
crystals common, massive, earthy occurs in

radiating, fibrous; monoclinic; association
Hardness: 3.5-4; Fracture and with
Cleavage: conchoidal; perfect; malachite.
Colour: green or blue, brown to black; Colour and
Streak: white to blue-green; Lustre: form.
CuSiO3.2H2O
Chrysocolla
vitreous or waxy; Form and Habit:

Silicates
36%
crystals non-existent, fine fibrous or

massive, earthy; orthorhombic;
Hardness: 2-4; Fracture and
Cleavage: conchoidal; absent;
Specific gravity: 2-2.4.
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Colour: light rose on fresh surface, Colour,

quickly changes to copper red and hackly
Native Copper
then to brown; Streak: copper red; fracture.
Element
100%
lustre: metallic; Form and Habit:
Cu
crystals rare, massive; cubic;
Cleavage: hackly; absent; Specific
gravity: 8.9.
Fig. 10.3: Photographs showing: a) chalcopyrite; and b) malachite.

Copper deposits are formed by a variety of ore-forming processes such as
magmatic concentration, magmatic segregation, contact metasomatic,
submarine exhalations, bacteriogenic precipitation, hydrothermal, and
supergene sulphide enrichment. Thus, it shows that copper deposits have
originated by divergent processes. However, most of the deposits are formed
by igneous activity or weathering processes.
Copper deposits in India occur in association with various types of rocks,

particularly with the Precambrian rocks. The copper lodes generally occur in the
form of veins, fracture-fillings, cleavage -fillings and disseminations. Besides
copper, other metals are also associated with the copper deposits such as gold,
silver, lead and zinc. Fairly, a large number of copper deposits have orignated
from the hydrothermal solutions. Let us discuss the Precambrian copper
deposits of India in details:
 Precambrian Copper Deposits
You have already read about the Singhbhum Thrust belt and Khetri copper belt
in Unit 13 of BGYCT-133. The Singhbhum copper belt located along the
Singhbhum shear zone contains valuable copper deposits, situated in the
southern part of Jharkhand state. In this belt, the intensively deformed host
rocks belong to Precambrian Iron Ore Series and comprise quartz-chlorite-
biotite schists and other rocks. In Hesatu-Belbathan belt, the mineralised ore
includes lenses or pocket copper ore deposits associated with the tremolite-
actinolite-schist, calcgranulite and amphibolite within the Chotanagpur granite-
gneiss.
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The Khetri belt, Pur-Banera-Bhinder belt and other related occurrences in

Rajasthan are promising zones of copper mineralisation. The mineralisation
occurs along the favourable structural zones associated with the diverse
orogenic movements.
In Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, there are four promising mineralisation
zones associated with the Chilpi Ghat sediments, granites and basic dykes of
the Archaean age. The mineralised zones are: (i) Bhalaghat-Durg, (ii) Gwalior-
Shivpuri, (iii) Indore-Hoshangabad-Damoh-Jabbalpur-Sidhi, and (iv) Bastar
belts.
In Karnataka, the copper deposits were reported mainly from the Chitradurga
and Hassan districts. The Cu ores are associated with the Dharwar schist belt,
basic dykes and other intrusions in the Peninsular gneissic complex.
The important deposits located at Mailaram and other places in the Khammam
district of Telangana are mineralised and associated with the steeply dipping
grey quartz veins, cutting across the Archaean chlorite schists and gneisses.
Copper and lead deposits of the Agnigundala mineralised belt in the Guntur
district of Andhra Pradesh is an important zone of copper mineralisation. The
ore mineralisation is observed in thin beds of quartzites and dolomites
interbedded with the phyllites and shale of the Nallamalai series of the Upper
Cuddapah Supergroup.
India is not in the present list of leading copper producers of the world. Our
country does not have adequate reserves of this valuable metal. Most of our
requirements are being met from the imports from other countries. The
important copper producing states are Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
and Chhattisgarh (Table 10.4; Fig. 10.4). The other copper producing states are
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra.
Table 10.4: Distribution of copper ore in different states of India.
States Occurrences
Jharkhand Copper deposits were reported from two important

and Bihar geological belts. Singhbhum copper belt: the potential
areas are Mosabani, Ghatshila, Pathargora, Rakha, Roam-
Sidheswar, Ram chandrapahar, Tamapahar and Turamdih.
Hesatu-Belbathan belt: the potential areas are Ganganpur,
Jalakdiha, Baraganda, Damgi, Baghmari, Chandio, Pirrah
and Toolsitanr.
Rajasthan Madhan-Kudan, Kolihan and Chandmari are the areas

within the Khetri copper belt of the Jhunjhunu district, where
copper occurrences are reported. In Alwar district, the
potential copper deposit is noticed at Dariba. Isolated
occurrences are also reported from the Pali, Sirohi, Udaipur,
Churu and Nagaur districts.
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Chhattisgarh The major open pit base metal mine in India is located at
Malanjkhand region of Balaghat district. Some occurrences
are also reported from Rajnandgaon, Mahasamund and
Dantewara districts.
Other States In Karnataka, the copper occurrences are reported from the
Chitradurga and Hassan districts. Copper occurrences are
also known from Kurnool and Guntur districts of Andhra
Pradesh and Khammam district of Telangana. Some
occurrences of copper are also reported from Chingleput,
South Arcot, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu.
Fig. 10.4: Distribution of copper deposits in India.
Watch the following video to know more about the copper deposit
formed by contact metasomatism. To watch the video, you can also
scan the QR Code of the video given in page no. 4 to 10.
 Contact Metasomatic and Contact Metamorphic Deposits
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Learners, you have learnt important ores, mode of occurrence and

geographical distribution of aluminium and copper. Before going to the next
section, spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 1
a) Write about the application of iron metal?
b) Define BHQ.
c) Name three important copper ores.
10.4 LEAD AND ZINC

Generally, zinc and copper ores occur in nature as they have strong
geochemical affinity. Interestingly, lead never occurs in native state and even if
it occurs it is very rare. Lead is bluish grey in colour and shows bright metallic
lustre. When the fresh surface is exposed to air, it gets tarnished. It is a soft
metal, which can be scratched with a fingernail. However, it has high specific
gravity (i.e., 11.34) and gives black streak. Lead is malleable, ductile, and
rather a poor conductor of electricity. It is used for a variety of purposes such as
a colouring agent in glazed ceramics, projectiles and electrodes for electrolysis.
The other uses of the metal are for soldering, alloys, ammunition, nuclear
reactors, X-ray machines, electronics, sheets, cables, paints and pesticides.
You have read in Unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course that lead and zinc are the two
base metals that normally occur in close association with each other. Zinc (Zn)
is a bluish white brittle element having a melting point of 419o C and specific
gravity 7.15. It is malleable and ductile between 100oC and 150o C. It shows
brittleness at 300oC. It can even react in dilute acids.
Almost one third of the zinc produced is used in galvanization. The zinc metal
is used in the manufacture of dry cell batteries, die castings, paints, cosmetics
and rubber products. Zinc compounds are also used for various purposes in
electronics, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and pesticides.
10.4.1 Ores
Zinc occurs in the Earth’s crust in a very small amount of about 0.0013%. It
occurs in some ores in a very little amount such as galena, cerussite and
anglesite (Table 10.5; Fig 10.5).
Fig. 10.5: Photograph showing galena in hand specimen.

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Table 10.5: Important lead ores.
Compositions
Ore Minerals
Chemical
Pb %
Diagnostic
Physical Properties
Properties
Colour: lead-grey to steel grey; Streak: Metallic lustre,

greyish black with metallic shine; perfect
Galena Lustre/luster: metallic; Form and cleavage, colour
84.71%
Habit: cubic crystals, commonly and hardness.
PbS massive, coarse to fine granular; cubic;
Hardness: 2.5; Fracture and
Cleavage: sub-conchoidal; perfect;
Colour: colourless to white, grey or High specific
smoky; Streak: white; Lustre: gravity,
adamantine; Form and Habit: crystals adamantine
Cerussite
77.54%
PbCO3
common, stellate, reticular aggregates, lustre,

massive, granular; orthorhombic; brittleness and
Hardness: 3-3.5; Fracture and colour.
Cleavage: conchoidal; distinct;
Colour: colourless to white, tinged High specific
grey, yellow or green; Streak: white; gravity and
Lustre: adamantine; Form and Habit: adamantine
Anglesite
PbSO4
crystals uncommon, massive, granular, lustre.

74%
compact, nodular; orthorhombic;

Hardness: 2.3-3; Fracture: conchoidal;
Cleavage: good, distinct; Specific
gravity: 6.4.
Abundance of zinc in the Earth’s crust is about 0.0075%. The sphalerite is an

important ore of zinc. However, other ores less important, consist of
smithsonite, zincite, franklinite, goslarite and hemimorphite (Table 10.6; Fig 10.
6).
Fig. 10.6: Photograph of zincite in hand specimen.

54
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Table 10.6: Chief ores of zinc.
Composition
Physical Properties Diagnostic
Ore Mineral
Chemical
Properties
Zn % Colour: orange yellow to deep red, Colour and

pure zincite is white; Streak: yellowish orange-
orange; Lustre: sub-adamantine; Form yellow streak.
(Zn,Mn)O
73.25%
Zincite
and Habit: crystals uncommon,

typically massive, foliated; hexagonal;
Hardness: 5.5; Fracture and
Cleavage: conchoidal; perfect;
(Zn,Mn,Fe)(Fe,Mn)2O4
Colour: black to brownish black; Looks like

Streak: reddish brown; Lustre: metallic magnetite, but
Franklinite
to sub-metallic; Form and Habit: it is weakly

16.59%
crystals uncommon, octahedral, magnetic.

massive; cubic; Hardness: 5.5-6.5;
Fracture and Cleavage: uneven to
sub-conchoidal; absent; Specific
gravity: 5.07-5.22.
Colour: light grey to yellowish grey, Cleavage,
rarely red, green, white; Streak: brown hardness and
to light yellow; Lustre: resinous to resinous
Sphalerite
(Zn,Fe)S
64.06%
adamantine, also metallic; Form and lustre.

Habit: crystals common, granular,
fibrous and botryoidal; cubic;
Colour: greyish white to dark grey, Hardness
greenish brownish white, green to and specific
apple-green, bluish green, blue, yellow, gravity.
Smithsonite
brown, and white; Streak: white;

23.43%
ZnCO3
Lustre: vitreous; Form and Habit:

crystals uncommon, botryoidal,
reniform, earthy, granular; hexagonal;
Hardness: 4-4.5; Fracture and
Cleavage: uneven to sub-conchoidal;
rhombohedral; Specific gravity: 4.43.
Colour: white, brown, blue or green; Crystal forms
Zn4Si2O7(OH)2.H2O
Streak: white; Lustre: vitreous; Form and mode of

Hemimorphite
and Habit: crystals common, tabular to occurrence.

54%
bladelike, massive, mammillary;

orthorhombic; Hardness: 5; Fracture
and Cleavage: sub-conchoidal to
uneven; perfect; Specific gravity: 3.4-
3.5.
55
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Colour: white, colourless, grey, light Bitter and salt

brown, green or blue; Streak: white; like taste,
ZnSO4.7H2O
Lustre: vitreous, silky, dull; Form and dissolves in
Goslarite
22.74%
Habit: fibrous, acicular, granular, water.
massive, stalactitic; orthorhombic;
Hardness: 2-2.5; Fracture and

As you have already studied in Unit 13 of BGYCT-133 course that lead and zinc
occur together as cavity filling and replacement type of deposits, formed at low
temperatures by hydrothermal solutions. Some of the deposits occur as
metasomatic replacement lodes or veins and disseminations. They also occur
in the form of a contact metamorphic deposit. Moreover, a few deposits are of
sedimentary origin. Interestingly, most of the lead and zinc deposits are
associated with the limestone, dolomite and other related rocks rich in calcium
and magnesium.
In India, economically viable lead and zinc deposits are found mainly in the
western, central and southern parts of the country, hosted in the Precambrian
rocks. The scattered deposits in a lesser quantity are also present in the
northern and eastern parts of the country. In the western region, the deposits
are hosted in Aravalli and rocks of Delhi Supergroup.
In the Rajpura-Dariba-Bethumani belt, the mineralisation occurs in the Bhilwara
group of the pre-Aravalli rocks. The Rampura-Agucha belt occurs in the
southeastern part of the Ajmer and Bhilwara districts of the Rajasthan that
contains lead deposits. These deposits occur in association with the gneisses,
schists and intrusives forming part of the Pre-Aravalli Banded Gneissic
Complex. The Zawar lead-zinc belt is hosted in the Aravalli rocks, forming part
of the Aravalli Supergroup. It occurs in the fine grained, gritty conglomeratic
dolomite interbedded with phyllite and quartzite. It is found around Udaipur and
Zawar areas of the Udaipur district, Rajasthan. The Ajmer lead-zinc and Deri-
Ambaji lead-zinc-copper belts of the Delhi Supergroup are distinguished by the
presence of copper rich mineralization and with lesser amount of deposition of
lead and zinc minerals. The ore deposits of the Hesatu-Balbathan belt in the
Jharkhand is hosted in calc-silicate rocks and are formed by the hydrothermal
processes.
In Sargipalli area of the Sundargarh district Odisha, the deposit is hosted in the
sedimentary rocks of the Palaeoproterozoic age. Similar to the Sargipalli
deposit, the lead-zinc deposit is also found in the Mamandur, South Arcot
district of the Tamil Nadu. It is also a strata-bound sedimentary deposit.
The deposits found at Agnigundala belt of the Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh
are of sedimentary origin, hosted in the rocks of the Cumbum Formation in the
Nallamalai Group of the Cuddapah Supergroup.
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Watch the following video to know more about the formation of zinc
ore by hydrothermal process. To watch the video, you can also scan
the QR Code of the video given in page no. 4 to 10.
 Hydrothermal Mineralisation

Although, several lead and zinc occurrences are reported from different parts of
the country (Table 10.7). The important occurrences are reported from the
states of Rajasthan, Odisha, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Gujarat and West Bengal.
Fig. 10.7: Distribution of lead-zinc deposits in India.
57
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Table 10.7: Distribution of lead and zinc deposits in India.
States Occurrences
Rajasthan Important deposits are found in the districts of Ajmer,

Bhilwara, Udaipur (Zawar) and Sirohi. Minor occurrences
are also reported from Pali, Banswara and Sawai Madhopur
districts.
Andhra Guntur (Agnigundala), Cuddapah, Kurnool districts.

Pradesh
Bihar and In Bihar, the deposits are reported from Bhagalpur, Monghyr
Jharkhand districts and Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Singhbhum and Palama
districts of Jharkhand.
Other In Gujarat, the deposits are reported from the Banaskantha

States and Vadodara districts. Mysore, Bellary and Chitaldurga are
the places where the deposits are known from the
Karnataka state. In West Bengal, the ore reserves are found
in the districts of Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, Midnapur and
Purullia. The ore deposits are also reported from the states
of Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra, and
Tamil Nadu, and Jammu and Kashmir (U.T.)
10.6 GOLD
Gold is a precious, non-ferrous metal and known as ‘King’ of all metals. It has
special properties such as un-tarnishing yellow shine, high malleability and
ductility, soft nature. The occurrences with limited concentrations make it a
precious and most valuable metal. The native gold occurs in nature with a
purity of about 99.8%. It has a hardness of 3, specific gravity of 19.32 and
melting point of 1063oC.
Gold is used from the ancient times and is the first metal to be mined in the
history of the mankind. The mining of gold and its usage is mentioned in the
inscriptions of various Holy Scriptures like Puranas, Vedas, Shastras, and
sacred writings of ancient Greek and Roman civilisations of the world.
Owing to its special properties, gold is considered as precious metal and is
used for the making of jewellery and ornaments. Gold is used as medium of
standard for trade in the international market. It is commonly used in the
manufacture of electronics, photographic processes, pigment, gold leaf, space
vehicles, cancer treatment, medicines and for many other purposes.
10.6.1 Ores
The important ore of gold is the ‘Native Gold’. It occurs as nuggets and small
flakes in the alluvial placer deposits. Natural amalgamation of gold occurs with
mercury and silver. It rarely occurs as tellurides. Gold tellurides are Sylvanite
(Au, Ag)Te2, Calaverite (Au, Ag)Te2 and Petzite (Au, Ag)2Te. Gold tellurides
occur in association with the pyrite and sulphides mostly as veins and
58
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replacement deposits. Let us study properties of ‘Native gold’ in details (Table

10.8).
Table: 10.8: Chief ore of gold.
Ore Chemical Physical Properties Diagnostic

Mineral composition Properties
Native Au Colour: rich yellow, paling to Golden yellow,

Gold whitish yellow (Fig.10.8); shining yellow
Streak: shining yellow; streak, lack of
tarnishing
Lustre/luster: metallic;
property.
Form and Habit: crystalline,
dendrites, nuggets, small
flakes, encrustations; Cubic;
Hardness: 2.5-3;
Fracture and Cleavage:
hackly; absent;
Specific gravity: 15-19.3.
Fig. 10.8: Native gold. (Source: www.usgs.gov)

The main sources of gold are the lode and the placer deposits. The lode
deposits primarly occur in association with the intrusive igneous rocks and their
metamorphic equivalents.
The processes involved in the formation of lode type deposits are varied in
nature. They include magmatic differentiation and segregation, contact
metasomatism, replacement and cavity filling deposits of hydrothermal origin.
The gold placers are alluvial or eluvial in nature. The alluvial deposits occur
collectively with sands, gravels and conglomerates. The eluvial placers occur
along the hill slopes as residual deposits.
In India, most of the gold deposits are lode type deposits and a very few are of
placer type. The detailed ocurrences of Indian gold deposits is given in Table
10.9.
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Table 10.9: Important gold deposits of India.
Types of Category Locality and geological details

Deposits
A. Lode 1. Principal These deposits are concentrated where the

Deposit Deposits active mining takes place.
(Active Mines) a) Kolar, Karnataka: Gold is associated
with Champion quartz-lodes and
sulphide- bearing reefs.
b) Hutti, Karnataka: Gold is associated
with quartz-reefs within metabasalts,
represented by greenstones passing
into chlorite-schist.
2. Potential These deposits are mostly concentrated in
Deposits the auriferous tracks where the abandoned
(Abandoned gold mines are present.
Mines) a) Ramgiri, Anantpur district, Andhra
Pradesh: The auriferous belt, 150m-
200m wide and comprising quarts-vein
zone, is spread over schistose rock.
b) Gadag, Karnataka: Gold is associated
with vein-quartz-, occurring in en-
echelon fashion.
c) Wynad, Tamil Nadu: Gold is associated
with quartz-reefs within biotite-gneiss
and interbanded hornblend-granulite,
and at places, within magnetite-
quarzite.
d) Kundrakocha, Bihar: Gold
mineralisation is associated with quartz-
veins within cherty phylite of Iron-ore
formation.
3. Minor Gold depsoits of this category are reported
Occurrences from Dharwarian rocks spread in different
parts of the country. These include
numerous occurrences and small old
prospects. For example, Gooty (Anantpur
District), Bisanatham (Chittoor) and
Gavanikonda (Kurnool) of Andhra Pradesh;
Sithaura (Nalanda), Sonapet (Ranchi) and
Pahardiha, Lowa and Mysara (Singhbhum)
of Bihar; Alech hills (Jamnagar) of Gujarat;
and Kojhikoda and Cannore district of
Kerala.
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B. Placer Gold placers are found in the alluvial and

Deposits gravel beds of Pleistocene and Holocene
age of various river basins in India. Gold
washing has been carried out in the alluvial
and gravel beds of many rivers in parts of
Assam, Bihar and Himachal Pradesh. The
rivers, Subansiri, Lohit, Dihang, Buri Dihing
and Janglu, Poni of Assam-Arunachal;
Sona, Subernarekha and South Koel
(Singhbhum), Sonapet, Karkari, Nakari and
Jumar (Ranchi) of Bihar.

You have read about distribution of gold deposits in BGYCT-133 course.
Karnataka ranks first in the gold production and Andhra Pradesh is the second
largest producing states in the country. The other states where gold is
distributed are Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Kerala. The gravels of Nilambar Valley, Kerala
contain gold (Fig. 10.9). The geographical distribution of gold ores in India is
shown in Table 10.10.
Table 10.10: Distribution of gold in India.
States Occurrences
Karnataka The important gold producing districts are Kolar gold

fields, Raichur (Hutti gold field). The other districts which
host gold deposits are Shimoga, Dharward, Gulberga,
Bellary, Mysore and Hassan.
Andhra The deposits are found in Ramagiri, Anantapur district.

Pradesh The other places where gold occurrences are reported
include Bisanatham and Palachchur in Chittoor district and
Jonnagiri in Kurnool district.
Jharkhand The state hosts both load and placer deposits. The
deposits are found in Singhbhum district and other regions
of the Chota Nagpur plateau.
Chhattisgarh The gold placers are concentrated in the Sonakhan

primary ore and in Ib river placer deposits.
Kerala The gravels of Nilambar valley
Assam It is reported to occur in sands, gravels and alluvial

terraces along the Subansiri river, the Lohit-Brahmaputra
and other rivers in Lakhimpur, Darrang and Sibsagar
61
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districts of Assam.
West Bengal Occurrences of gold flakes are reported in the sands of

various streams of Purulia district, sands of Kansai and
Kumari rivers.
Fig. 10.9: Distribution of primary gold deposits in India.
In the previous sections we have studied about the important ores, mode of
occurrence and geographical distribution of gold, lead and zinc. Before going to
the next section spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
62
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SAQ 2
a) List the lead ores with their chemical composition.
b) Write any three uses of zinc.
c) Write the diagnostic properties of sphalerite.
d) What are the gold tellurides?
10.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarize, what you have learnt in this unit:
 Aluminium has immense importance in industrial point of view, due to its

properties like soft, light weight, nonmagnetic, malleable and ductile,
corrosive resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity. Bauxite is the
main ore of aluminium and commercially viable.
 Geologically, the Indian bauxites deposits are classified as blanket,
interstratified, pocket, and detrital or transported type of deposits. The
bauxite ores are mainly distributed in the states of Odisha, Gujarat,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh.
 Copper has a vital usage next to iron. It is a soft metal that readily alloys
with other metals. The metal occurs in the native form and in other mineral
forms such as oxides, sulphides and carbonates.
 Copper deposits had fairly originated from hydrothermal solutions and mostly
derived from the replacement process. The deposits are mainly hosted in the
rocks of the Dharwar and Cuddapah. The main copper producing states are
Jharkhand, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
 Lead and zinc are the base metals that occur together in nature. Lead has
high specific gravity and is a poor conductor of electricity. Zinc is brittle
metallic element, and it is specially used in galvanization.
 Economically viable deposits of lead and zinc are found mainly in the
western and southern parts of India hosted in the Precambrian rocks. Some
of the deposits found in the Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Odisha are of
sedimentary in origin.
 Geographically, the states which produce lead and zinc are Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal.
 Gold is the first metal mined by the early man and it is precious in nature
due to its unique properties, restricted occurrences with limited
concentrations.
 Geologically, gold is found as lode and placer deposits in India. The lode
deposits are hosted in the Dharwarian rocks and the placer deposits are
found in the alluvial and gravel beds of Pleistocene and recent deposits of
different rivers. Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are the first and second
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largest producing states in the country with minor occurrences reported from
other parts of the country.
10.7 ACTIVITY
Prepare a map showing distribution of aluminium, copper, lead and zinc
deposits in India.

1. Discuss mode of occurrences of bauxite.
2. Write about the distribution of copper deposits.
3. Elaborate the Precambrian occurrences of lead and zinc deposits in the
western part of India.
4. List the properties of ‘Native gold’.
5. Describe the load deposits of gold and list any three gold mines of India.

1. Discuss the physical properties of mineral depending upon interaction of
light.
2. Discuss the physical properties of mineral depending upon state of
aggregation.
3. Discuss porphyry copper deposit showing alteration zoning, associated
skarns, replacement and vein deposits.
4. What is contact aureole (baking effect)?
5. What are contact metasomatic deposits?
6. List the mineral deposits with chief constituent minerals formed by contact
metasomatism.
10.9 REFERENCES
 Berry, L.G, Mason, B. and Dietrich, R.V. (2004) Mineralogy. CBS Publishers,
New Delhi. 561p.
 Tiwari, S.K. (2010) Ore Geology, Economic Minerals and Mineral
Economics. Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi. 748p.
 Wadia Meher, D.N. (2014) Minerals of India. National Book Trust, India.
259p.
 http://www.academia.edu/9452627/LEAD-ZINC_DEPOSITS_OF_INDIA
 www.usgs.gov
(All the websites accessed between 1st June 2020 and 31st Nov. 2020).
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 Wadia Meher, D.N. (2014) Minerals of India. National Book Trust, India.
259p.
10.11 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Aluminium has many uses. It is used in the manufacture of electrical
appliances, vehicles, containers, packing foils, collapsible tubes, paints and
pigments, etc.
b) The important aluminium producing states in India are Odisha, Gujarat,
Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh.
c) Chalcopyrite, Cuprite, Malachite,
SAQ 2
a) Galena (PbS), Cerussite (PbCO3), Anglesite (PbSO4),
b) The uses of zinc are: (i) production of dry cell batteries, (ii) manufacture of
electronics, and (iii) making of cosmetics.
c) The diagnostic properties of sphalerite mineral are perfect cleavage,
hardness and resinous lustre.
d) The gold tellurides are Sylvanite (Au, Ag)Te2, Calaverite (Au, Ag)Te2 and
Petzite (Au, Ag)2Te.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to subsection 10.2.2.
Hint: Discuss mode of occurrences of Indian bauxites i) blanket ii)
interstratified iii) pocket and iv) transported deposits.
2. Please refer to the subsection 10.3.3.
Hint: Geographical distribution of copper deposits.
3. Please refer to the subsections 10.4.3 and 10.5.3.
4. Please refer to the subsection 10.6.1.
Hint: List the properties of native gold and thereafter 10.6 to elucidate its
uses.
5. Please refer to section 10.6.2.
Hint: Describe the load deposits of gold and subsequently section 10.6.3.
List three gold mines in India.
65
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66
UNIT 11
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Structure______________________________________________________
11.1 Introduction 11.7 Ceramic and Glass Industry
Expected Learning Outcomes Clay
11.2 Refractory Industry Quartz and Silica Sand
Fireclay 11.8 Cosmetic Industry
Graphite Talc
Dolomite 11.9 Building Stones
Magnesite Granite
11.3 Fertilizer Industry Marble
Potassium Quartzite and Sandstone
Phosphates 11.10 Precious Stones
11.4 Abrasive Industry Diamond
Corundum Beryl
Garnet 11.11 Activity
11.5 Drilling Industry 11.12 Summary
Baryte 11.13 Terminal Questions
11.6 Cement Industry 11.14 References
Limestone 11.15 Further/Suggested Readings
Gypsum 11.17 Answers
11.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already read about the non-metallic minerals in Unit 14 of BGYCT-133. Non-metallic
minerals and rocks are also called industrial minerals. Non-metallic minerals form the back bone of
several industries such as chemical, ceramic, fertilizer, refractory, etc. They are used in various
industries to produce a variety of products and also used in the production of fertilizers and
manufacturing of refractories. Industrial minerals are mined for their commercial value and are used
in the industries based on their physical and/or chemical properties.
…………………………………………………….………………………………………….….............….…......
Now, in this unit we will discuss in detail about some of the non-metallic
minerals used in refractory, fertilizer, abrasive, drilling, cement, ceramic and
glass and cosmetic industries. We will also discuss minerals used as building
and precious stones.
Expected Learning Outcomes__________________

After reading this unit you should be able to:
❖ explain about minerals used in the refractory, fertilizer, abrasive, drilling,
cement, glass, cosmetic and ceramic manufacturing industries;
❖ describe building and construction materials like granite, marble, quartzite
and sandstone etc.; and
❖ discuss about industrial minerals used as building stones and precious
stones
11.2 REFRACTORY INDUSTRY

You have already read about the minerals used in refractory industry in Unit 14
of BGYCT-133 course. Refractory mineral is a heat-resistant material. These
minerals can withstand high temperature and are resistant to decomposition by
heat, pressure, or chemical attack. Refractory minerals can sustain high
temperature more than 1500°C and can be moulded into fire bricks. The most
important materials used in the manufacturing of refractories are
the oxides of aluminium, silicon, magnesium and calcium. Based on the
chemical behaviour of the refractory materials, they are classified into the
following three types:
i) Acidic refractories: They are generally resistant to acidic materials but easily
attacked by basic materials. They include clays, alumina, silica in the form of
flint, sandstone, quartzite, etc.
ii) Neutral refractories: They are chemically stable to both acids and bases,
e.g., chromite, graphite, etc.
iii) Basic refractories: They are stable to alkaline materials but can react to acids,
e.g., bauxite, zircon, dolomite, magnesite, etc.
Let us discuss few minerals considered as refractory mineral.
11.2.1 Fireclay
Fireclays are also known as sedimentary clays. They are composed of the clay
minerals kaolinite and illite, together with the fine-grained quartz/colloidal silica
in varying proportions. The chemical constituents of fireclay are Al2O3, SiO2.
High-grade fireclays can withstand temperatures of 17750C and contains 35 –
45% of Al2O3, 2-2.5% alkalies, 2.1-2.5% of Fe2O3 and 0.75% of CaS. The
refractoriness and plasticity are the two main properties needed in fireclay for
its suitability in the manufacture of refractory bricks. The fireclay contains high
alumina and low iron oxide, lime, magnesia & alkalies and is preferred by
refractory manufacturers.
Depending upon the capacity to withstand high temperature before melting,
fireclays are categorised into:
68
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
i) low duty type: withstand high temperature between 1,5150C and 1,6150C;
ii) intermediate duty type: withstand high temperature up to 1,6500C;
iii) high duty type: withstand high temperature up to 1,7000C; and
iv) super duty type: withstand high temperature beyond 1,7750C.
• Mode of Occurrence: Fireclays are sedimentary mudstones that occur as
the ‘seatearths’ and underlie almost all the coal seams. They are considered
to have originated from suspended matter carried by low-gradient streams
into coal swamps. The fireclays are distinguished from the associated
sediments by the presence of rootlets and the absence of bedding plane.
Fig. 11.1: Distribution of fireclay deposits of India.
• Distribution in India: India possesses substantial reserves of fireclay, but

reserves of high-grade (non-plastic) fireclay containing more than 37%
alumina are limited. The best deposits occur in association with the coal
seams in the Lower Gondwana coalfields of Andhra Pradesh; Jharia and
Raniganj coal fields of Jharkhand and West Bengal; Korba coalfields of
69
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Chhattisgarh and Neyveli lignite fields in Tamil Nadu. Fireclays which are not
associated with coal measures are reported from Gujarat, Jabalpur region of
Madhya Pradesh and Belpahar-Sundergarh areas of Odisha (Fig. 11.1).
Fireclays are also found in Jammu and Kashmir, Assam and Meghalaya and
Uttar Pradesh.
• Uses: Fireclay is chiefly consumed in the refractory industry for the
manufacture of ceramics, especially of fire bricks which are utilised for
furnace, boilers, etc. Several kinds of fireclay bricks are manufactured by
admixing with calcined bauxite or kyanite.
11.2.2 Graphite
Graphite is allotropic form of pure carbon, chemically similar to diamond and
wood charcoal. The inherent qualities of graphite are its high lubricity,
refractoriness or ability to withstand high temperature, good electrical and heat
conductivity, and resistance to reaction with ordinary chemical reagents. It is
dark grey-black with a characteristics greasy feel and metallic lustre.
Fig. 11.2: Distribution of graphite deposits of India.

70
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The commercial dark grey graphite is graded mainly on the basis of carbon
content. Graphite occurs in two forms:
• Natural graphite which includes (a) crystalline and (b) amorphous varieties;
and
• Artificial/manufactured graphite.
They occur as bed, veins, and pocket deposits. Crystalline small flakes of
graphite occur as isolated, flat, plate-like particles with hexagonal or angular
edges. Graphite lumps occur in fissure veins or fractures and appears as
massive platy intergrowths of fibrous or crystalline aggregates.
• Mode of Occurrence: Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks formed by
regional metamorphism or contact metamorphism of organic-rich
sedimentary rocks. It occurs in gneisses, schist, marble, quartzite and
altered coal beds. It also occurs in igneous rocks, veins and pegmatites.
Hydrothermal solution accounts for vein deposits and in pegmatite deposits.
• Distribution in India: The graphite deposits of India occur in Khondalite
group of rocks of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Odisha. They are also found
in Jharkhand, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Arunachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir (Fig. 11.2).
• Uses: Graphite (Fig.11.3) is used in the manufacture of refractory carbon
bricks. Flaky graphite is used in the manufacture of crucibles for melting
metals. It is also used in the manufacture of lead pencil, batteries, lubricants
and brushes, in atomic reactors, electrodes, batteries, and solar panels.
Fig. 11.3: Hand specimen of graphite.
11.2.3 Dolomite
Dolomite is an anhydrous carbonate mineral and also called as dolostone. It is
generally yellowish-white or brownish-white in colour. It is a double carbonate of
calcium (CaCO3) and magnesium (MgCO3). Usually the rock containing 40-45%
MgCO3 is called dolomite. When magnesium of dolomite is replaced by iron or
manganese and with lesser proportion of magnesium carbonate, it is known as
dolomitic limestone. The process of dolomitisation is related to joints and
fissures through which the solutions penetrated and thick beds of limestone
may be changed to dolomite.
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• Mode of Occurrence: Dolomite (Fig. 11.4) occurs as sedimentary bedded
strata associated with the limestone. Dolomite forms in hydrothermal veins
or as a pore-filling mineral in carbonate rocks. They occur as an accessory
component in igneous pegmatites or altered mafic igneous rocks. It also
occurs in marble, formed by the alteration of sedimentary dolostone, and
dolomite associated with altered ultramafic igneous rocks (e.g., serpentinite).
Fig.11.4: Hand specimen of grey crystalline dolomite.
Fig. 11.5: Distribution of dolomite deposits of India.

72
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• Distribution in India: Dolomite is widespread in all parts of the country. The
deposits are found in Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts of West Bengal;
Anantpur District of Andhra Pradesh; Palamu District of Jharkhand;
Mahendragarh District of Haryana. They are found in Balaghat, Bastar
(Chhattisgarh), Bilaspur (Chhattisgarh), Chindwara and Mandla districts of
Madhya Pradesh; Chandrapur, Nagpur and Yavatmal districts of
Maharashtra; Koraput, Keonjhar, Sambalpur and Sundargarh districts of
Odisha; Ajmer, Bhilwara, Alwar districts of Rajasthan (Fig.11.5).
• Uses: Dolomite finds its uses as a flux, refractory material of iron and steel
industry. It is used in the production of metallic magnesium and calcium. It is
used in polishing of nickel plate. It is also utilised in glass, ferro alloys, alloy
steel, chemicals, pharmaceutical and soft abrasives. Dolomite is also used in
production of carbon dioxide.
11.2.4 Magnesite
Magnesite (MgCO3) is a carbonate of magnesium. Commercially, the term
'magnesite' refers not only to the mineral, but also to many products obtained
by calcining the natural carbonate. Caustic magnesite obtained by calcining
crude magnesite at comparatively low temperatures (700 oC to 1000oC).
Refractory magnesite is obtained by calcining magnesite at high temperatures
from 1500 oC - 1800oC. Pure magnesite is calcined at still higher temperatures
from 1600 oC - 1800oC to expel carbon dioxide completely which is known as
'periclase' (MgO).
• Mode of Occurrence: Magnesite (Fig. 11.6) is usually found as secondary
deposits, formed due to alteration of ultramafic rocks and other magnesium-
rich rock types. It is also formed by replacement of carbonate and dolomitic
limestone. It occurs as bedded sedimentary deposits and as irregular veins.
The magnesite deposits are mostly associated with ultramafic bodies such
as peridotite, dunite and pyroxenite. The magnesite deposits occur in three
forms:
1) cryptocrystalline,
2) fibrous, and
3) nodular types.
It can also be formed by metasomatism in skarn deposits.
Fig. 11.6: Hand specimen of magnesite.

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• Distribution in India: Magnesite deposits in India, generally occur as
crystalline, amorphous and massive. In India magnesite deposits are found
in Almora (Uttaranchal) and Pithoragarh (Uttaranchal) districts of
Uttarakhand, Brahmani and Pangi in Himachal Pradesh, Kargil, Ladakh and
Udhampur districts of Jammu and Kashmir, Kodagu and Mysore districts of
Karnataka (Fig. 11.7). Magnesite deposits are reported from Arcot,
Dharmapuri, Nilgiris, Erode, Coimbatore, Tirunelveli, Tiruchirapalli and
Salem districts of Tamil Nadu. Massive mining activity is going on the Chalk
Hills in Salem.
• Uses: Magnesite is used as abrasive for soft polishing of metal and mineral
surfaces. Fused magnesia is used as insulating material in electrical industry
and refractory brick linings in steel furnaces. The caustic magnesia is used
as animal feed stuff and in the manufacture of oxychloride cement.
Magnesite is also used for manufacture of magnesium compounds like
magnesium sulphate (epsom salt) and other salts.
Fig. 11.7: Distribution of magnesite deposits of India.

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11.3 FERTILIZER INDUSTRY

You have already read about the minerals used in fertilizer industry in Unit 14 of
BGYCT-133 course. Fertilizer means manure used in the agriculture. Fertilizers
are of two types:
i) Composed fertilizer made from plant material and excreta of animals; and
ii) Chemical fertiliser made-up of compounds containing nitrogen, phosphorus

and potassium.
The raw materials needed in the fertilizer industries are gypsum, apatite,
phosphates, potassium salts, ammonium sulphate, lime and sulphur. The
phosphatic rocks occur in varied forms and may be fragmental, pelletal,
nodular, oolitic, pisolitic, lenticular, platy, granular and massive. They may occur
as marine sedimentary beds, phosphatic marls and limestone beds, reworked
pebbles, residual concentration of phosphatic materials and apatite deposits.
Let us discuss some of the commonly used fertilizer minerals.
11.3.1 Potassium
The word potassium is derived from potash. Potash includes several mined and
industrial salts that contain potassium in water-soluble form. Potassium
sulphate (K2SO4) is one of the chief compounds used as plant foods. Potash
ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl) and
other salts and clays. Potassium minerals of economic importance (other than
silicates) occur as chlorides, nitrates, sulphates or carbonates of potassium or
as organic potash. The mineral glauconite is a hydrous silicate of iron and
potassium and forms a potential source of potash.
• Mode of Occurrence: The various modes of occurrences of potash deposits

are: marine evaporites, potash-rich brines, saline lakes and playa deposits.
Potash minerals resulted from evaporation of sea water or saline lake water
whereas potash-brines resulted from the evaporation or surface waters in
arid regions.
• Distribution in India: Glauconite is found in Banda district of Uttar Pradesh

and Satna district of Madhya Pradesh. The potash and potash-rich brines
are known to occur in Leh district of Jammu and Kashmir; Bikaner and
Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan; and Rann of Kutch, Gujarat (Fig. 11.8). They
also occur in coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, West Bengal
etc.
• Uses: Potassium salts are used for agricultural purposes. The other uses
are the manufacture of glass, explosives, chemicals and metallurgical
processes. Potash also finds its application in the manufacture of safety
matches, soap, tanning, dyeing, photography and ceramics.
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Fig. 11.8: Distribution of potassium deposits of India.
11.3.2 Phosphates
Phosphorite or rock phosphate (Ca5FO12P3) (Fig. 11.9) are industrial minerals.
Phosphates constitute an essential plant food and are utilised in agriculture.
Treatment with sulphuric acid produces essential substances, dicalcium and
tricalcium phosphate which are more valuable for plant life. The phosphatic
content is indicated commercially in terms of percentage of tricalcium
phosphate or bone phosphate of lime.
• Mode of Occurrence: The rocks may be fragmental, pelletal, nodular,
oolitic, pisolitic, lenticular, platy, granular and massive form. They may occur
as marine sedimentary beds, phosphatic marls and limestone beds,
reworked pebbles, residual concentration of phosphatic materials and apatite
deposits. Potash minerals resulted from evaporation of sea water or saline
lake water whereas potash-brines resulted from the evaporation or surface
waters in arid regions.
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Fig. 11.9: Phosphorite/rock phosphate deposit at Jhamarkotra in Rajasthan.

(Photo credit: Ganga Singh Bhartiya)
Fig. 11.10: Distribution of phosphate deposits of India.
• Distribution in India: Phosphatic limestone are mostly of low grade and

found in Palamu district of Jharkhand; Pithoragarh district of Uttaranchal.
They are also distributed in Shimla, Solan, Sirmaur, Mahasu districts of
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Himachal Pradesh; Pir Panjal Range of Jammu and Kashmir; East Khasi,
Garo and Jayantia Hills of Meghalaya. It is also found in Jhabua, Chattarpur,
and Sagar districts of Madhya Pradesh; Ib coalfield of Odisha; Udaipur,
Banswara, Jaisalmer districts of Rajasthan; Dehradun (Uttaranchal), Tehri
(Uttaranchal) districts of Uttarakhand and Lalitpur districts of Uttar Pradesh
(Fig. 11.10).
• Uses: Phosphates are largely consumed in the fertilizer industry. They are
utilized in the manufacture of elemental phosphorus, chemicals, glass,
sugar, iron, steel industries. They are also used in safety matches, fireworks,
medicines, soft drinks, backing powder, photography, cement and ceramics
etc.
11.4 ABRASIVE INDUSTRY

You have already read about the minerals used in abrasive industry in Unit 14
of BGYCT-133 course. Abrasive minerals are used in cutting, crushing,
abrading, grinding, cleaning, scouring and polishing etc. The capability of the
material to cut, crush, grind, scour and polish is dependent upon its hardness
which is the essential property of an abrasive. Natural abrasives include all the
minerals and rocks which are used for abrasive purposes without chemical and
physical changes. They are classified into:
i) High grade natural abrasives: include diamond, corundum, garnet, emery,
etc.
ii) Siliceous abrasives: includes various forms of silica and siliceous rocks like
quartz, sand, chert, sandstone, quartzite etc.
iii) Soft abrasive: includes calcite, chalk, china clay, magnesia, manganese
dioxide, tin oxide, black and green rouge are used as metal polish.
Artificial abrasives are made either by heating or chemical action from metals
or mineral raw materials. Following are the special type of abrasives.
i) Bonded abrasive: Abrasive grains are closely sized, bonded and pressed
and moulded into various bonded abrasives, e.g. silicon carbide, synthetic
corundum.
ii) Coated abrasive: They are made-up of sized abrasive grains cemented to
cloth or paper backing, e.g. sand paper, silicon paper etc.
Let us discuss about corundum and garnet in the following section.
11.4.1 Corundum
Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide Al2O3 and is hardest mineral
next to diamond. It is a barrel-shape, hexagonal and when in distinct crystal, it
shows hexagonal prism or pyramid. Pure corundum is defined to have
hardness of 9.0 on the Mohs scale of hardness and it can scratch almost every
other mineral. The transparent crystalline varieties of corundum are regarded
as valuable gemstones. According to colour, corundum is named as Ruby (red
coloured transparent), Sapphire (blue), Amethyst (purple sapphire), White
sapphire (colourless), Topaz (yellow sapphire), Emerald (green) and Emery
(dark grey or black).
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• Mode of Occurrence: Corundum occurs as a mineral in metamorphic
terranes such as mica schist, gneiss and some marbles formed as a result of
contact metamorphism. It also occurs in veins and magmatic segregations
associated with the peridotite and silica deficient rocks such as nepheline
syenite. It also occurs as masses adjacent to ultramafic intrusives. It is found
as residual deposits derived from pegmatites and as a detrital mineral in
stream and beach sands.
• Distribution in India: In India, corundum occurs in Salem and Coimbatore
districts of Tamil Nadu; Kolar, Kanara, Mysore, Kudur and Tumkur districts of
Karnataka. It is found associated with sillimanite or kyanite as observed in
Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya and Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
Other varieties occur in: Sidhi district of Madhya Pradesh; Bhandara district
of Maharastra; Udhampur district of Jammu and Kashmir; Puruliya district of
West Bengal and Cuttack district of Odisha (Fig. 11.11).
Fig. 11.11: Distribution of corundum deposits of India.
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• Uses: Corundum is used as gemstone, abrasive, corundum paper and
cloth, in scientific instruments. It is utilised as loose grains in optical glass
grinding, lens polishing etc.
11.4.2 Garnet
Garnet is a collective term used for a group of minerals having similar physical
properties. Hardness and toughness are the necessary properties for its use as
abrasive. Garnet is dense, hard with sharp angular fracture, containing small
amounts of free silica and exhibits high resistance to physical and chemical
attacks (Fig. 11.12). The common iron-rich garnet variety, almandite (Fe-Al
garnet) is generally utilised as an abrasive. Other varieties are pyrope,
spessartite, andradite, grossular, uvarovite. Garnet is found in many colours like
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, pink, brown, black and colourless, with
reddish shades most common.
Fig. 11.12: Hand specimen of distorted garnet.
• Mode of Occurrence: Rock-forming garnets occurs in two forms: in-situ and

placer deposits. In-situ deposits occur in metamorphic rocks such as
gneisses and schists. It also occurs as primary mineral in igneous rocks
especially granites and granitic pegmatites. Placer deposits occurs
sporadically in clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks, as heavy detrital
residues in sediments.
• Distribution in India: In India, gem variety of garnet occurs in Ajmer, Jaipur,
Kishangarh (Ajmer district), Tonk and Udaipur districts of Rajasthan; Krishna
and Nellore districts of Andhra Pradesh; Warangal district of Telangana and
Coimbatore, Nilgiri, Tirunelveli, Kanyakumari, Madurai, Tiruchirappalli,
Thoothukudi and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu. Garnet occurs in beach
sands along with ilmenite, rutile, sillimanite, etc. in the states of Kerala,
Odisha and Tamil Nadu (Fig. 11.13).
• Uses: Garnet is used as abrasives and semi-precious stone. The Fe-Al
garnet is mainly used as an abrasive, for polishing surfaces, in carpentry, in
the manufacture of garnet coated cloth, paper etc. It is used as loose grains
and finely ground powder for glass and optical lens grinding and surfacing
ornamental stones and in paper cloth for rubbing hardwood, automobile
bodies, copper and brass, removing paints and varnishes, finishing hard
rubber, leather, felt and silk hats.
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Fig. 11.13: Distribution of garnet deposits of India.
11.5 DRILLING INDUSTRY

Drilling is a process, whereby a hole is bored using a drill bit to create a well for
oil and natural gas production. Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used to
identify geologic reservoirs and extract oil or natural gas. The range of
chemicals and additives used in the drilling fluids is extensive. There are
various minerals which are used for oil drilling and exploration processes for
different purposes. Most widely used minerals are bentonite, baryte, calcium
carbonate, calcium chloride caustic soda, sodium chloride, soda ash, mica,
abrasive garnet etc. Here we will discuss about baryte.
11.5.1 Baryte
Baryte/ Barite (BaSO4) is one of the heaviest minerals (Fig. 11.14). It has a
specific gravity of 4.5. Baryte is the principal ore of barium and is used to make
a wide variety of barium compounds. Due to its high specific gravity, it is
suitable for a wide range of industrial, medical, and manufacturing uses. Baryte
is used as a weighting agent for drilling fluids in oil and gas exploration to
suppress high formation pressures and prevent blowouts.
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Fig. 11.14: Hand specimen of baryte.
• Mode of Occurrence: Baryte occurs as veins in the gneisses, fissure veins

along joints, fault and bedding planes and is found in association with
limestones, sandstones, shales, dolomite etc. In sediments and sedimentary
rocks baryte often occurs as concretions and void-filling crystals. It also
occurs in hot spring deposits, in lead-zinc veins in limestones ore and as
residual nodules, resulting from the decay of limestone. It also occurs as
volcanogenic syn-sedimentary bedded deposits (Mangampet deposit).
Fig. 11.15: Distribution of baryte deposits of India.

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• Distribution in India: India is one of the leading producers and exporters of
barytes in the world. Mangampet deposit in Cuddapah district of Andhra
Pradesh is the largest barytes deposit (Fig. 11.15). It also occurs in Udaipur
and Alwar districts of Rajasthan. Other baryte producing states are Himachal
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu.
• Uses: Apart from drilling industry, it is used in automobile, paints, pigments,
rubber, textiles, leather, paper and plastic industries. In ceramic industry
baryte is converted into barium carbonate and is used for the manufacture of
optical glass and enamels. It is also used in the manufacture of LED glass
for television and computer screens.
Apart from baryte, some clays are used in drilling fluids to form
an impermeable mudcake to separate a formation from the invasion of drilling
fluid. In drilling industry clays and other chemicals are incorporated into the
water to create a homogenous blend. The clay is usually a combination of
native clays that are suspended in the fluid while drilling, or specific types of
clay that are treated and sold as additives for the water-based mud system. The
most common of these is bentonite, which is frequently referred to in the oilfield
as “gel”. You will read about clay in the sub section 11.7.1 of this unit.
In addition to baryte and clay diamond is commonly used in mineral exploration
and mining industries. Diamond drill bits are used for oil well drilling and
obtaining core samples. You will read about diamond in the sub section 11.10.1
of this unit.
In the previous sections, we studied about the minerals used in refractory,
fertilizer, abrasive and drilling industries. Before going to the next section spend
5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 1
a) List the minerals used in refractory industry.
b) Write the uses of potash.
c) Define corundum.
d) List the uses of baryte.
11.6 CEMENT INDUSTRY

Building and other similar constructions largely require cement and cementing
materials. Cement is the material which binds particles together. It has the
property of setting hard. Cements used in the construction are usually inorganic,
and consists of powdered calcium silicates and aluminates. It is manufactured
by heating a mixture of limestone and clay and grinding the mixture. Cement is
used to cause a grip between different particles or masses of solid matter to a
compact aggregate. Depending on the ability of the cement to set in the
presence of water, they are classified as non-hydraulic or hydraulic.
i) Non-hydraulic cement: It does not consolidate in wet conditions. It sets as
it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air and resistant to attack by
chemicals after setting.
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ii) Hydraulic cements: It consolidates and become adhesive due to
a chemical reaction between the dry ingredients and water.
The raw materials used in cement industry are limestone, clay, shale, marl,
oyster shells, gypsum, laterite, bauxite, asbestos and magnesite. Let us discuss
here about limestone and gypsum.
11.6.1 Limestone
Limestone is a carbonate sedimentary rock. It is a carbonate of lime or
calcium. It is composed of the skeletal remains of marine organisms such
as coral, foraminifera, and molluscs. Major minerals composed of limestones
are calcite and aragonite; other carbonate grains are ooids, peloids, intraclasts,
and extraclasts. When magnesium replaces the calcium in part, it forms
dolomitic limestone. Nomenclature of limestone may vary based upon its
colour, structure, locality and formation. Regardless of its origin and mineral
composition many different types of limestone exist. Some of the common
varieties are:
o Chalk is a soft limestone with a very fine texture that is usually white or light
grey in colour.
o Coquina is a poorly-cemented limestone that is composed mainly of broken
shell debris.
o Fossiliferous limestone contains abundant fossils like shell and skeletons
of the organisms (Fig. 11.16b).
o Lithographic limestone is a dense limestone with a very fine and uniform
grain size that occurs in thin beds.
o Oolitic limestones (or oolites) are examples of a non-fossiliferous
limestone.
o Travertine is a limestone that forms by evaporative precipitation in a cave,
such as stalactites, stalagmites.
o Tufa is a limestone formed by precipitation of calcium-laden waters at a hot
spring, lake shore, etc.
Fig. 11.16: a) Dolomitic limestone of Sonbhadra District in Uttar Pradesh; b)

Fossiliferous limestone from Jaisalmer. [Photo credit for (a): Prof. Meenal
Mishra]
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• Mode of Occurrence: Limestone occurs in the form of extensive beds,
bands and pockets. They occur as non-crystalline, crystalline and
amorphous forms and may be argillaceous, ferruginous and fossiliferous.
Limestone can form either by inorganic chemical means or as result of
biochemical processes like stromatolitic limestone. Limestones having
inorganic origin form when chemical changes or high-water temperatures
increase the concentration of calcium carbonate to a point that it
precipitates.
Fig. 11.17: Distribution of limestone deposits of India.
• Distribution in India: India has abundant deposits of limestone and is

widely distributed in many places such as Cuddapah, Guntur, Kurnool and
West Godavari districts in Andhra Pradesh; Adilabad, Hyderabad and,
Karimnagar districts of Telangana; Belgaum, Chitradurga, Shimoga, Tumkur
districts in Karnataka; Karbi-Anglong, Lakhimpur, Nagaon districts in Assam;
Hazaribag, Palamu, Dhanbad districts in Jharkhand; Amreli, Banaskantha,
Bhavnagar, Bharuch districts in Gujarat; Ambala, Bhiwani and
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Mahendragarh districts in Haryana; Bilaspur, Chamba, Kangra, Shimla
districts in Himachal Pradesh; Sonbhadra district in Uttar Pradesh; Ajmer,
Alwar, Banswara, Chittorgarh, Jaipur, Jaisalmer districts in Rajasthan;
Almora, Pithoragarh, Dehradun districts in Uttarakhand; Anantnag,
Baramula, Doda, Kathua districts in Jammu & Kashmir; Raigarh, Janjgir-
Champa, Kabirdham, Bilaspur, Raipur, Durg, Rajnandgaon districts of
Chhattisgarh; Damoh, Hoshangabad, Mandsaur, Narsinghpur, Rewa, Satna,
Panna, Katni, Sagar, Dhar, Khargone, Jhabua, Balaghat, Sidhi and Morena
districts of Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 11.17).
• Uses: It is extensively used in cement industries, iron and steel, chemical,
sugar and paper industries. It is also used in ferro-alloys, glass manufacture,
lime manufacture, foundry, refractories, textile, electrode, ceramic, sponge
iron. Hard, siliceous, dolomitic and argillaceous limestone is used as
dimension stone. Flaggy limestone of varying colours and fine texture is
suitable for paving and flooring.
11.6.2 Gypsum
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is a hydrated soft mineral composed of calcium
sulphate. It is found in layered sedimentary deposits often associated with the
minerals halite, anhydrite, sulphur, and calcite. It is colourless to white, often
tinged other hues due to presence of impurities. Pure gypsum is white and soft.
Gypsum when finely ground and made plastic with water on cooling can be
spread out, cast or moulded to any desired surface or form. On drying, it sets
into a hard rock-like form. Its commercial importance depends upon its ability
after calcination.
Gypsum occurs in nature as:
i) Gypsum rock: crystal as well as masses;
ii) Alabaster: very fine-grained white or lightly tinted;
iii) Gypsite: porous mixed of sand and clay;
iv) Satin spar: silky, fibrous form;
v) Selenite: transparent crystal form.
In arid regions, gypsum can also occur in a flower-like opaque form, embedded
within the sand grains, called desert rose. Indian gypsum is mostly of gypsite
type (Fig. 11.18). Alabaster variety of gypsum is valued for ornamental work.
Fig. 11.18: Hand specimen of gypsum.

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• Mode of Occurrence: Gypsum occurs as evaporite deposit as thick beds,
strata, interstratified with limestones and shales and is usually found as a
layer underlying beds of rock salt. It is also found as tabular bodies or
scattered crystals in clays and shales. It was deposited in the freshwater and
ocean water, as well as in hot springs, from volcanic vapours, and sulphate
solutions in veins. In veins, hydrothermal anhydrite is commonly hydrated to
gypsum by groundwater in near-surface exposures.
• Distribution in India: Gypsum deposits occur in several parts of India.
Selenite variety occurs in Nellore, Guntur and Prakasham districts of Andhra
Pradesh. It occurs in Jamnagar, Surendranagar, Bhavnagar and Kuchchh
districts of Gujarat; Sirmaur and Chamba areas of Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir respectively. High-grade gypsum is mostly mined from
Rajasthan in Nagaur, Bikaner, Barmer, Churu, Jaisalmer and Pali. Gypsum
also occurs in Gulbarga district of Karnataka; Shahdol District of Madhya
Pradesh and Tiruchirapalli district of Tamil Nadu, Tehri Garhwal, Dehradun
and Nainital districts of Uttaranchal (Fig. 11.19).
Fig. 11.19: Distribution of gypsum deposits of India.
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• Uses: Satin spar and alabaster varieties of gypsum are used for a variety of
ornamental purposes. Gypsum is utilised in industries, like cement, fertilizer
(ammonium sulphate) and plaster of Paris. Gypsum is used in the
manufacturing of Portland cement, pottery, pharmaceuticals and textiles.
11.7 CERAMIC AND GLASS INDUSTRY

Ceramics and glass are used in many industrial applications such as
metallurgical, chemical, mechanical, etc. The raw material needed for ceramic
and glass industries is china clay and other types of clays, feldspars, quartz,
glass sand, bauxite, bentonite, fuller’s earth, zircon, fluorspar, sillimanite, borax,
magnesite, diaspore, baryte, talc, diatomite, dolomite, zircon and kaolinized
granite etc. Properties that make these materials desirable are hardness,
toughness, wear and corrosion resistance, resistance to chemical attack, high-
temperature; compressive strength, thermal and electrical insulation. Let us
discuss about clay, quartz and silica-sand.
11.7.1 Clay
Clay is the vital raw material to be used in ceramic industry. The fine-grained
constituent minerals which are less than 0.002 mm or so can be identified only
with the help of electron microscope. Clay is an aggregate of minerals and
colloidal substances which become plastic when wet due to particle size and
geometry as well as water content and can be moulded/harden into desired
shapes when subjected to high temperatures. Various uses of clay depend
upon its physical properties like plasticity, shrinkage, fusibility. There are many
types of clays, such as: china clay or kaolin, ball clays, fireclays, bentonite,
lithomarge, fuller’s earth, pottery clay, white-ware clay, cement clays, brick and
tile clays and sewage pipe clays, etc. Clay minerals include the following
groups:
➢ Kaolin group: kaolinite, dickite, halloysite, and nacrite;
➢ Smectite group: montmorillonite, nontronite and beidellite and trioctahedral
smectites for example saponite;
➢ Illite group: clay-micas; and
➢ Chlorite group: wide variety of similar minerals with considerable chemical
variation.
• Mode of Occurrence: Clay minerals (Fig.11.20) occur as very minute lath
like, flaky, hollow-tube-shaped or fibre like crystals. They are of sedimentary
origin, formed by transportation of sediments, derived from the chemical
decomposition of aluminous rocks. They are formed as a result of the
chemical weathering of rocks. In addition to the weathering process, some clay
minerals are formed through hydrothermal activity. There are two types of clay
deposits: primary and secondary.
o Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of
formation.
o Secondary clays have been transported from their original location by water
and erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Clay deposits are
usually related to very low energy depositional environments.
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Fig. 11.20: Iron impurities in clay. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
Fig. 11.21: Distribution of clay deposits of India.
• Distribution in India: Gujarat is the leading producer of Kaolin. Clay

deposits are found in Kannur, Kollam, Kasargod districts of Kerala; Bankura
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district of West Bengal; Kachchh district of Gujarat; Triruvananthapuram
district of Kerala. Kaolin is also found in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha, Rajasthan and Telangana (Fig. 11.21).
• Uses: Clay is utilized in ceramics, cement, refractory, paper and textile,
rubber, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, insecticide, electrical and building
industry. China clay is used in the manufacture of Chinaware, porcelain
products etc. Fireclay is used in the refractory industries for the manufacture
of fire bricks, crucibles etc.
11.7.2 Quartz and Silica-Sand

Quartz (Fig. 11.22) and silica-sand are chief glass manufacturing materials.
Sandstone, essentially composed of small grains of quartz which is most widely
occurring sedimentary deposit while quartzite is the metamorphosed derivative
of sandstone. Sandstone contains more than 80% of silica-sand. Silica sand is
the trade name of weathered sandstone or quartzite enriched in silica. There
are many varieties of quartz: Rock crystal (colourless and transparent),
Amethyst (violet to dark or dull lavender shade), Citrine (pale yellow to brown),
Milky quartz (crystalline, white colour), Rose quartz (pale pink to rose red),
Smoky quartz (gray, translucent), Prasiolite (green), Flint (grey, black),
Jasper (red, brown, yellow). Quartz and silica-sand are mixed with sodium
carbonate or sodium sulphate for manufacture of glass. Calcium (lime) is added
to give strength to glass. Addition of borax provides transparency to glass.
Manganese dioxide, nickel oxide, cobalt and chromium offer different colours to
glass.
Fig. 11.22: Hand specimen of quartz. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
• Mode of Occurrence: Quartz occurs as massive, crystalline in form in veins

and pegmatites and has wide distribution. Hydrothermal processes may be
responsible for the origin of vein-quartz deposits. Quartz is found in granites,
quartzites, sandstone and fluvial, lacustrine and as beach sand. Silica-sand
occurs in abundance in the river beds and beach deposits and sand dunes.
• Distribution in India: Crystalline quartz occurs in Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Transparent crystals of quartz occur in
pegmatites of Ajmer, Bhilwara, Jhunjhunu, and Tonk districts of Rajasthan;
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Bankura district of West Bengal. Occurrence of amethyst quartz have been
reported in and around Shansabad, Palment, Nagunpally in Hyderabad and
from river bed of Godavari as placer in Warangal (Telangana) district. Quartz
also occurs in Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu. Silica-sand has been reported from Nellore and Prakasam
districts of Andhra Pradesh; Junagadh, Rajkot, Kuchch districts of Gujarat.
They also occur in Bihar, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (Fig. 11.23).
Fig. 11.23: Distribution of quartz deposits of India.
• Uses: Rock crystal, the purest and transparent form of quartz is used in
jewellery and for making optical glass. Quartz and silica sand are used in
glass, foundry, ferro-silicon alloy and cement industries. They are also used
in many other industries like ceramic, fertilizer, alloy steel, abrasive,
chemical, coal washery, paint, rubber and textile etc.
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11.8 COSMETIC INDUSTRY

Minerals alone or in mixtures have been used in cosmetics and medicines.
Many medicinal or cosmetic products are based on minerals such as smectite,
kaolinite, sulphur, mica, halite, sylvite, titanium, kieserite, talc and many others
like clay and soapstone. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is widely used in cosmetic
industry that has a property to brighten and to give whiteness and opacity. Mica
is resistant to ultraviolet light, heat, weather and chemical attack and is widely
used in cosmetic industry. Kaolin is resistant to natural oils and is used
extensively as a way to soak up moisture of skin. Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is used in
cream-based products, as well being used to heal dry and chapped
skin. Mineral hematite is responsible for red, orange, yellow, brown, and black
tones in cosmetics. Most of the coloured products are also extracted from
naturally occurring minerals which contain chrome, copper and manganese.
11.8.1 Talc
Talc [Mg3Si4O10(OH)2] is a clay mineral, composed of hydrated magnesium
silicate. Talc (Fig. 11.24) is the softest mineral with hardness value of 1 on
Mohs scale of mineral hardness. It is used as a thickening agent and lubricant.
It is mostly used in cosmetics, ceramics and paint. It occurs as foliated to
fibrous masses.
Fig. 11.24: Hand specimen of talc.
Talc has the properties like ability to absorb moisture, oils, odor. Talc when
crushed into powder is known as talcum powder and is used in many baby
powders, foot powders, first aid powders, and a variety of cosmetics.
Soapstone and steatite, high-talc rocks easily carved is also widely known.
• Mode of Occurrence: Talc is a common metamorphic and hydrothermal
mineral found in metamorphic belts that contain ultramafic rocks and within
blueschist metamorphic terranes.
• Distribution in India: Considerable quantities of reserves of talc are
established in Rajasthan and Uttarakhand. Talc is also found in Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Telangana
(Fig. 11.25).
• Uses: Talc is used in cosmetics, polisher of soft metals, in food such as rice
grains, leather, plastic, ceramic, paint, paper and chewing gum and in
pharmaceuticals.
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Fig. 11.25: Distribution of talc deposits of India.
Apart from talc, mineral-rich clay has been used in cosmetic industry as a
natural agent to beautify the skin. White cosmetic clay, bentonite
clay and fuller's earth clay are commonly used in facial masks. Other than clay,
mica is one of the most important ingredients in cosmetic industry, which is
widely used to add shimmer and sparkle. Mica is popular in cosmetic industry
specially in skincare products designed to create a glow effect and brightening
of skin.
11.9 BUILDING STONES

Materials used as building materials should be available in bulk. They are
sometimes used directly and sometimes after dressing and considerable
preparation. India is gifted with huge resources of various types of building and
monumental stones. Granite and marble are important due to their aesthetic
values and unique features. Apart from these, other rocks are quartzite,
sandstone, limestone, slate etc. Sandstones and limestones are used in
monuments, retaining walls and boundary walls. Building materials are hard,
resistant and tough that can withstand weathering and abrasion. The workability
of building material depends on their hardness and durability. Building material
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like cement, clay, sand and lime play important role. In this subsection we will
briefly discuss few building stones.
11.9.1 Granite
Granite is hard, strong and compact in nature (Fig. 11.26). The texture of
granite readily takes up good polish which gives it beautiful appearance. It is
medium-grained to coarse-grained igneous rock. Colour varies from pink, grey,
red and black with different textures. Granite consists of crystalline form and
mostly show holocrystalline texture. The minerals which are found in these
rocks are alkali feldspar (K-rich feldspar)> Na-rich plagioclase, perthite and
antiperthite and quartz. Apart from ‘true granite’, commercially available granite
includes many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks namely dolerite, basalt,
porphyry syenite, diorite, gabbro, charnockite, khondalite, schist and gneiss.
Highly priced black granite is actually gabbro or dolerite. The quality and use of
granite depend upon its granularity, colour, presence of structural elements,
inclusions, brittleness, chemical and mineralogical compositions,
physicochemical properties and shape and size of blocks.
• Mode of Occurrence: Granitic rocks occur in the form of very large igneous
bodies such as batholiths, stocks. They often occur as cores of mountains
ranges. Aplites are often associated with the margins of granitic intrusions.
Fig. 11.26: a) Granite dimensional stones; b) abandoned granite quarry. (Source:

www.gsi.gov.in)
• Distribution in India: Granite occurs in almost all parts of the India such as
Anantpur, Chitoor, Guntur districts in Andhra Pradesh; Hyderabad and
Warangal districts in Telangana; Bangalore, Bellary, Tumkur districts in
Karnataka; Ajmer, Alwar, Barmer, Bhilwara Districts in Rajasthan;
Coimbatore, Dharampuri, Salem districts in Tamil Nadu; Deogarh, Banka
(Bihar), Godda, Gumla, Hazaribag, Palamu, Ranchi and Singhbhum districts
in Jharkhand (Fig.11.27). Granites and granite-gneisses are found
throughout the Shillong plateau. Production of dressed granite blocks and
slabs from Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu are
highly priced.
• Uses: Granite is mainly used as construction material. Due to wide range in
appearance and colour, it is employed in decorative purpose like exterior,
interior wall panelling flooring wall, platforms for kitchen, sinks, table tops,
monuments, name plates and flower vases.
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Fig. 11.27: Distribution of granite deposits of India.
11.9.2 Marble
Marble is a non-foliated, high temperature and pressure, thermally and
regionally metamorphosed rock. Marble is considered as one of the oldest
building materials used in monuments, decoration and building construction.
Marble is a crystalline rock exhibiting sugary (saccharoidal) texture (Fig.
11.28a) and consists mainly of calcite or more rarely dolomite. Marble is white
in colour, although due to impurities colour may vary. Marble is easy to cut and
shape because of its low hardness. The qualities like durability and resistance
have made the marble an ideal material for monuments and buildings from
historical times. The white Makrana marble referred to locally as ‘Sang-
eMarmar’ (meaning pure white/ivory stone), contains ~ 100% white calcite
grains.
• Mode of Occurrence: Marble usually forms in convergent tectonic setting or
due to the heating of limestone or dolomite by the ascending magma. The
original carbonate mineral grains are recrystallised due to metamorphism
and the resulted in the formation of marble rock which is typically composed
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of an interlocking variety of carbonate crystals. Marble formed from
limestone, interbedded with shale appears banded and exhibits visible
foliation.
Fig.11.28: a) Marble exhibiting crystalline sugary (saccharoidal) texture; and b)

Pink marble.
Fig. 11.29: Distribution of marble deposits of India.

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• Distribution in India: The largest reserve of good quality marble in India is
available in Rajasthan. In Rajasthan marble is mined from Makrana in
Nagaur district, Amet-Lava, Sardargarh, Banermal, Rajnagar and Kalwa in
Udaipur district, Bar in Pali district, Tripura-Sundari in Banswara district,
Jhiri-Rajgarh in Alwar district, Kishengarh in Ajmer district, Umar in Bundi
district and Moonda in Sikar districts of Rajasthan. Marble is also mined from
Banaskantha, Kachchh districts of Gujarat; Mahendragarh districts of
Haryana, Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh and Khammam district of
Telangana; Dehradun (Uttaranchal), Tehri (Uttaranchal) and Nainital districts
of Uttarakhand; Garhwal district of Jharkhand and Mirzapur district of Uttar
Pradesh.
• Uses: Marble is used for flooring exterior and interiors of walls, monuments,
architecture and other construction applications. Famous monuments like
Taj Mahal of Agra, Lotus temple of Delhi, Victoria Memorial of Kolkata are
constructed of marble. White marble has been used in various structures
within Red Fort (both in Delhi and in Agra), Humayun’s Tomb and Akbar’s
Tomb.
Watch the following video to know more about the formation of

marble, skarn deposits and other industrial minerals. To watch the
video, you can also scan the QR Code of the video given in page
no. 4 to 10.
• Contact metasomatic and contact metamorphic deposits
11.9.3 Quartzite and Sandstone

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock, formed by metamorphism of sandstone. Pure
quartzite is usually white to grey (Fig. 11.30a). It occurs in various shades of
brown, pink and red is due to varying amounts of iron oxide (Fe2O3). The
presence of impurities gives yellow, green, blue or orange colour to quartzite.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2
mm) mineral particles or rock fragments (Fig. 11.30b). It contains the framework
grains dominantly of quartz or feldspar because they are the most resistant
minerals to weathering processes at the Earth's surface. The framework grains
are bounded by matrix and cement. You have read about matrix and cement in
Block 3 of BGYCT-135 course.
Fig. 11.30: Hand specimens of: a) quartzite; and b) sandstone.
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Fig. 11.31: Distribution of sandstone deposits of India.
• Distribution in India: Sandstones are extensively distributed in Kota, Bundi,

Udaipur, Tonk, Ajmer districts of Rajasthan; Rohtas, Munger and Gaya
districts of Bihar; Mirzapur and Sonbhadra districts of Uttar Pradesh; Son
valley in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh; Rewa, Hoshangabad and Jabalpur
districts of Madhya Pradesh; Guntur and Bhima districts in Andhra Pradesh.
The famous Sanchi Stupa and stupas of Sarnath and Barhut are built of
Vindhyan sandstones. The famous Fatehpur Sikri is entirely of pink
Vindhyan sandstones. The Delhi Secretariat and Rashtrapati Bhawan of
New Delhi are made of red sandstones.
• Uses: Quartzite and sandstones are chiefly used in building and road
metals.
Watch the following video that contains more information about

sedimentary ore deposits. To watch the video, you can also scan
the QR Code of the video given in page no. 4 to 10.
• Introduction to ore deposits
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11.10 PRECIOUS STONES

The term ‘gem’ is attributed to cut stones, whereas the uncut stones are termed
as ‘gemstones’. A gemstone is also called a gem, precious stone, or semi-
precious stone. They have properties such as hardness to resist mechanical
and chemical actions, shine, opalescence, iridescence and dichroism. Based
upon these properties, gemstones are grouped into: i) precious stones such
as diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby, opal and pearl, ii) semi-precious stones
which include aquamarine, moon stone and amethyst (Fig. 11.32). Gemstones
mainly occur in basic and andesitic lava flows, pegmatites and as detrital grains
in alluvial sediments, in veins, cavities and volcanic pipes. Potash rich or soda
lithium rich pegmatites are the host rocks of many beautiful gemstones, such
as, topaz, sapphire, ruby and zircon. Semi-precious stones are used as
jewellery, ornamental stones for wall decoration, floors of building, and vases
etc.
Fig. 11.32: Precious and semi-precious stones.
Let us discuss about diamond and beryl.

11.10.1 Diamond
Amongst the known gemstones, diamond is unique and is the hardest and
durable known substance. In Sanskrit diamond is known as ‘Vajra’ (meaning-
hardest material) and ‘Hirak Mani’ where ‘mani’ meaning dazzling crystal. The
earliest diamond mines known were in the Deccan Province of South India.
Since, third century BC, Golkonda Kingdom is known for diamond mining.
Diamond is the solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal.
Chemically it is identical with graphite, but they differ in internal structures and
physical properties. Major part of the diamond recovered from the rocks is of
the industrial variety, known as bort and carbonado etc. Bort is a grey to black
coloured, imperfect crystallised diamond. Carbonado is hard, tough, black
coloured, opaque imperfect crystal. Only a minor part of the diamond produced
is of the gemstone variety.
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• Mode of Occurrence: Diamonds occur in stratified conglomerate, as alluvial
placer deposits, in volcanic necks and pipes. Primary sources of diamonds
are kimberlite pipes and vents, and lamproite, or peridotite dykes. Secondary
source is in conglomerate beds, alluvial gravels and sand. Diamond deposits
may be classified into three types based upon their geological settings such
as kimberlite, conglomerate and alluvial gravels.
Fig. 11.33: Majhgawan diamond mine, Madhya Pradesh. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
Fig. 11.34: Distribution of diamond deposits of India.

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• Distribution in India: The main diamond bearing areas in India are Panna
belt in Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 11.33); Wajrakarur kimberlite pipe in Anantapur
district; Munimadugu-Banganapalie conglomerate in Kurnool district; Krishna
River basin in Andhra Pradesh and kimberlite in Raipur; Bastar and Raigarh
districts in Chhattisgarh (Fig. 11.34).
• Uses: Apart from ornamental use, diamonds are used in diamond tooth
saws, as abrasives, for cutting materials, for polishing and cutting gem
variety of diamond. Carbonado is used in diamond drill bits and tools. It is
used in boring metals and abrasive wheels etc. Bort is used in the
manufacture of aeroplane and motor car engines for boring and abrasion of
surfaces.
Watch the following video to know more about magmatic processes

responsible for formation of diamond. To watch the video, you can
also scan the QR Code of the video given in page no. 4 to 10.
• Late magmatic deposits
11.10.2 Beryl
Beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18) is a hexagonal prismatic crystal and is considered as
strategic mineral. It is the only ore of metal beryllium and is lighter than
aluminium. Beryl is often of large size and is usually opaque (Fig. 11.35). Pure
beryl is colourless, but it is often tinted by impurities. The transparent green
coloured beryl is known as Emerald and is the most valuable of gemstones
(Fig.11.32). Blue to sea-green and yellow to golden yellow coloured beryl is
known as Aquamarine. Rose coloured beryl is Margonite.
• Mode of Occurrence: The beryl occurs in various colours in intrusive rocks
like granite, mica pegmatites, and rhyolites as veins, but it can also occur in
metamorphic rocks, such as mica schists.
Fig. 11.35: Hand specimen of beryl.
• Distribution in India: India is one of the important producers of beryl. Gem

varieties of beryl are found in Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Jammu and Kashmir.
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• Uses: Beryl is used as a gem stone. It is also used for the production of
beryllium metal, alloys, chemicals, in ceramics, refractories and X-ray tubes
etc.
Apart from diamond and beryl, different varieties of corundum and garnet are
used as gemstone. We have already discussed about corundum and garnet in
details in subsection 11.4.1 and 11.4.2 respectively.
Watch the following videos for more information about minerals

used in different industries. To watch these videos, you can also
scan the QR Codes of these videos given in page no. 4 to 10.
• Geology around us-Part I
• Geology around us-Part II
In the previous sections we have studied about the minerals used in cement,
ceramic and glass, cosmetic industries and building and precious stones. Now
spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.
SAQ 2
a) List the minerals used in cement industry.
b) Discuss the uses of gypsum.
c) Write the uses of clay.
11.11 ACTIVITY
• Prepare a list of minerals used in refractory, abrasive, drilling, cement and
fertilizer industries.
11.12 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have learnt in this unit.
• Refractory mineral is a heat-resistant material and include minerals like
fireclay, graphite, dolomite, magnesite, asbestos, chromite, bauxite,
sillimanite, quartzite, diaspore and zircon etc.
• The raw materials needed for fertilizer industries are gypsum, apatite,
phosphates, potassium salts, ammonium sulphate, lime and sulphur.
• Minerals and rocks used in abrasives are diamond, corundum, garnet,
emery, diatomite, quartz, flint, dolomite, calcite, bauxite, topaz, talc etc.
• The raw material needed for ceramic and glass industries are china clay and
other types of clays, feldspars, quartz, glass sand, bauxite, bentonite, fuller’s
earth, zircon, borax, magnesite, diaspore, baryte, talc, diatomite, dolomite,
kaolinized granite etc.
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• Most widely used minerals in drilling industry are bentonite, baryte, calcium
carbonate, calcium chloride caustic soda, sodium chloride, soda ash, etc.
• Many medicinal or cosmetic products are based on minerals such as
smectite, kaolinite, sulphur, mica, halite, sylvite, titanium, kieserite, talc and
many others like clay, soapstone.
• Granite, marble, quartzite, sandstone, limestone, slate are used as building
stones etc.
• Diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby, opal and pearl precious stones and semi-
precious stones includes aquamarine, moon stone and amethyst.

1. What is fireclay? Discuss its Indian occurrences.
2. Discuss the minerals used in fertilizer industry.
3. Discuss the uses of garnet and corundum.
4. What is clay? Discuss its uses.
5. Elaborate on minerals used in cosmetic industry.
1. List the rocks/minerals used for building and construction.
2. Name the rocks/minerals used in the drilling industry.
3. Name the rocks responsible for the formation of magmatic deposits.
4. Mention about the processes responsible for the formation of sandstone.
5. What are the uses of fireclay and silica?
6. Discuss the formation of marbles.
11.14 REFERENCES
• Deb, S., (1980) Industrial minerals and rocks of India. Allied Publishers Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, 603p.
• Harben, P.W. & Bates, R.L. (1990): Industrial Minerals: Geology and World
Deposits. Metal Bulletin Plc, London, 312 p.
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2016) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 53rd Edition,
Gypsum (Advance Release) Government of India, Ministry of Mines, Indian
Bureau of Mines, Nagpur, 14 p.
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2016) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 55th Edition,
Manganese Ore (Advance Release) Government of India, Ministry of Mines,
Indian Bureau of Mines, Nagpur, 25 p.
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2015) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 54th Edition,
Garnet (Advance Release) Government of India, Ministry of Mines, Indian
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2013) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 52nd Edition,
Fireclay (Final Release) Government of India, Ministry of Mines, Indian
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• Roy, S., (1981) Manganese deposits. Academic Press, London. 458p.

• Alexander, P.O., (2009) A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals Rocks and Ores.
New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, 676p.
• Prasad U., (2011) Economic Geology: Economic Mineral Deposits. 2nd
Edition, CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
11.16 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Fireclay, graphite, dolomite, magnesite, asbestos, chromite, bauxite,
sillimanite, kyanite group of minerals, quartzite and quartz-schist, diaspore
and zircon etc.
b) Potassium salts are used for agricultural purposes, manufacture of glass,
explosives, chemicals and metallurgical processes, manufacture of safety
matches, soap, tanning, dyeing, photography ceramics.
c) Corundum is the hardest mineral next to diamond. It is a barrel-shaped
hexagonal and when in distinct crystal it shows hexagonal prism or pyramid.
d) Baryte makes it suitable for industrial, medical, and manufacturing, ceramic
industry, automobile, paints, pigments, rubber, textiles, leather, paper and
plastic industries
SAQ 2
a) Limestone, clay, shale, marl, oyster shells, gypsum, laterite, bauxite,
asbestos and magnesite.
b) Gypsum is utilized in the manufacturing of ammonium sulphate fertilizer,
pottery, pharmaceuticals, textiles, asbestos products, paints etc.
c) Clay is utilized in ceramics, cement, refractory, paper and textile, rubber,
cosmetic, pharmaceutical, insecticide, electrical and building industry.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to section 11.2.1.
2. Please refer to section 11.3.
4. Please refer to subsection to 11.7.1.
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UNIT 12
MINERAL FUELS
Structure______________________________________________
12.1 Introduction 12.4 Atomic Minerals
Expected Learning Outcomes Uranium
12.2 Coal Thorium
Varieties and Ranks of Coal 12.5 Rare Metals and Metalloids

Constitution of Coal Rare-Earth Elements
Origin of Coal 12.6 Activity

Coal Bed Methane (CBM) 12.7 Summary
Distribution 12.8 Unit End Questions
Lignite Deposits 12.9 References
12.3 Petroleum 12.10 Further/Suggested Readings
Origin of Petroleum 12.11 Answers
Migration and Accumulation
Mode of Occurrence
Distribution
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have studied about physical and chemical properties of ferrous and non-
ferrous ores and industrial minerals used in refractory, fertilizer, abrasive, glass and ceramic and
cement industries. Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels which have been widely used as source of
energy since the time of industrial revolution. We have discussed about coal and petroleum in Unit 15
of BGYCT-133. In this unit, we will discuss about origin, occurrence and distribution of coal, lignite
and petroleum in India. We will also discuss about atomic minerals, rare metals and rare Earths.
.....................................................................................................................................................................
Expected Learning Outcomes__________________
After reading this unit you should be able to:
❖ define the origin, varieties, and ranks of coal;
❖ discuss origin, formation and mode of occurrence of petroleum;
❖ identify Indian occurrences of coal, lignite and petroleum; and
❖ discuss atomic minerals, rare metals and rare-earth elements.
12.2 COAL
Coal is one of the principal fossil fuels and is a primary source of energy as well
as power. Coal is an extremely complex heterogeneous material that is difficult
to characterise. Coal is, in fact, a rock derived from a variety of plant materials
which have undergone a variation of physical and chemical transformations.
Instead of minerals, it contains macerals. Coal may be defined as plant debris
that has experienced significant changes in the physical properties and
chemical composition due to various biochemical and geological processes.
Chemically, coal is composed of various proportions of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen with small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. Carbon is the main
component of coal and it varies in peat <40%, lignite 40-55%, bituminous 40-
80% and anthracite 80-95%. Besides these, coal may contain varying
proportions of mineral matter.
12.2.1 Varieties and Ranks of Coal
The process of the transformation of the plant material into coal may be
complete or may be arrested at any one of the stages, thus giving rise to coals
of varying maturity. This is termed as rank of the coal. Though, the process of
formation of coal is sedimentary, but increasing pressure and temperature
plants/vegetation lead to certain degree of metamorphism which control the
rank and grade of the coal.
The transformation of vegetable matter into coal is brought about in two stages:
(i) Peat-forming (or biochemical) stage: In this process, humic substances
i.e., the matured organic matter is decomposed from plant remains.
Huminification results from progressive oxidation by the addition of oxygen
from oxygenated water. Thus, lowering the groundwater table, pH values of
the water in the peat, and peat temperature. In the presence of oxygen,
microorganisms and fungi outbreak the organic substance that binds the
cells, fibres, and vessels of wood and converted to humic substances
(Fig.12.1). This process is called humification process.
(ii) Geochemical stage: It is the conversion of peat into higher ranks of the
coal and the process is called coalification process. In this process the
alteration of vegetation to form peat is succeeded by the transformation of
peat through lignite, bituminous to anthracite coal (Fig.12.1). The degree of
transformation or coalification is termed as the rank of coal.
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Fig. 12.1: Coal formation stages: a) Humification; and b) Coalification. (Source:

modified from http://smtc.uwyo.edu/coal/swamp/anatomy.asp)
The percentage of carbon, hydrogen, volatiles and moisture contents determine

the rank of the coal. The rank of the coal defines degree of transformation of
wood into coal through the natural processes of deposition, compaction and
biochemical changes.
Coal is divided into four major classes in order of progressive maturity:
Peat, Lignite, Bituminous, and Anthracite (Fig. 12.2). The rank of coal from Peat
to Anthracite shows a gradual increase of carbon content and decrease in
volatiles, oxygen, hydrogen and water, about which you have already read in
Unit 15 of BGYCT-133 course. Let us recapitulate.
i) Peat: It is the first stage in the formation of all coal types. It is an
accumulation of partly decomposed and distinguished organic material
derived mainly from woody parts of the plants. Its colour varies from light
brown to dark brown. It varies in consistency from a fibrous, matted, porous,
turf-like material to a soft, plastic mud type coal. In India peat is found in
Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and some parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
ii) Lignite: It is the next stage in the formation of coal from peat. It is an
immature coal. It is sometimes called ‘brown coal’ because of its
characteristic brown colour. It is compact and earthy in texture and contains
impressions and remains of woody matter and leaves (Fig. 12.2a). in India
the lignite deposit is reported from Tamil Nadu, Pondichery, Kerala, Gujrat,
Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.
iii) Bituminous: It is also known as common coal and is the important variety
of commercial coals. Bituminous coals are brittle, dense, dark in colour, well
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jointed and often show well-defined bands of bright and dull material (Fig.
12.2b and c). The bituminous coal types are compact in structure and
usually break into prismatic and cubical blocks when struck with hammer. In
India Bituminous coal deposit is found in Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal,
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
iv) Anthracite: It is a coal of the highest rank in which organic source has been
completely transformed into carbonaceous substance. It is very hard and jet
black in colour and compact in structure (Fig. 12.2d). In India anthracite is
found in small quantity in Jammu and Kashmir.
Fig. 12.2: a) Lignite; b) Bituminous; c) Sub-Bituminous; and d) Anthracite coal.

(Photo credit: Dr. Bikash Gogoi, Guahati University)
12.2.2 Constitution of Coal

Coal is not homogenous substance; it is composed of a number of bands.
a) Macroscopic Unit of Coal:
The term lithotype is applied to different macroscopically identifiable layers in
the coal seams. Stopes (1919) proposed four lithological types (lithotypes) for
describing humic coals. The coal bands are classified into four lithotypes,
namely, vitrain, clarain, durain, and fusain (Table 12.1).
• Vitrain: Brightest portion or band of a coal and usually it occurs as a thin
band. It is jet black in colour, glassy, vitreous material with a brilliant lustre.
Vitrain breaks into fine angular fragments and is commonly with a conchoidal
fracture. Vitrain is found in most the humic coals and usually consists of the
microlithotype vitrite.
• Clarain: Less bright than vitrain and it occurs in bands of variable
thicknesses. It has bright colour and silky lustre and does not show
conchoidal fracture. Clarain comprises of alternating thin layers often 1mm. It
can include the microlithotypes vitrite, clarite, durite, fusite and trimacerite.
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• Durain: Dull coal and occurs as thick bands. It is hard, greyish black in
colour and breaks with irregular surface. It shows lustureless rough irregular
fracture. Durain comprises of lenses thicker than 3 –10 mm. Durain is less
common than vitrain and clarain in humic coals. They may occur as
extensive layers within a coal seam. Durain is composed of the
microlithotypes durite and trimacerite.
• Fusain: Black in colour, powdery in nature, occurs as patches and wedges
and shows fibrous structure. It is more friable than clarain. Fusain is
distinguished by its woody fibrous tissues when seen under the microscope.
Fusain occurs in coals as lenses which may be several millimetres thick.
Fusain is a minor lithotype composed of the microlithotype fusite.
Humic coals are composed of a diversified mixture of macroscopic plant debris
with typical banded appearance. Sapropelic coals are composed of a restricted
variety of microscopic plant debris and represents homogeneous appearance.
Principal lithotype compositions of the coals are summarised in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1: Composition of lithotypes of humic and sapropelic coals.
(Source: McCabe, 1984)
Coal types Lithotype Composition

Vitrain Vitrinite macerals with 20% exinite
Humic Coal
macerals.
Clarain Variable.
Durain Mainly inertinite and exinite macerals.
Fusain Mainly fusinite.
Sapropelic
Cannel coal Fine maceral particles usually dominated

Coal
by sporinite.
Boghead coal Dominated by alginate.
b) Microscopic Unit of Coal:

The coal constituents may be distinguished into number of units under the
microscope. The pioneer worker of coal petrology was T. W. Witham who in
1813 first studied coal under the transmitted light microscope and identified
cellular plant tissues and proved that the coal is of vegetal origin. Microscopic
examination of coal revealed constitution of the coal types. Each microscopic
constituent of a coal is termed as ‘maceral’. It can be defined and described by
means of its morphology, structure, reflectivity, micro-hardness and
composition. All macerals are classified into three main groups: vitrinite, exinite
(or liptinite) and inertinite. However, coals may be made up largely of a single
maceral or, more usually, associations of macerals.
• Vitrinite (or huminite): This is the most frequent and important maceral
group, occurr in bituminous coals. Vitrinites are the remains of the humic
plant substances, primarily lignin and cellulose. Vitrinite group of macerals is
further sub-divided into Telinite and Collinite (Fig. 12.3c) macerals.
• Exinite (or Liptinite): Exinite is distinguished from the vitrinite by its higher
hydrogen content. Exinite represents the remains of the hydrogen-rich plant
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materials such as cutins, resins, fats, waxes, and sporopollen. Macerals of
this group are identified by brown red colour and distinct morphology. Both
the properties vary very much. Exinite group of macerals is further sub-
divided into Sporinite (Fig. 12.3a), Cutinite (Fig. 12.3a), Suberinite, Resinite
(Fig. 12.3a), Alginite, Liptodetrinite, Fluorinite, Bituminite, and Exudatinite
macerals.
• Inertinite: In most of the cases, it consists of the same original plant material
as vitrinite, but have been oxidised prior to coalification i.e., supposed to be
inert during carbonisation reaction. Inertinite group of macerals are further
sub divided into Fusinite, Semifusinite (Fig. 12.3b), Macrinite, Micrinite,
Sclerotinite (Fig. 12.3b and d), and Inertodetrinite macerals.
Fig. 12.3: Microphotographs: a) Cutinite, resinite and sporinite in vitrinite; b)

sclerotinite and semifusinite band in vitrinite; c) collinite in vitrinite; and
d) multicelled sclerotinite in vitrinite. (Photo credit: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi)
The original classification of maceral groups is referred to as the Stopes–

Heerlen System (ICCP, 1963, 1971, 1975, 1993). Stopes–Heerlen
classification of maceral groups is given in Table 12.2. The composition of the
microlithotypes is listed in Table 12.3 and their interrelationship is shown in Fig.
12.4.
Table 12.2: Stopes–Heerlen classification of maceral groups, macerals
and submacerals of hard coals. (Source: Ward,1984)
Maceral Groups Macerals Submacerals

Vitrinite Telinite Telocollinite Gelocollinite
Collinite Desmocollinite Corpocollinite
Exinite (liptinite) Sporinite
Cutinite
Suberinite
Resinite
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Alginite
Liptodetrinite
Fluorinite
Bituminite
Exudatinite
Inertinite Fusinite
Semifusinite
Macrinite
Micrinite
Sclerotinite
Inertodetrinite
Table 12.3: Composition of microlithotypes. (Source: McCabe, 1984)
Microlithotype Composition
Vitrite Vitrinite >95%

Liptite Exinite >95%
Inertite Inertinite >95%
Fusite Inertite with no macrinite or micrinite
Clarite Vitrinite and exinite >95%
Durite Exinite and inertinite >95%
Vitrinertite Vitrinite and inertinite >95%
Trimacerite Vitrinite, exinite, inertinite, each >5%
Fig. 12.2: Diagrammatic representation of microlithotypes classification. (Source:

Bustin et al., 1983)
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12.2.4 Origin of Coal
It is generally believed that most of the coals are derived from the plants that
grew in and adjacent to somewhat swampy or marshy lands in warm and humid
regions. Coal originated as a result of long burial of vegetable matter, formed
by decay of plant material under a thick cover of sediments (Fig.12.3). Coal
deposits have been formed both in fresh water and in brackish water. Usually
there are two theories proposed for the mode of accumulation of the plant
materials to transform into coal. They are
1. In-situ (autochthonous) theory: According to this theory, the coal forming
material was deposited and transformed where it grew. As the land was
sinking slowly, the accumulated vegetation matters went under water
gradually. In the course of time, the rate of sinking of land was increased and
coal forest was submerged under water. Again, land along with the coal
forest arose out of water after sufficient time. Subsidence keeping pace with
the sedimentation. This process of deposition continued in layers and
undergone geo-chemical changes to form coal seams. Such coals are
considered to be autochthonous coals, which generally have relatively much
less mineral matter.
2. Drift (allochthonous) theory: Coal seams are believed to be formed out of
plants and trees which grew millions of years ago and fell down due to
tectonic activities. Gradually, ground subsided and the plant material drifted
to considerable distance by flow of water from their original site of growth
and re-deposited as peat. This process of deposition continued for millions of
years in layers and undergone geo-chemical changes such as heat, bacterial
decay, pressure, etc., to form coal seams. Such coals are considered as
allochthonous coals, which are usually very rich in mineral matter. The coal
seams of India are of drift origin.
Fig 12.3: Formation of coal: a) accumulation of organic matter within a swampy

area forms a layer of peat; b) the organic matter is buried under
sediment and is compressed; c) with greater burial, lignite coal
forms; and d) at even greater depths, bituminous and eventually
anthracite coal form. (Source: modified from https://opentextbc.ca/
geology/chapter/20-3-fossil-fuels/)
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Watch the following video to know more about sedimentary ore

deposits.
• Introduction to ore deposits
• Classifications of Ore Deposits
12.2.5 Coal Bed Methane

Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is an unconventional form of natural gas found in the
coal deposits/ seams. The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid
matrix of the coal. The methane is in a near-liquid state, lining inside the pores
within the coal (called the matrix). The open fractures in the coal (called the
cleats) also contain free gas or can be saturated with water. CBM is formed
during the process of coalification. Varied methods of recovery make CBM a
stable source of the energy. It can be recovered from underground coal before,
during, or after mining operations. It can also be extracted from unminable coal
seams. Extraction requires drilling wells into the coal seams and removing
water contained in the seam to reduce hydrostatic pressure and release
absorbed and free gas out of the coal. It is also called 'sweet gas' because of its
absence of hydrogen sulphide.
The Gondwana sediments of the eastern India host the bulk of India’s coal
reserves and all the current CBM producing blocks. The majority of the best
prospective areas for CBM development are in eastern India, situated in
Damodar Koel valley and Son valley. The CBM projects exist in the Raniganj
South, Raniganj East and Raniganj North areas in the Raniganj coalfield, the
Parbatpur block in Jharia coalfield and the East and west of the Bokaro
coalfields. Son valley includes the Sonhat North and Sohagpur East and West
blocks.
12.2.6 Distribution
The important periods of coal formation was during Carboniferous to Permian.
The other period of coal formation was during Cretaceous to Upper Pliocene
times. The coal deposits, although exist in nearly every part of the world, but
commercially exploitable coal reserves are found mainly in China, USA, India,
Australia, Indonesia, Russia, Canada, South Africa, Columbia, Kazakhstan and
Ukraine. Permian coals are less wide-spread, but are abundantly found in India
and to some extent in China, Russia, South Africa, and Australia.
India is one of the five major producers of the coal in the world. On the basis of
the occurrence of coal relative to geological age, coal deposits of India are
classified into two groups: Gondwana Coals and Tertiary Coals. Lower
Gondwana coals of India are of Permian age. Most of the Tertiary coals of India
are of Cretaceous to Upper Pliocene times. The major coalfields of the country
are situated in Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari and Son-Narmada valleys. You
have already read about Gondwana and Tertiary Coals of India in Unit 15 of
BGYCT-135. Let us recapitulate.
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i) Gondwana Coals: About 98 percent of the coal is annually produced in
India that comes from formations of the Lower Gondwana sequence (200
million years old) of the Permian age. The Lower Gondwana coals are
mainly of bituminous type. The major coalfields occur in Jharkhand, West
Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh (Fig. 12.6). These are:
• Jharia, Bokaro and Rajmahal Coalfields of Jharkhand: The Jharia

coalfield is located in the Dhanbad District of the Jharkhand and is regarded
as the most important coalfields of India. The Bokaro Coalfield spreads
about 65 km from east to west and 10 to 16 km from north to south of Bokaro
District of Jharkhand. They contain some of the thickest coal seams. The
Rajmahal coalfield is another important coalfield located in the Jharkhand. It is
situated along the western side of the Rajmahal Hills in the north to Birbhum
District of the West Bengal in the south.
• Raniganj Coalfields of West Bengal: One of the largest coalfields of the

country. Most of the coalfields are in the Raniganj area in the Burdwan
district in West Bengal. They extend to adjoining areas of Jharkhand. These
coalfields are spread over an area of 1550sq.km.
• Singrauli Coalfield of Madhya Pradesh: It is one of the most important
coalfields of the Madhya Pradesh. This coalfield lies partly in Madhya
Pradesh and partly in Chhattisgarh mostly in the basin of the Son River. It is
spread over an area of 2002 sq. km., containing five coal seams.
• Talcher Coalfield of Odisha: This is the most important coalfield of Odisha
and is located in Angul District of Odisha. It is spread over an area of more
than 500 sq.km (Fig. 12.4).
Fig. 12.4: Open cast mining at Lakhanpur coal field of Jharsuguda, Odisha. (Photo
credit: Premasil Patra)
ii) Tertiary Coals: These coals are found in the states of Assam, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan,
Kerala and Jammu and Kashmir (Fig.12.7). Tamil Nadu and the Union
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Territory of Pondicherry also have Tertiary coal reserves. Tertiary coals of
Assam are spread in Makum (Fig. 12.5), Nazira, Mikir Hills, Singrimari and
Dilli-Jeypore. In Meghalaya, coal deposits occupy in the areas of Khasi,
Jaintia, and Garo Hills. The Tertiary coal of Jammu and Kashmir are spread
in Kalakot and surrounding regions in Jammu, and south of the Pir Panjal. In
Himachal Pradesh, coals are found in Chamba district.
Fig. 12.5: a) Tirap Open Cast Mine; and b) Tipong Open Cast Mine, Margherita,
Assam. (Photo credit: Dr. Kakoli Gogoi)
Fig. 12.6: Map showing major Gondwana Coalfields of India. (Prepared by Rohit
Kumar)
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Fig. 12.7: Map showing major Tertiary Coalfields of India. (Prepared by Rohit
Kumar)
12.2.6 Lignite Deposits

Lignite is predominantly occurring in all the European countries. Lignite
deposits also occur in Germany, which is known to be the biggest deposits
followed by China, Russia and United States. In India important deposits
reported so far are in the tertiary sediments in the southern and western parts
of the Peninsular Shield particularly in Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Kerala,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir (Fig. 12.8). Of these, the Neyveli
Lignite field in Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu is the most important and are
the largest deposits of lignite in south-east Asia. Neyveli Lignite field is spread
over an area of > 480 sq.km. Bagrakot and Tindharia in West Bengal and
Bikaner in Rajasthan are other notable deposits.
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Fig.12.8: Map showing major Lignite deposits of India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)
SAQ 1
a) Three groups of macerals are _______, ________ and ________.
b) The process of conversion of peat into higher ranks is called __________.
c) __________ is also called 'sweet gas' because of its absence
of hydrogen sulphide.
d) Coal deposits of India are classified into two groups as___________ and
____________ coal.
12.3 PETROLEUM
Petroleum popularly known as liquid gold, also called rock oil and black gold.
Petroleum occurs widely in the Earth as gas, liquid, semisolid, or solid, or in
more than one of these states at a single place. Hydrocarbon is a term often
used interchangeably with petroleum for any of its forms. Petroleum is a
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complex mixture of hydrocarbons and some other compounds that occur in a
liquid form, entrapped within the rocks of the surface of the earth.
Chemically, petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon (i.e., hydrogen and
carbon) compounds, with minor amount of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur as
impurities. Liquid petroleum is called crude oil (Fig. 12.9). It consists chiefly of
the liquid hydrocarbons, with a variable amount of dissolved gases, bitumen,
and impurities. In some cases, traces of metallic elements like vanadium and
nickel are also found in the crude oil. The crude oil is brownish black in colour
with a greenish tinge. It is immiscible with water and floats on it. But it is soluble
in naphtha, carbon disulphide, ether, and benzene. It has a characteristic odour
typically petrol-like smell or rotten egg odour. Petroleum gas is commonly called
natural gas. Petroleum gas consists of lighter paraffin hydrocarbons, of which
the most abundant is the methane gas (CH4).
Table 12.2: Different states of petroleum.
State of Petroleum Examples

Solid Tar sands, natural asphalt, gibsonite, albertite,
grahamite, oil sands and oil shales.
Liquid petroleum Conventional light crude oil and heavy crude oil
condensate.
Gaseous Conventional natural gas, and unconventional
hydrocarbon (methane hydrate, swamp gas, coal bed methane,
shale gas).
Petroleum is the key fuel of modern times. Crude oil is refined and distilled to
fractionate a number of petroleum compounds such as petrol, diesel, kerosene,
propane, butane etc. Petroleum is used as a primary source of heat and
energy, as a basic raw material in the petro-chemical industries, automobiles
and engine fuels, used to generate electricity used in the manufacture of
fertilizers, insecticides, explosives, perfumes, chemicals, toilet products,
synthetic rubber, resins, textiles, medicines etc.
Fig. 12.9: Crude oil sample.
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Watch the following video to know more about petroleum.

• Basics of Petroleum
12.3.2 Origin of Petroleum

Petroleum and natural gas originate from organic material buried in marine
muds. It involves the reaction of carbides within the Earth to form acetylene and
subsequently produces natural hydrocarbons. Organic material buried in marine
sediments underwent chemical changes due to increased pressure and
temperature generated by overlying sediments to produce natural hydrocarbon.
Such hydrocarbons subsequently moved into porous sedimentary rocks known
as reservoir rocks such as sandstone, coarse sands, porous limestones,
conglomerates, dolomites and other argillaceous rocks. The hydrocarbons
accumulate to form oil pool. The source rock for petroleum are usually the fine-
grained muddy sediments or marl. They are rich in organic matter derived from
alteration of algae, bacteria or plant debris for their oxygen free decomposition
or conversion into petroleum. Slow oxygen free decomposition of plant and
animal remains of microscopic nature is considered to be the original source of
petroleum. Conversion of organic matter into petroleum hydrocarbons is mainly
due to bacteria which flourish in the upper mud of the sea floor.
12.3.3 Migration and Accumulation
Oil pools are accumulation of oil in large quantities in porous sedimentary
rocks. Almost all the petroleum pool exists within an environment of water, i.e.,
free, interstitial, edge and bottom water. Thus, the movement of petroleum is
intimately related to hydrology, fluid pressure, and water movement.
As petroleum is lighter (less dense), it tends to occupy larger space than
available. This results in the development of great pressure (fluid potential)
gradient which produces buoyancy pressure for the petroleum to migrate out of
the site of its origin. The migration of petroleum through the rocks is influenced
by the various physico-chemical parameters and the geological conditions as
well. The forces help in the migration of petroleum are due to compaction of
muds, gravity, capillary action, currents and buoyancy. Temperature and
pressure have a direct effect on the fluid properties, which in turn influence the
movement of fluids through the rocks. The geological conditions such as
lithology of the strata, structural features, aquifer conditions, geological history
of the area considerably control migration of the petroleum. There are two types
of migration:
• Primary migration: expulsion of hydrocarbons from the source rock.
• Secondary migration: long distance movement of the petroleum.
1. Primary migration: In primary migration the movement of oil takes place
from centre of the mature source rock to adjacent porous and permeable
carrier bed or rocks which are known as the store house of oil i.e. the
reservoir rocks. Petroleum exists as a separate phase by the end of primary
migration. In good quality source rocks, oil is transported as a separate
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phase. Depending on the direction of decreasing energy, primary migration
may be stratigraphically upwards or downwards (Fig. 12.10).
2. Secondary migration: In secondary migration, the movement of oil takes
place from the first reservoir to the second reservoir or on the surface of the
earth. The movement of a distinct oil phase is controlled by the interaction of
driving and counteracting resisting-forces. Secondary migration is lateral
within porous and permeable rock units. Petroleum accumulates when it
arrives in a position in which there is insufficient energy to move it further
(Fig. 12.10).
Fig: 12.10: Diagram illustrating migration and accumulation of petroleum: 1)

petroleum generation in source rocks; 2) and 3) primary and
secondary migration of petroleum; 4) accumulation of petroleum in a
reservoir trap; and 5) seepage of petroleum at the Earth’s surface.
(Source: Redrawn from https://www.treccani.it/export/sites/default/
Portale/sito/altre_aree/Tecnologia_e_Scienze_applicate/enciclopedia/ingles
e/inglese_vol_1/pag065-84ing3.pdf)
The most important factors that control the accumulation of oil and formation of
oil reservoirs are lithology and structural features of the rocks. Accumulation
takes place in porous and permeable rocks. The most suitable reservoir rocks
are loose, unconsolidated sands and porous sandstones. Igneous,
metamorphic and impervious sedimentary rocks do not form good reservoir
rocks.
There are two types of oil traps (Fig.12.11) which hold the accumulation of oil
from getting away from the place of accumulation. They are:
• structural traps, and
• stratigraphic traps
The combination of these two types of traps may also occur.
i) Structural Traps: Structural traps are the result of changes in the structure
of the reservoir rock and are formed chiefly as a result of folding and faulting.
Some of the most important structural traps are anticline (Fig.12.11a), dome,
monocline, faults (Fig.12.11b), fissures and salt domes. For example, Abquiq
pool in Saudi Arabia is a typical elongated dome fold. One of the important
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aspects of the structural features such as anticlines is that the structure
generally extends vertically through a considerable thickness of sedimentary
formations, thereby causing traps to form in all of the potential reservoir
rocks affected by them. For this reason, the drilling of structural traps
involves a good thickness of sediments and considered as good prospects
even though specific reservoir rocks or other features of the subsurface
stratigraphy may not be known in advance. For example, the structure of
Vallazza field, in Italy is faulted, over turned and recumbent anticline. In
India, Digboi oilfield is in a faulted elongated Anticline in Tipam group rocks.
ii) Stratigraphic traps: Stratigraphic traps (Fig.12.11c) are the result of a
lateral variation in the lithology of the reservoir rock, or a break in its
continuity. Some of the important stratigraphic traps are, unconformities,
buried coral reefs, over laps etc. Nearly, all the stratigraphic traps possess a
certain amount of structural element. The only exceptions being some of
those in isolated lenses and organic reefs, which generally are traps without
a regional dip or to any arching or deformation. Many famous oil pools are
found in Mississipiian and Pennsylvanian sands. For example, Naharkatia oil
field, India is a series of small accumulations controlled by both stratigraphy
and structure, which is concealed beneath shelf facies.
Fig. 12.11: Schematic illustration of different types of accumulations in

petroleum traps, where (a) and (b) are the structural; and (c)
stratigraphic traps.
Watch the following videos to know more about petroleum. To watch

these videos, you can also scan the QR Codes of these videos given
in page no. 4 to 10.
• Basics of Petroleum
• Hydrocarbon Source Rock
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyvDHOnawfA
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On the basis of nature of occurrences, petroleum deposits are classified into
two main divisions: surface and subsurface.
a) Surface: Petroleum occurs at the surface of the ground in a variety of ways.
Some surface occurrences may be thought of as currently active, such as
those that form seepages (Fig. 12.12), exudations of bitumen, those
associated with the springs, mud volcanoes and mud flows. Petroleum, gas,
or liquid asphalt that exudes in the form of springs and seepages may reach
the surface along fractures, fault planes, joints, unconformities, or through
any of the connected porous openings of the rocks. Surface oil seepages
may be of large dimensions. For example, surface deposits of oil and asphalt
in Southern California, Venezuela, Trinidad and Baku region of cover
hundreds of acres. Some of the common types of seepage are shown
diagrammatically in the (Fig. 12.13).
Fig. 12.12: Photograph of oil seepage, Namdang river, Assam. (Photo credit: Dr.
Kakoli Gogoi)
b) Subsurface or underground petroleum occurrences are broadly divided

according to their size as:
1) minor shows of oil and gas; and
2) oil and gas pools, fields and provinces.
Nearly, every exploratory well finds some indication of gas or oil, even if it may
be so minor that the well is abandoned as a dry hole. These are called minor
showings. Minor subsurface showings often furnish clues that lead to the
discovery of commercial deposits. Minor occurrences indicate the presence of a
source rock. They have also proved to be a valuable exploration guide.
Commercial petroleum deposits are classified as pools, fields and provinces.
These terms are useful to describe and locate various oil and gas
accumulations and occurrences. Pool is a body of oil or gas or both that occur
in a separate reservoir and under a single pressure system. When several
pools either structurally or stratigraphic are related to a single geologic feature,
the group of pools is termed as field. A region in which a number of oil and gas
pools and fields occur in a similar or related geologic environment, it is called a
petroleum province. For example, in many of the Middle East Pools, oil is
obtained from a single reservoir.
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Fig. 12.13: Sections showing the position of typical seepage positions in relation
to the underlying structure. Seepages are marked X, and oil and gas
pools are cross-hatched: Seepages a) at the outcrop of the pool and an
unconformity; b) along the outcrop of a normal fault; c) overlie a
faulted anticline; d) along the outcrop of a thrust fault; e) associated
with the diapir folding; and f) overlie a salt plug and the faults that
occur above this intrusion.
12.3.5 Distribution
Petroleum deposits are unevenly distributed throughout the world. The two
outstanding regions which have been termed the ‘oil axis’ or the ‘oil poles’ are
the Middle East region and the Gulf of Mexico-Caribbean region. The Gulf of
Mexico-Caribbean region includes the Gulf Coast province of the United States
and the provinces in Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, and Trinidad. The Middle-
East region includes the provinces in Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the
Trans-Caucasus-Apsheron of the Russia.
Like many other countries, India is oil deficient country and imports huge
amount of oil to meet its demand. In India, basically 26 sedimentary basins
have been found which are proliferous in nature. Some of the important oil
reserves are found in Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Some of
the well-known oil fields of Western India are Ankleshwar oilfield in Gujarat,
Mumbai High (Arabian Sea offshore) in Maharashtra, the Cambay oilfield, the
Kalol oilfield (Fig. 12.14). There are some good potential oilfields that are also
found in the Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Nagaland, Andhra Pradesh and West
Bengal (Fig. 12.15).
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Fig. 12.14: Distribution of sedimentary basins of India.
Important oilfields of western India are the Cambay oil field, Ankleshwar oilfield,
Kalol oilfield, Nawagam oilfield, the Bombay High oil and gas field. The Cambay
Oilfield is situated in Gujarat and in the Cambay-Kalol area north of the Gulf of
Cambay. The oil deposits found in the rocks of Oligocene age. The occurrence
of oil is recorded in the off-shore region in the Arabian Sea. Ankleshwar Oilfield
is situated about 81 km. SSW of the Baroda town, South of the Narmada River.
The oil producing sands are of the Eocene age. The oilfield is situated on an
elongated doubly plunging anticline and dome. Coastal Oilfield are the oil-
bearing marine sediments of the Cretaceous and Tertiary ages and are the
source of oil found along the East Coast of the Peninsular India which includes
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa Coastal areas.
Watch the following videos to know more about petroleum province

and petroleum industry value chain. To watch these videos, you can
also scan the QR Codes of these videos given in page no. 4 to 10.
• Hydrocarbon Provinces
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfIs06Ehwsk
• Petroleum Industry Value Chain
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rlMIvHhb1OE
124
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….............….….....…
Fig. 12.15: Distribution of major oilfields in India. (Prepared by Rohit Kumar)
Watch the following videos to know more about coal and petroleum
products. To watch these videos, you can also scan the QR Codes of
these videos given in page no. 4 to 10.
• Geology around us-Part I
• Geology around us-Part II
125
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12.4 ATOMIC MINERALS
Atomic minerals are the most important among non-fossil energy resources
which are the minerals of the radioactive elements like Uranium (U) and
Thorium (Th). You have read about uranium and thorium in Unit 13 of BGYCT-
133 course. Another element, although not radioactive by itself, but extensively
used in the atomic mineral industry as regulators of nuclear reactions is
Beryllium. Uranium and thorium are the members of the actinide (Ac) series. In
the Periodic Table, U is the first member of Group VI B and Th is the last
element in Group IV B. Both the Th and U are markedly oxyphilic which means
close affinity to oxygen amongst anions. They are also biophilic due to this they
concentrate in organic compounds like humus, coal, petroleum and bitumen.
Atomic energy is produced by fission (splitting of the radioactive elements like
uranium) and or by fusion (like colliding and fusing of two deuterons to form
helium) of atomic nuclei, with matter being converted into energy in either
process.
They are predominately found in the form of Achaean Schist or Pre-Cambrian

rocks and placer deposits in a very low content in the world. In the magmatic
rocks, they usually concentrate in acidic, plutonic rocks which include
granitoids, pegmatite, rhyolite and acid tuffs. Sandstones, pyrite bearing quartz,
pebble, conglomerates and phosphatic and carbonaceous rocks are good hosts
for uranium minerals. They also occur in metamorphic rocks like phyllite and
schist. Thorium minerals occur generally in acidic igneous rocks and high-grade
metamorphic rocks.
Let us discuss the major atomic minerals.
12.4.1 Uranium
Uranium is not found in native state, but it occurs in combination with other
elements as compounds. Its Atomic Number is 92 and chemically represented
by U. It is a hard, white coloured and one of the heaviest metals of the naturally
occurring elements whose specific gravity is 18.68. Uranium (Fig. 12.16)
minerals are radioactive and consist of three isotopes: 238U, 235U and 234U.
Some other isotopes of uranium are 232U, 233U, 236U, 242U etc. The chief minerals
of uranium with their characteristics are given in Table 12.2.
Fig.12.16: Secondary uranium associated with black shale. (Source: www.gsi.gov.in)
126
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Uranium is used in the production of atomic power, in the manufacture of
nuclear weapons, ballistic ships, submarines, in glass staining, for glazes, in
photography, for luminous paint and in dyeing. Uranite, carnotite, etc. which
contain radium (Ra) are also used in the treatment of cancer and in X-ray
apparatus.
Table: 12.2: Chief minerals of Uranium.
Names Chemical Characters

Compositions
1. Pitchblende 2UO3UO2 51-80% uranium content;
(Uraninite) Colour-black or brown;
Sp.gr. - 6.4-9.7; Hardness:5-
6
2. Torbernite CU(UO)2P2O8 12H2O Hydrated phosphate of
(Copper uranium and copper; Colour-
Uranite) emerald or glass green;
Sp.gr. - 3.5
3. Autunite (Lime Ca (UO2)2 P2O8.8H2O Colour-sulphur yellow; Sp.gr.
Uranite) similar to torbernite,
Hardness:2-2.5
4. Carnotite K2O.2U2O3.V2O5.2H2O Hydrous vanadate of
potassium and uranium;
Powdery form: Colour-yellow
5. Uraconite Hydrated sulphate of Earthy or powdery form:
(Zippeite) uranium Colour-lemon yellow or
orange
• Distribution: Over two-thirds of the world's production of uranium is from

mines of Kazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada,
Australia, Niger, Namibia and Russia. In India uranium ores are known to
occur in several localities. Uranium found in different geological basins are
Singhbhum shear zone, Jharkhand; Cuddapah basin, Andhra Pradesh;
Mahadek basin, Meghalaya; Bhima basin, Karnataka and Delhi Supergroup
rocks of Rajasthan (Fig. 12.17). The Jaduguda, in the state of Jharkhand is
the first uranium deposit located in the country. It also occurs in Aravalli
rocks at Umia and Udaisagar in Udaipur district, the Delhi formation at Kho-
Dariba in Alwar district and at Khetri in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan.
Uranium bearing minerals also occur in the pegmatites in the Mica belt of
Bihar.
Watch the following video to know more about radioactivity

property of minerals. To watch the video, you can also scan the QR
Code of the video given in page no. 4 to 10.
• Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Forces
127
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Fig. 12.17: Distribution of uranium deposits of India.
12.4.2 Thorium
Thorium is weakly radioactive unstable element which is chemically
represented by Th. It has an atomic number 90, atomic weight 232 and sp.gr.
11.3. 232Th is the most stable isotope of thorium and accounts for nearly all-
natural thorium, with the other five natural isotopes (227Th, 228Th, 229Th, 230Th,
231
Th, 232Th, and 234Th), occurring in traces. Thorium is a black or grey coloured
metal related to titanium and is usually associated with the cerium. Like
uranium it is not found in nature in free state. The commercially important
mineral of thorium is monazite. It is a phosphate of cerium metals and it is
industrially important for its thorium content. It contains small percentage of
thorium oxide and thorium silicate.
The chief minerals of thorium with their characteristics are given in Table 12.3.
128
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Table 12.3: Chief minerals of Thorium.
Names Chemical Compositions Characters

1. Monazite (Ce,La,Nd,Th)(PO4,SiO4) Small isolated grains; Colour-
pale yellow to red brown; Sp.gr.
– 4.6-5.4; Hardness-5.5
2. Thorite Th.SiO4 Colour-black or orange yellow;
Sp.gr. –5.3; Hardness-4.5-5
3. Thorianite ThO2.U3O8 Colour-black; Sp.gr. – 9.3;
Hardness-6.5
Thorium is used in the atomic industry in X-ray apparatus, in the manufacture of

gas mantles, weapon, nuclear energy. It is used in high temperature resistant
application heat resistant crucibles, arc lighting element, high intensity lanterns,
arc welding, high end magnification lens, and in medicine.
Fig. 12.18: Distribution of thorium deposits of India.

129
.....................................................................................................................................................................
• Distribution: According to United States Geological Survey (USGS)
estimate, the India, the United States, and the Australia possess large
reserves of thorium. Other important thorium mining countries are Canada,
South Africa, Brazil and Malaysia. In India thorium along with the uranium
occurs in the cerium minerals. Monazite, which is a constituent of the heavy
black sands occur on the sea coasts of India, from the Narmada estuary to
Cape Camorin and to Orissa coast. Allanite has been reported from some
parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Monazite is also widely scattered
on the Kerala Coast, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Odisha (Fig.12.18).
12.5 RARE METALS AND METALLOIDS

Rare Metals and Metalloids (RMs) are often confused with the Rare Earth
Elements (REEs). Rare Metals and Metalloids (RMs) share some common
features, but they are seldom found together with the Rare Earth Elements
(REEs). Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are different and we would discuss them
in the later sections. Metalloids exhibits properties in between, or that are a
mixture of metal and a non-metal. Metalloids have a metallic appearance, but
they are brittle. Chemically, they mostly behave as non-metals and can form
alloys with metals.
The RMs are tantalum, columbium (niobium), cobalt, zirconium, indium, gallium,
and lithium. They are also considered as critical or strategic metals due to their
use and importance in energy and technology applications.
• Tantalum and Columbium: Tantalum (Ta) and Columbium (Niobium-Nb)
invariably occurring together. They are typically found together in the ore
tantalite-columbite (Fe, Mn) (Nb,Ta)2O6). The nearly pure tantalite is named
tantalite and pure niobite is columbite. Tantalum is primarily used for acid
resisting chemical ware, in capacitors for microelectronics due to its high
heat and electrical conductivity. They are used in vacuum tubes, special
steels, tools etc.
• Cobalt: Cobalt (Co) is a metal of strategic importance and also significant for
its magnetic property. It has the ability to impart hardness and corrosive
resistance to alloys at high temperature. It closely resembles to nickel in
appearance. Cobalt occurs as veins associated with chiefly copper and
silver. Cobalt is used in making strong metal alloys, batteries and
electroplating, samarium-cobalt magnets, blue pigments, in ceramic and
fertilizer industries, for making high speed anticorrosive steels etc.
• Zirconium: Zirconium (Zr) metal has great industrial importance. The name
zirconium is taken from the name of the mineral zircon. Zirconium metal is
obtained in crystals or in the powder form. Zirconium is used to create heat
and radiation resistant alloys. It is often used in nuclear power plants. The
metal is also used in flashlight, bulbs, electric tubes, X-ray filters etc.
• Lithium: Lithium (Li) is the lightest minor metal with sp.gr. 0.53 which is the
lightest solid element. It is regarded as strategic metal. Lithium and its
compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant
glass and ceramics, in manufacture of lubricating greases, flux additives for
iron, steel and aluminum production, lithium batteries, air-conditioning and
refrigeration etc.
130
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• Indium and Gallium: Indium (In) and gallium (Ga) are the metalloids and
the two elements are chemically similar to each other. Indium is most notably
used in the semiconductor industry. It is used in the LCD displays for TV,
computer, and smartphone screens. Gallium is mostly used in electronics.
Gallium is used in the form of gallium arsenide to produce
microwave circuits, integrated circuits, LEDs.
12.5.1 Rare-Earth Elements
Rare-Earth Element (REE) is a group of 17 chemical elements in the periodic
table, consisting of lanthanides which comprise 15 chemically similar
elements, as well as scandium and yttrium. Since scandium and yttrium have
chemical properties similar to lanthanides, they are also included under REE.
The 17 Rare-Earth Elements (Table 12.4) are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy),
erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La),
lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samariu
m (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and
yttrium (Y). They are often found in minerals with thorium (Th), and less
commonly with uranium (U).
In India, monazite is the principal source of rare earths and thorium. Monazite
occurs in association with other heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, zircon,
etc. in the beach and inland placer deposits of the country. The resources of
monazite occur in sates of Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Odisha, Tamil
Nadu and West Bengal (Fig.12.19). Large carbonatite deposits enriched in rare-
earth elements are found in Australia, Canada, South Africa, and in USA.
Rare earth metals and alloys that contain them are used in several modern
technologies ranging from computer memory, cell phones and televisions,
rechargeable batteries, catalytic converters, fluorescent lighting, to LED light
bulbs and also in wind turbines
Table 12.4: Rare-Earth elements in Periodic Table.
131
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Fig. 12.19: Distribution of rare metal and rare earth deposit deposits in India.
SAQ 2
a) What are the conditions necessary for the formation of oil pool?
b) __________ and _________ are not found in native state but it occurs in
combination with other elements as compounds.
c) Name two chief minerals of uranium and thorium each.
d) List the Rare-Earth Elements.
12.6 ACTIVITY
• Plot the distribution of important coalfields, lignite deposits and oilfields of
India in map of India.
• Prepare a list of Rare-Earth Elements and plot in the periodic table.
132
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12.7 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have studied in this unit.
• Coal is one of the principal fossil fuels and is a primary source of energy and
power. Chemically, it is composed of various proportions of carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen with small amounts of nitrogen, sulphur and carbon being the
major components.
• The coal bands are classified into four types, namely, vitrain, clarain, durain,
and fusain. The constituents of coal may be distinguished into number of
units under the microscope, which are called macerals and are classified in
three groups: vitrinite, exinite (or liptinite) and inertinite.
• Based on the rank of the coal is divided into four major classes: Peat,
Lignite, Bituminous and Anthracite in order of progressive maturity.
• Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and some other compounds
that occur in a liquid form entrapped within the rocks of the surface of the
Earth.
• The two types of oil traps which hold the oil accumulation from getting away
from the place of accumulation are structural traps and stratigraphic traps.
• Uranium (U) and Thorium (Th) are atomic minerals. They are not found in
native state but it occurs in combination with other elements as compounds.
• The Rare Metals and Metalloids are tantalum, columbium (niobium), cobalt,
zirconium, indium, gallium, and lithium. They are also considered critical or
strategic metals due to their use and importance in energy and technology
applications.
• Rare-Earth Element (REE) is a group of 17 chemical elements in
the periodic table, consisting of lanthanides which comprise 15 chemically
similar elements, as well as scandium and yttrium.

1. Discuss the microscopic unit of coal?
2. Discuss briefly the origin of coal and petroleum.
3. Give a brief account of the geographical distribution of coal and petroleum
deposits of India.
4. What are atomic minerals? Discuss their Indian occurrences.
5. What are Rare-Earth elements?
1. What are hydrocarbon deposits?
2. What is bituminous sedimentary process?
3. What are the byproducts we get from petroleum?
4. Discuss the factors that control deposition and preservation of organic rich
sediments.
5. What are the parameters to characterize a source rock?
133
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12.9 REFERENCES
• Bustin, R.M., Cameron, A.R., Grieve, D.A. and Kalkreuth, W.D., (1983) Coal
Petrology, Its Principles, Methods and Applications, Short Course Notes 3,
Geological Association of Canada, 273 p.
• International Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP), (1963) International
Handbook of Coal Petrography. second ed. CNRS. Academy of Sciences of
the USSR, Paris, Moscow.
Handbook of Coal Petrography. Supplement to 2nd ed. CNRS. Academy of
Sciences of the USSR, Paris, Moscow.
Handbook of Coal Petrography. 2nd Supplement to 2nd ed. CNRS, Paris.
Handbook of Coal Petrography. 3rd Supplement to 2nd ed. University of
Newcastle upon Tyne, England.
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2013) (Part- III: Mineral Reviews) 52nd Edition
Coal & Lignite (Final Release) Government of India Ministry of Mines Indian
Bureau of Mines.
• Indian Minerals Yearbook (2015) Part- III: Mineral Reviews. 54th Edition,
Rare Earths, Government of India, Ministry of Mines, Indian Bureau of
Mines, 9p.
• Levorsen A.I., (1985) Geology of Petroleum, CBS Publishers and
Distributors, Shahdara, Delhi 110032, India, 3-51p.
• McCabe P.J., (1984) Depositional environments of coal and coal-bearing
strata, R.A. Rahmani, R.M. Flores (Eds.), Sedimentology of Coal and Coal-
Bearing Sequences, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1984), 13-42p.
• Prasad U., (1996) Economic Geology, CBS Publishers and Distributors,
Delhi 110032, India, 164-177p.
• Stopes M. C., (1919) On the Four Visible Ingredients in Banded Bituminous
Coal: Studies in the Composition of Coal, No. 1, Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character,
Vol. 90, No. 633, 470-487p.
• Thomas L., (2012) Coal Geology, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 101-112p.
• Ward C.R., (1984) Coal Geology and Coal Technology, Blackwell Scientific
Publications, 345p.
• http://coal.nic.in/content/coal-grades
• https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/20-3-fossil-fuels/
• https://www.treccani.it/export/sites/default/Portale/sito/altre_aree/Tecnologia
_e_Scienze_applicate/enciclopedia/inglese/inglese_vol_1/pag065-84ing3.pdf
• https://www.pmfias.com/coal-formation
• http://www.dghindia.org/index.php/page?pageId=38
134
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• http://smtc.uwyo.edu/coal/swamp/anatomy.asp
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalbed_methane
(Website accessed between 10th to 15th August 2020.)

• Levorsen A.I., (1985) Geology of Petroleum, CBS Publishers and
Distributors, Shahdara, Delhi 110032, India, 724p.
• Sharma N.L and Ram K.S.V., (1966) Introduction to Geology of Coal and
Indian Coalfields.
12.11 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Vitrinite, Exinite and Inertinite.
a) Coalification.
b) Coal Bed Methane (CBM)
c) Gondwana and Tertiary.
SAQ 2
a) Migration and accumulation, Suitable reservoir rocks, Suitable traps and
Retention.
b) Uranium and thorium.
c) Pitchblende (Uraninite) and Torbernite (Copper Uranite) are chief minerals
of uranium. Monazite and Thorite are chief minerals of thorium.
d) Cerium, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, holmium, lanthanum, lu
tetium, neodymium, praseodymium, promethium, samarium, scandium, terbi
um, thulium, ytterbium, and yttrium.
Terminal Questions
2. Please refer to sub sections 12.2.4 and 12.3.2.
3. Please refer to sub section 12.2.6 and 12.3.5
5. Please refer to section 12.5
135
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136
GLOSSARY
Accessory : Minerals which are present in a rock in such small amounts

Minerals that their presence or absence is not of much significance
when considering the mineral composition for classification
purposes.
Allotropy : It is the property of existence of some chemical elements to

exist in two or more different forms in the same
physical state, which may differ in the arrangement of atoms
in crystalline solids or in the occurrence of molecules.
Amorphous : Term applied to material lacking regular arrangement of

atoms.
Anhydrous : A substance is anhydrous if it contains no water.
Basin : It is a depressed area like sea, lake or river where water

flows and brings with it the sediment that gets deposited
there.
Beds : They are the smallest layers in a sedimentary sequence that

can be distinctly seen as separate units. The thickness of a
bed varies from one rock unit to another. Thus, we have
terms like thick-bedded and thin-bedded denoting the nature
of beds in a rock.
Bitumen : Naturally occurring tar-like hydrocarbon mineral of indefinite

composition. It ranges in consistency from a thick liquid to a
brittle solid.
Blanket Deposit : It is a flattened ore deposit whose length and width is more
than its thickness.
Oolitic : Consisting of small spheroids or ellipsoids that resembles to

Structure tiny fish eggs, e.g., oolitic hematite, chamosite.
Carbonates : A salt that is formed by the reaction of carbon dioxide with

another chemical substance.
Carboniferous : A division of geological time from 345 and 280 million years
ago (m.y) and has a duration of 65 m.y. It is named from the
widespread occurrence of carbon in the form of coal in these
beds.
Carbonisation : It refers to reduction of organic tissue to a carbon residue.
137
Chemical : Minerals have a definite (i.e., same) chemical composition
Composition and expressed by a specific chemical formula (i.e., either
fixed or ranges within particular limits) and is homogeneous
(i.e., compositionally same) throughout its volume. Chemical
composition of quartz is expressed as SiO2 as it contains
silicon and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2.
Cleat : The vertical breakage planes or the open fractures in the

coal.
Cleavage : It is the tendency of a mineral to break/split in a systematic

way.
Concretionary : Spherical, ellipsoidal or irregular masses, e.g., flint.

and Nodular
Contact Deposit : This term is mainly used for mineral deposit occurring
between the two dissimilar rocks. This type of ore body
occurs at the contact of the sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Debris : Large fragments which arise from disintegration of rocks and

strata.
Deposition : It is the laying down of material through natural processes.

The natural agencies may comprise water, wind or glaciers.
These agencies bring the material in suspension or solution
and deposit them in a basin.
Epsom salt : It is also known as magnesium sulphate and is used in

gardening and agriculture applications to correct
magnesium deficiency in the soil.
Evaporites : Layered crystalline sedimentary rocks that results from

concentration and crystallisation by evaporation from an
aqueous solution.
Filling Deposit : Deposits which fill the cavities.
Fissure : It is a crack or fracture in a rock by which its wall is clearly

separated. Fissure can be filled with mineral material.
Fissure Vein : It is the flattened ore body which is surrounded by one or

more fissures. Its two dimensions are bigger than the third
dimension. Fissure veins are important as compared to all
the cavity fillings. They are found in many ranges, in which
more than one metal or mineral can be found.
Flint : It is a lusterless, and coloured fine grained microcrystalline

silica displaying conchoidal fracture.
138
Formation : Any assemblage of rocks which have some common
character and are mappable as a unit.
Fossil : A fossil is the remains of a plant or organism which are

preserved in rocks either fully or in parts through some
process.
Fusibility : The ease at which the material can be bonded together to a

temperature or amount of heat required to melt or dissolve a
material.
Gas Cap : An accumulation of gas above an oil pool.
Galvanisation : A process to protect from corrosion of an object.
Gangue : It is the commercially worthless material that surrounds or is

closely mixed with wanted mineral in an ore deposits.
Glassy : It is the term used for glassy texture developed in the

volcanic rocks.
Gossan : They are signboards that point to what lies beneath the
surface. The word ‘gossan’ is a Cornish word and is used to
designate the oxidised outcropping comprising cellular mass
of limonite.
Hardness : It is one of the most important diagnostic properties of

minerals. It is the resistance offered by a smooth surface of a
mineral against its scratching so it might also be said to be
its “scratchability”.
Host Rock : It is the rock which surrounds or encloses ore deposits and
like gangue it has no commercial value.
Hydroxides : Hydroxide is a diatomic anion. It consists of an oxygen and

hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond.
Humus : Refers to the amorphous, colloidal matter which is present in

the soil.
Incinerators : A waste treatment process that includes

the combustion of organic substances contained in waste
materials. They are also known as thermal treatment.
Iridescence : Phenomenon of certain surfaces that appear to be lustrous

rainbowlike colour and gradually the colour tends to change
as the angle of view or the angle of illumination changes.
Khondalite : Khondalite is quartz–manganese-rich garnet– rhodonite

schist. It may also contain sillimanite and graphite.
139
Luster/Lustre : Lustre refers to the appearance of mineral surfaces to the
combination of scattered and reflected light. It may vary in
intensity from splendent (i.e., distinctly reflective as a mirror
e.g., quartz) to shining (i.e., indistinctly reflective e.g.,
hornblende, augite), glistening (i.e., shiny by reflection with a
sparkle, e.g., diamond) and glimmering (feebly reflective and
intermittent flicker) and also in type from glassy to resinous
to silky to waxy.
Lenticular : Lens like, flattened balls or pellets, e.g., many concretionary

and nodular minerals.
Magmatic rock : Magmatic rock or igneous rock is formed through the cooling
and solidification of magma or lava.
Magnetism : Some minerals display the property of magnetism (i.e.,

attraction or repulsion of magnetic materials to the mineral).
Marine : Ocean deposits form by extreme evaporation of seawater in

evaporites an open-water environment.
Minerals : A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid substances and can

be made of one or more elements combined together.
Mohs’ scale : Mohs' scale of mineral hardness is ordered by hardness,

determined by which minerals can scratch other minerals. It
is named after Friedrich Mohs, a mineralogist.
Natural Gas : Refers to gaseous hydrocarbons, which may be found in

association with oil accumulations.
Naturally : Formed in nature by some natural process. Substances

Occurring produced artificially in a laboratory are called synthetic
minerals (e.g., zeolite).
Oil Sand : A term loosely applicable to any porous stratum which

contains petroleum or impregnated with hydrocarbons.
Oil Shale : Kerogen-bearing, finely laminated brown or black

sedimentary rock that will produce liquid or gaseous
hydrocarbons on distillation.
Oolitic : More or less spherical concretions of the size of fish eggs

(0.1 to 1.00mm) form oolites and the structure is oolitic
structures.
Opalescence : The optical quality of reflecting light and changing colour like
the gemstone opal.
140
Ores : Ore is defined as a naturally occurring mineral or aggregate
of minerals from which metal/metals could be extracted with
profit.
Oxides : An oxide is a chemical compound with one or more oxygen

atoms combined with another element.
Pebbles : A clast of rock with a particle size of 4 to 64 mm based on

the Krumbein phi scale. They are considered larger
than granules and smaller than cobbles.
Permian : A division of geological time in the Palaeozoic Era between

299 and 251 million years ago.
Petrology : Study of rocks and minerals in all their aspects such as their
mineralogy, texture and structure, origin, alterations and their
relationships to other rocks.
Physical : All minerals have some distinctive physical properties (such

Property of as colour, hardness, nature of breakage, etc.) that are used
Mineral to identify and distinguish them from other minerals.
Plasticity : The quality of being easily shaped or moulded.
Playa deposits : Flat-bottom depression found in desert basins

and adjacent to coasts within arid and semiarid regions that
are periodically covered by water.
Pisolitic : In pisolite, the individual size of a spherical concretion is

bigger (>2mm) like that of a peanut and the structure is
pisolitic structures.
Reserves : Reserves are ore that are economically feasible to mine and
for which there are no legal or engineering impediments to
mining.
Resources : Resources are ores that may potentially be extracted at

sometimes in the future.
Seatearth : It is the layer of sedimentary rock underlying a coal seam,

also called seat rock, or seat stone.
Silicates : Silicate minerals are rock-forming minerals made up of

silicate groups (silicon-oxygen compounds) and are the
largest class of minerals.
Streak : Colour of a mineral in its fine powdered form is called streak

which is usually a constant physical property irrespective of
the presence of trace elements. Streak of a mineral could be
very different than the colour of that mineral.
141
Swamps : An area of low-lying land that is frequently flooded. They are
considered a transition zone as both land and water play a
role in creating this environment.
Tenor : It is the actual metal content present in an ore.
142
NOTES
143
NOTES
144

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BGYET-141

ORE GEOLOGY AND

MINERAL EXPLORATION AND MINERAL ECONOMICS 141

Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Prof. Meenal Mishra Dr. Omkar Verma

Preparation Team of Volume 2: Industrial Minerals

Mr. Nilanjan Konwar (Unit 14) Content and Language Editor

Unit 2 Classification of Ore Deposits

Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics

Unit 4 Mode of Occurrence of Ore Bodies

Block 2 Ore Genesis

Unit 6 Hydrothermal Processes

Unit 7 Volcanogenic and Sedimentary Processes

Unit 8 Weathering Processes

Block 3 Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits

Unit 10 Non-Ferrous Ores

Unit 11 Industrial Minerals

Unit 12 Mineral Fuels

Block 4 Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics

Unit 14 Exploration Methods

Unit 15 Mineral Economics

2. Geology Around Us - Part II

3. Introduction to Ore Deposits

5. Early Magmatic Deposits

8. Late Magmatic Deposits

9. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation-Specific

11. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Forces

12. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation: Cleavage,

14. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Light

15. Basics of Petroleum

17. Hydrocarbon Provinces

18. Petroleum Industry Value Chain

20. Weathering its Types and Significance

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials

Hope you will enjoy reading this volume!

Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Prof. Meenal Mishra Dr. Omkar Verma

Block Preparation Team

September, 2021 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021

Unit 2 Classification of Ore Deposits

Unit 3 Metallogeny in Relation to Tectonics

Unit 4 Mode of Occurrence of Ore Bodies

Block 2 Ore Genesis

Unit 6 Hydrothermal Processes

Unit 7 Volcanogenic and Sedimentary Processes

Unit 8 Weathering Processes

Block 3 Metallic and Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits

Unit 10 Non-Ferrous Ores

Unit 11 Industrial Minerals

Unit 12 Mineral Fuels

Block 4 Mineral Exploration and Mineral Economics

Unit 14 Exploration Methods

Unit 15 Mineral Economics

We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.

9.2 Iron Mode of Occurrence

Ores Distribution in India

Mode of Occurrence 9.5 Summary

Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

Fig. 9.1: Photographs of important iron ores: a) Hematite; b) Magnetite; and c)

Table 9.1: Chief ores of Iron.

Colour: red, brownish red or Cherry red, red-

metallic to sub-metallic; Form: metallic luster.

at places reddish-yellow; Streak: brownish yellow

earthy; Form: massive; luster.

Hardness: 4 to 5.5; Fracture: